The United States Priorities Following World War I

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The 1919 Treaty of Versailles was the peace treaty that put an end to World War I (WWI). At the time, the United States was led by President Wilson, who, prior to the US entry into the war, aimed at making peace “without victory.” A year before signing the treaty, Wilson delivered a speech in which he listed Fourteen Points that signified the country’s objectives following the conflict resolution. Among them, the president named the recovery of the European economy, self-determination of European and Middle Eastern ethnic groups, the fostering of free trade, and the creation of institutions, such as the League of Nations, to promote global peace. It should be said that the US participation in WWI changed its course, but at the same time, WWI transformed the US and impacted its new vision as a guardian of democracy around the globe. Though hoping for peace, after WWI, the United States was still aware of the German threat and, hence, prepared accordingly.

Since the formation of the Republic, American political and military leaders have worked relentlessly on improving army organization and ensuring the country’s independence and security against foreign forces. Gentile, Linick, and Shurkin single out four important periods in the evolution of the US army: Constitutional moorings and the 19th century, the Spanish-American War to Total War, and the Korean War to Total Force Policy. In accordance with this classification, it is safe to assume that the roots of post-WWI US military politics date back to the Spanish War. The ongoing conflict provided an impetus for improving various aspects, such as training, equipment, and on-site medical help. The early 1900s were also the time when the debacle between the Regular Army and the National Guards.

An important milestone of the post–Spanish-American War military reforms the 1903 Act to Promote the Efficiency of the Militia, and for Other Purposes, often referred to as the Dick Act. The new legislation required the states’ National Guards to recreate the “organization, armament, and discipline” identical to those of the Regular Army. In short, in 1903, state militia received federal recognition and became a reserve for the Army. Fast forward to 1916 the government passed the National Defense Act (NDA), whose main purpose was to mobilize the country’s reserves and make them apt for “industrial-era expeditionary warfare.” The act recognized that the National Guard units of the several states as a component of the US Army, provided their federalization. The further step was taken in 1933 when a new amendment emphasized the importance of the “raise and support armies” clause over the militia clause. From then on, the National Guard had to serve the role of an Army reserve at all times, though mainatining its ties to specific states. All in all, post-WWI politics continued the trend toward building up military power through extending, training, and educating reserves.

During the 1920s and the 1930s, the United States military Joint Army and Navy Board introduced color-coded war plans, in all of which the country referred to itself as “blue.” War Plan Orange refers to the totality of war plans that entertained the possibility of a military conflict with Japan. Establishing itself as a world superpower came with its own set of risks for the US, such as having almost 7,000 miles of coast stretching from San-Francisco to the Philippines. The only way to defend itself against Japanese aggression was to develop sea power and the Navy and, what is as important, to ensure constant cooperation between the Army and the Navy. In short, War Plan Orange suggested that American forces would be relieved in Guam and the Philippines and later blockade the Japanese home islands. Before its adoption in 1938, the plan had been in the makingsince 1919. In two decades, the world had seen many technological advances, including submarines, air support, and aircraft carriers, which was something that the plan failed to foresee.

War Plan Red, also referred to as the Atlantic Strategic War Plan, was developed by the United States Department of War during the same period (1919-1939). The plan hypothesized a war with the British Empire (the “red” forces), which, according to estimations, could happen simultaneously with the Japanese invasion. War Plan Red paid special attention to British territories, such as Newfoundland (coded “Red”), India (“Ruby”), Canada (Crimson), New Zealand (Garnet), and Australia (“Scarlet”). Because the Atlantic Ocean was separating the British Empire from the United States, it was established not to carry out any attacks outside the Western hemisphere. Instead, the United States planned to conquer Canada and use it as a strongpoint in all further negotiations. War Plan Red did not imply explicit military conflict; it rather focused on meddling with British-Canadian trade by keeping the US fleet in the western North Atlantic.

