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Introduction
Gothic novels are among the famous literary works of the early 19th century. In gothic novels, the authors often portrayed female characters as defiant of social norms and courageous against masculine power and suppression. Despite oppressive gender roles, female gothic find a way of overcoming the challenges and going against social norms within the domestic sphere, making them feminist heroines (Kilgour, 15). Le Funa’s book Carmilla and de Maurier’s novel Rebecca are examples of gothic fiction depicting the typical gothic female. The characters possess gender-bending qualities that set them apart from traditional women during the period, making them heroines of social change. This essay compares Le Fanu and Du Maurier’s literary work to demonstrate how the author perceived gothic women in the patriarchal world as transgressive beings who challenged the strict social norms of sexuality and femininity that threatened the patriarchal order.
Gender Transgression
Rebecca
During the Victorian era, women were subjected to strict social and cultural norms which governed their lives from childhood. They were not allowed to have intellectual aspirations nor demonstrate intelligence since it was regarded as a man’s world. Society expected women to keep their opinions to themselves to avoid being seen as aggressive and intelligent over their male counterparts (Kilgour, 27). However, gothic authors challenged the gender stereotypes by giving gothic females a transgressive nature that challenged femininity’s patriarchal attributes. According to Maxim, Rebecca possessed “undesirable qualities for a traditional wife, threatening patriarchal norms” (304). Likewise, the housekeeper described her as courageous and spirited, like a boy who defied the Victorian norms of femininity, which threatened the Victorian order (118). Nonetheless, the attribute was appealing and inspirational to Mrs. de Winter, who wished to possess Rebecca’s traits and power over her life. Mrs. de Winter and the housekeeper admired Rebecca leading to obsessing over her even after Rebecca’s death. Thus, Du Maurier portrays Rebecca as an inspirational and heroic woman whose actions and life become exemplary qualities of femininity in the patriarchal world.
Mrs. de Winter
Although Mrs. de Winter seems like a docile and domesticated wife, her efforts to be like Rebecca challenge the patriarchal norms of a good wife. She was supposed to accept her role by Maxim’s side and never question her existence as a tool for his desires and lusts. However, she tries to fit in by imitating and wishing to be like Rebecca, who was said to be the epitome of beauty and intelligence. Mrs. de Winter reflects, “And my curls were her curls… I don’t think I have ever felt so excited before, so happy and so proud,” to show how much she desired to be like Rebecca. By aspiring to be like Rebecca, the author shows gothic women’s gender transgression and wanting to be recognized despite previous naivety and societal constraints that hinder self-growth.
When Mrs. de Winter discovers her husband’s secrets, she helps him hide them from society. Kilgour suggests that Mrs. de Winter’s protective attitude demonstrates not submissiveness but maturity and gender transgression (21). Protecting Maxim meant controlling his actions since she had the leverage over his crimes. Like Rebecca, she became Maxim’s ally for personal interests and changed her role as a submissive and naive wife. Thus, du Maurier’s gothic female is not afraid of exploiting others to gain power and takes every opportunity to attain their place in society.
Laura and Carmilla
Like Mrs. de Winters, Laura fits the role of an ideal woman according to patriarchal norms. She is docile, beautiful, sensitive, and submissive. However, she desires to be like Carmilla, the evil and gender-transgressive woman. According to the author, Carmilla’s beauty standards did not fit the patriarchal attribute of beauty. Laura claims that despite her attractiveness and sexual appeal, “She was above the middle height of women….and her movements were languid — very languid — indeed” (Le Fanu, 16). Thus, Carmilla’s femininity becomes a cause of fear in the community since society believes she uses charms to lure naive girls. Despite the apprehension, Laura imagines herself to be like Carmilla, an independent woman with passion and sexual different sexual desires that satisfy her fantasies. It leads to the demise of Carmilla because she is a threat to the patriarchal order of socialization and femininity.
Sexual Modesty
Laura and Carmilla
Women were not supposed to show sexual passion, desires, and suggestive sexual impulses such as sexual satisfaction by having orgasms. Being sexually active and desirous was seen as unfeminine since society believed in satisfying women as sexual tools for men’s pleasure. A woman’s role was to give in to the husband’s erotic desires and fulfill them regardless of obtaining the same sexual pleasure and satisfaction (Mitchell, 66). Thus, a woman could not express her feelings and sexual preferences lest they be declared mad or unworthy of female attributes dictated by society.
