The Problem of Childhood Poverty

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Table of Contents

Introduction
Childhood Poverty Indicators and Measurement
Geography of Childhood Poverty
Causes
Effects
Potential Solutions
Conclusion
Reference List

Introduction

Among the significant concerns of the global healthcare is battling poverty. A tremendous amount of wealth has been generated in the last several centuries, but the issue of poverty has gotten even worse. In this context, children are the most vulnerable group of population because they experience deprivation differently. Also, the impact poverty has on children is much more substantial than the influence it has on adults. Poverty adversely impacts the physical and psychological well-being of children, depreciates their intellectual abilities and limits their social activity. There are many reasons why childhood poverty is prevalent and widespread both globally and in Newcastle.

Unequal income distribution, adult poverty, government policies that exclude children and premature pregnancy are some of the items from the long list of childhood poverty causes. Even developed nations struggle with this socio-economic challenge and there is no simple solution to this problem because the issue encompasses many aspects of human life. It is possible to reduce childhood poverty only by taking a holistic approach. Discrimination should be reduced, education should be affordable for all children and employment opportunities should not be based on the racial or economic background.

Childhood Poverty Indicators and Measurement

Before discussing the causes and effects of childhood poverty, it is reasonable to formally define what childhood poverty is. There have been many approaches to measuring childhood poverty and most of the methods rely on the metrics from a single dimension (Abdu and Delamonica, 2018).

For instance, the most common way scientists and politicians make estimates is by drawing a poverty line. A monetary threshold is used as a basis – those households that earn below the threshold are considered to live below the poverty line (Hannum, Liu and Alvarado-Urbina, 2017). However, many scientists believe that relying on a unidimensional approach is not sufficient (Abdu and Delamonica, 2018). Surveys that collect data about poverty should be based on multiple aspects of life.

A monetary threshold is primarily used for measuring adult poverty. However, children’s experiences are different from those of adults; thus, childhood poverty measurement needs a separate methodology. One of the reasons why it is important is that government policies that are aimed at reducing poverty may neglect the needs of children (Abdu and Delamonica, 2018). Children are not concerned with the amount of financial income their household has but are affected by accessibility to food, health services, shelter and education (Abdu and Delamonica, 2018).

As Abdu and Dellamonica suggest (2018, p. 16), “these dimensions is a right to which children are entitled, as established in the Convention of the Rights of the Child.” Therefore, when constructing an index for the measurement of child poverty, all dimensions should be given equal weight.

Another point worth considering is the quality of surveys that are used to collect data. Some researchers believe that current questionnaires contain items that poor and uneducated children may not be able to answer correctly (Hannum, Liu and Alvarado-Urbina, 2017). For instance, questions about the socioeconomic status of the family should not be given to children because illiterate young people are unlikely to provide accurate responses. Instead, surveys should ask about aspects that are directly related to children, such as access to food and educational resources (Hannum, Liu and Alvarado-Urbina, 2017). Otherwise, it will not be possible to obtain a clear picture of childhood poverty prevalence.

Geography of Childhood Poverty

Despite tremendous economic developments and technological achievements, many children are deprived of basic necessities. According to statistics, 663 million children worldwide live in poverty (Child poverty, 2020, para. 6). Of those, 385 million children are forced to survive for less than 1.90 dollars a day, a threshold set by the World Bank (Child poverty, 2020, para. 6). The more frightening fact is that 19,000 children worldwide die because of poverty-related causes every day (Hayes et al., 2017).

Experiences vary across nations because childhood poverty is different in developing countries compared to developed states. However, it should be noted that childhood poverty is a global challenge and affects both low-income countries and nations with high GDP per capita. For instance, child poverty is a considerable challenge even in the United States and Europe. In the United Kingdom, the highest deprivation rates are observed in inner London and the North East (Child poverty in the North East, 2020). Newcastle is the constituency with the highest childhood poverty rates in the North East.

The notion of poverty is primarily associated with the countries of Africa, where access to clean water and education is negligent. While partly true, this perception of poverty is not full. Large cities like New York and London also have areas where child poverty is prevalent. In fact, as suggested by Allard and Allard (2017, p. 4), “places in need can be found everywhere.” In developed countries, child poverty is widespread in metropolitan areas (Allard and Allard, 2017).

In the UK, 4.2 million children are either poor or in need of basic necessities (Facts and figures, 2020). Since 2010, an increase of 600 thousand children living in poverty has been observed, which is a clear indicator of the inefficacy of national policies that are set to reduce the childhood poverty rates (Facts and figures, 2020). In Newcastle upon Tyne, more than 26 thousand children are living below the poverty line (Facts and figures, 2020). The number may seem low, but it is almost 40% of all children that live in the area. The poverty rates in large cities and their suburbs have been increasing despite economic and healthcare advancements.