As for Germany who eventually become the main aggressor in World War II, the United States did not have a particular scenario for if the Western European country starts a conflict again. War Plan Black referred to the US plan to fight Germany in the early 1900s and World War I. The tangible scenario was Germany’s seizure of French possessions in the Caribbean and attacks on the East Coast. Because Germany lost World War I, War Plan Black became irrelevant. However, it was not to say that the US seized to see the Western European country as a global threat. During Treaty of Versailles negotiations, the US was against Britain’s and France’s intentions to annex German lands. President Wilson saw it as a violation of human rights and suggested that the two winners enforce the right of the native populations to self-determination. In other words, the US was well-aware of Germany’s possible retalization due to its tremendous politcial and economic losses resulting from World War I.

In contrast, it was the United States that economically benefitted from World War I. Even though partaking in the war cost the country around $32 billion, mobilizing industries opened up new prospects for Americans. What helped with post-WWI industrialization is the 44-month period of neutrality during which the US was selling goods for the war to Europeans. The war also created jobs both in the military, the government, and manufacturing, which explains why by 1918, the unemployment rate in the US had plummeted from 7.9 to 1.6%. It is said that WWI set a precedent for centralized economic planning because wartime required reallocation of all kinds of resources.

The 1920s were a decade of unprecedented economic growth as the US was establishing itself as a world power to be reckoned with. During this decade, the economy grew by 42% while per capita GDP surged from $6,460 to $8,016 per person, though economic prosperity did not benefit all members of society equally. World War I wreaked havoc on manufacturing in Europe, which made the US the world’s leading producer of consumer goods. The abundance of the latter was also ascribed to technological advances and inventions that characterized the era. For instance, the adoption of electricity changed Americans’ way of living as it affected transportation, entertainment, housekeeping, and communication. At the same time, the share of farming in GDP declined from 18.2 to 12%. Most likely, it is this shift in global power that allowed the US to transition from a traditional to a free market economy.

The economic boom of the 1920s served as a veneer for the actual weaknesses of the system. It was in the 1930s that the US experienced an economic downturn, also known as the Great Depression. A worldwide trend, the Great Depression hit the United States the most. The consequences included a 47% decrease in the industrial production, a 30% decline in gross domestic product (GDP), and soaring unemployment rates. All branches suffered from recession, military included because many veterans found themselves indefinitely out of work.

The question arises as to how military policies and economic changes impacted the country’s readiness to become involved in World War II. It should be said that many Americans lamented the losses the US suffered in World War I. Essentially, President Wilson’s stance reflected the prevailing public opinion as Americans leaned toward neutrality and isolationism. However, World War II was imminent, and the US had to face it well-prepared. It appears that military reforms dating back to the early 20th century positively contributed to the formation of the Army. They created a track for volunteers wanting to joining the military forces as well as set out standards for training that were later used at boot camps. In 1939, the Army barely counted 174,000 people, but during World War II, it was expanded to include around eight million trained men and women. Despite the hard hit of the Great Depression, the US industries were still in a better position than their European counterparts, which also added to the country’s general preparedness for military conflict.

World War I was a turning point in the history of the United States. Following it, the US emerged as a new global superpower that other countries had to reckon with. After signing the Treaty of Versailles, the US prioritized peace, which, however, did not prevent it from developing contingency plans. Color-coded war plans set out various scenarious of fighting the British Empire, Japan, and Germany. The two decades between World Wars were contrasting in terms of economic prosperity. Despite the Great Depression, the US still faced World War II preparation, which could also be ascribed to the series of military reforms that aimed at the expansion and the mobilization of the Army.

Bibliography

Gentile, Gian, Michael E. Linick, Michael Shurkin. The Evolution of US Military Policy from the Constitution to the Present. California: RAND Corporation, 2017.

Gordon, Robert J. The Rise and Fall of American Growth. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2016.

Keene, Jennifer D. The United States and the First World War. New York: Routledge, 2014.

Lewis, Adrian R. The American Culture of War: A History of US Military Force from World War II to Operation Enduring Freedom. New York: Routledge, 2014.

Rockoff, Hugh. Until It’s Over, Over There: The US Economy in World War I. No. w10580. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2004.

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The United States Priorities Following World War I

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