However, the gothic authors demonstrate how their female characters fulfilled their sexual pleasures and desires through different methods. Laura is not afraid to embrace Carmilla’s sexual advances and satisfy her sexual pleasures as a lesbian, which was against the normative sexual orientation at the period. According to Maia, Carmilla is seen as a villain who uses Laura’s naivety to seduce her (228). Nonetheless, it was Laura’s wish to stay by Carmilla’s side since she gave her comfort and sexual satisfaction. When Carmilla appeared after missing for a night, Laura “ran to her in an ecstasy of joy; I kissed and embraced her again and again” (Le Fanu, 32). Carmilla’s death devastates Laura, and she becomes obsessed with memories of their friendship and sexual practices, which give her maximum pleasure.
Rebecca
Likewise, de Maurier depicts Rebecca as a sexually adventurous gothic female. Rebecca’s sex life was fulfilling as she controlled her marriage and sexual practices with Maxim. According to Mitchell, Rebecca did not yield to Maxim’s sexual demands and found sexual pleasure and satisfaction at her convenience (55). Mrs. Danver claims that Rebecca “despised all men” and “lovemaking was a game with her, only a game” (du Maurier, 382). As a result, their sex life was non-existent as a married couple, making Rebecca defy the societal norms of submission and being the object of pleasure for the man. Thus, the gothic females expressed their sexual feelings overtly and found pleasure and satisfaction in sexual acts making them a threat to the patriarchal order.
Sexual Liberation
Carmilla and Laura
Carmilla is a powerful vampire seductress who practices non-heterosexual sexuality, which is against normative sexual beliefs. During the period, sexuality was strictly heterosexual, where couples involved opposite genders, uniting to procreate and continue the ancestral lineage. Society embraced masculine power where the role of seduction belonged to men since women were the object of their lust. However, Carmilla defies the social norm by becoming a lesbian seducer. She is fond of young girls, particularly Laura, who represent the object of her desire. Additionally, Carmilla is not afraid of showing her feelings for the same sex, which is uncommon in the patriarchal society. Same-sex unions were considered demonic and immoral since they betrayed the normative sexual orientation and feminine attributes. She tells Laura, “You are mine; you shall be mine; you and I are one forever,” showing her genuine affection for the young girl (Le Fanu, 16). Given the homosexual relationship, they were not afraid to express their affection regardless of societal norms, making them revolutionaries in sexuality and femininity, threatening Victorian-era norms.
Rebecca
Likewise, du Maurier portrays Rebecca as a woman with unconventional sexual attitudes and qualities. Rebeca’s relationship with Mrs. Danvers is questionable and unusual. She tells Mrs. Danvers, “I won’t have anyone but you,” despite having a husband and several lovers (du Maurier, 171). Various sources claim that Rebecca and Mrs. Danvers were lovers, making their relationship homosexual, with Rebecca demonstrating bisexual tendencies (Mitchell, 36). Like Carmilla and Laura’s queer relationship, Mrs. Danvers could not hide her affection and obsession with Rebecca even after her death. Apart from homosexuality, Rebecca’s sexuality was liberal, and she had multiple lovers, including an incestuous relationship. Although considered immoral, her actions and sexual freedom show the sexual transgression from traditional Victorian norms, which made women subservient to their marital partners. Thus, Rebecca was a force to reckon which threatened the patriarchal order leading to her demise.
Conclusion
Gothic females are portrayed as adventurous, gender-bending, and liberal in the Victorian age. Le Funa and fu Maurier’s works demonstrate exciting attributes of the gothic female who defies social norms, particularly those related to femininity and sexuality. They embrace queer sexuality and masculine qualities, which threaten the strict social order of the period. Ultimately, the gothic females become inspirational beings whose female counterparts strive to emulate their qualities to obtain freedom and self-worth. Ultimately, the gothic female’s bravery results in their demise, but they are not forgotten in the living world as they are a force to reckon with.
Works Cited
Kilgour, Maggie. Rise of Gothic Novel. Routledge, 2021. 1-43
Maia, Marília Milhomem. “Vampirism and Lesbianism in Carmilla by Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu.” European Journal of Literature, Language and Linguistics Studies, vol. 3, no. 4, 2019, pp. 222–247.
Maurier, Du Daphne. Rebecca. Librairie générale française, 2021.
Mitchell, Jane. “Reclaiming the Monster: Abjection and Subversion in the Marital Gothic Novel.” Studies in Arts and Humanities, vol. 4, no. 1, 2018, pp. 53–72.
Sheridan, Le Fanu Joseph. Carmilla. Mint Editions, 2021.
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