Causes

Adult Poverty and Unemployment

Childhood poverty is strongly associated with adult poverty because it is often parents’ responsibility to provide for their children. One of the primary reasons why adults cannot offer their families the necessary finances is unemployment. For instance, it has been discovered that unemployment and area poverty rates are significant determinants of homelessness (Hanratty, 2017, p. 653). In turn, children are significantly affected – they are deprived of shelter, food and other necessities. Unemployment is a critical issue because its consequences include loss of income, which can be considered a basic necessity for existing in a market economy (Renahy et al., 2018, p. 269).

Insufficiency of funds, in turn, is associated with adverse health outcomes – poverty is a principal social determinant of health (Renahy et al., 2018, p. 270). Moreover, every fourth child experiences emotional abuse and physical neglect because of adult economic struggles (Bunting et al., 2018, p. 121). Therefore, it is almost impossible to reduce child poverty rates without decreasing unemployment and providing families with a means to support themselves.

Government interventions should be explicitly addressed to households living in poverty. Otherwise, development expenditure may increase inequality despite lowering unemployment rates (Anwar, Amir and Amin, 2018, p. 42). Providing individuals with unemployment insurance was also found as an effective measure. However, it should be noted that providing people in need with unemployment insurance does not resolve the issue of the psychosocial need for employment (Renahy et al., 2018, p. 273). It is critical to remember that child poverty is concerned not only with the adult economic situation, but the children’s access to education, social environment and emotional support.

Ineffective Government Policies

Many countries across the globe spent enormous amounts of money in an effort to reduce poverty. For instance, the United States federal government has spent 26 trillion dollars since 1965 to reduce the poverty rates with no apparent success (Tanner, 2019, p. 1). It is reasonable to conclude that government policies are ineffective and even cause poverty. However, there are those who claim that adult poverty is a mistake of adults themselves. Some believe that making bad choices is the ultimate reason why people become poor (Tanner, 2019, p. 2). While partly true, it is critical to examine what factors lead to making bad choices.

A widespread belief is that the chance of becoming poor becomes slim when one goes to school, receives a quality education and gets a job; however, individual experiences in various regions are different. It is not possible to acquire knowledge, even when one goes to school and this educational institution does not meet the standards. Therefore, the government needs to take a more holistic approach to battle poverty. For instance, the educational system should be revised to become more inclusive to all children. Housing should become more affordable not by increasing subsidies but by decreasing costs (Tanner, 2019, p. 5). The list of issues that affect the child poverty rates and poverty, in general, is long and each of them requires government attention.

Lack of Education

Education is necessary for the 21st century for a variety of reasons. Even if an unemployed person receives monthly financial assistance, essential literacy skills are needed to be able to manage that money properly (Curtis, 2018). Therefore, the lack of education in adults is a significant factor that contributes to child poverty. When a person lacks knowledge, it is inevitable that he or she is deficient in dimensions other than finances (Curtis, 2018).

Furthermore, lacking essential language and numeracy skills is a determinant of what a person will achieve in terms of work. Without knowing how to read, one will be deprived of opportunities for acquiring a new skill set and getting a high-paid job. The political rights of such people will also be violated because they will have no education and skills to protect them, or even recognize that they are being violated.

Lack of education can have a significant impact not only on the present well-being and situation of children but also their future. For instance, illiterate people are often not aware of education opportunities and about the benefits, knowledge can bring. Therefore, illiterate parents often do not encourage their kids to go to school. They may not even have any means for sending their children to school because of financial hardships.

The association between education and poverty can be demonstrated by seeing how developing literacy skills among the poor affects their lives. According to Eryong and Xiuping (2018, p. 1101), public policies aimed at providing deprived groups with education opportunities positively affected the poverty rates in China. Therefore, education should be considered both when designing poverty indexes and when developing intervention policies.

Disabilities and Lack of Social Services

A person does not choose how he or she wants to be born. However, the characteristics people are born with significantly affect the quality of life they will have. Individuals with disabilities are more likely to live in poverty in the future than people with no physical and intellectual deficiencies. When one of the parents is intellectually or physically disabled, a responsibility to care and provide for the family lies on the other parent.

The likelihood of children experiencing poverty and neglect is higher in such families. A scientific study conducted in South Korea examined the effects of one of the family members being disabled on income patterns. The results are not positive – 66.7% of households did not showcase any changes in income distribution and more than 80% stayed in the low-income group (Park, Nam and Park, 2017, p. 108). In summary, the presence of disability significantly impacts the financial capabilities of a family.

Governments of many countries set sustainability goals so that all population groups benefit from the achievements in science, technology and economics. However, individuals with disabilities are at risk of being left behind because the majority of current efforts are not inclusive. For instance, the United Nations’ Sustainability Development Goals (SDG) are set to end poverty in the world by 2030. As shown by Banks et al. (2020, p. 1), disabled people will unlikely benefit from the UN initiatives because the majority of SDG domains do not account for the disabled. Therefore, changes are needed to SDG so that people with physical and intellectual impairments do not struggle in poverty.

Discrimination

Equality is essential to ensure all children receive a quality education and acquire well-paid jobs. Unfortunately, discrimination is present even in contemporary society that is considered civilized and developed. Children that face prejudice and segregation at school are more likely to develop psychological issues that will affect their lives in the future (McManus, 2017). For instance, one of the reasons why crime rates are higher in African American communities is because, as children, they are faced with violence and discrimination (McManus, 2017).

They are deprived of equal opportunities to receive education and develop bad habits that negatively impact their lives when they grow up (McManus, 2017). Also, some employers may not favor colored workers and deny them a job. Scientific evidence suggests that discrimination leads to economic disparities. In turn, inequalities in terms of economic opportunities lead to increasing poverty rates in marginalized communities.

One of the long-lasting debates has been the topic of equal pay between women and men. However, even today, men receive more salaries than women in the same jobs (Milli et al., 2017, p. 1). Some claim that men are capable of accomplishing more tasks and thus, should be paid more (Milli et al., 2017, p. 2). However, such suggestions are not empirical and have no sound base. When there is only a mother that is providing for her family, her children will be deprived of many opportunities because their mother receives less financial compensation only because she is a woman (Milli et al., 2017, p. 5). Such disparities should be eliminated if society wants to battle child poverty holistically.

Deindustrialisation and Globalisation

Deindustrialization is the process of removing the industrial capacity of a region or a country. In other words, when the number of factories and other manufacturing facilities decreases, it is said that the deindustrialization process is going on. As a result, the number of well-paid jobs for low-skilled workers declines, negatively impacting the financial well-being of communities and households (Bernard, Smeets and Warzynski, 2017).

When a father loses his job because a local factory shuts down, he has to move elsewhere where his skills are demanded. Otherwise, his family may face poverty because of his inability to find a job. Therefore, the deindustrialization of a region results in a portion of the population becoming financially unsustainable (Bernard, Smeets and Warzynski, 2017). Children living in deindustrialized areas are vulnerable because, with the shutdown of manufacturing capacities, other forms of capital also wander away.

Globalization, despite many economic benefits for corporations and nations as a whole, has a deteriorating effect on households. When the salary for a low-skilled workforce is much cheaper in other countries, investments will go there in order to save money (Bourguignon, 2017). However, the local population will struggle because their skills will no longer be demanded (Bourguignon, 2017). For instance, many electronics manufacturers place their factories in China and other Asian countries because of cheap labor. While it is beneficial for companies, the poverty rates may rise in communities deprived of an opportunity to work in companies’ factories.

Labour Market Segmentation

Labor market segmentation has a significant impact on wealth distribution. The primary principle of such division is that a low-skilled workforce earns much less income than those who are considered white-collar and blue-collar employees (Jenkins, 2018).

In this scenario, poor people will have much fewer opportunities to achieve financial success than established individuals. Children, in this context, are the most vulnerable, because being born into a low-income family immediately deprives them of opportunities. Some scientists suggest that such inequalities also increase the social distance between the middle class and the poor (Jenkins, 2018). Socially neglected children are more likely to engage in criminal activities and end up in jails. Therefore, when considering policies for wealth redistribution, children should be a primary concern.

Individuals should be able to compete for well-paid jobs equally. However, labor market segmentation limits this capability in order to save costs and keep wages at a low level. A person will not demand higher pay if he or she does not have other options and ways for development. Therefore, when addressing the issue of poverty, labor law should also be assessed to identify any deficiencies that pose as a hindrance to people willing to get better jobs. Labor market segmentation is also one of the reasons why poverty is experienced differently in various nations. Because markets are segmented differently across countries, compensation and work-life balance levels vary between states and economies.

Teen Pregnancy and Decline of Nuclear Families

Common sense suggests that it is easier for two parents to feed one baby. However, with the decline of nuclear families, in other words, families consisting of both parents, children are becoming more vulnerable to facing poverty and social neglect (Stanhope and Lancaster, 2017).

One of the leading reasons why the number of nuclear families is diminishing is teen pregnancy. Despite the progress in reducing the number of unplanned pregnancies in youth, the number stays high and impacts the poverty rates (Stanhope and Lancaster, 2017). Scientific evidence shows that unplanned children are more likely to be emotionally neglected, be deprived of education and other necessities (Stanhope and Lancaster, 2017). The association works the other way around as well – the primary determinant of teen pregnancy is poverty. The reason is that poor teens are not aware of the consequences of premature pregnancy or cannot afford means for preservation.

Scientists suggest that preventing teen pregnancy can help reduce poverty rates. To address the issue, however, there should be a more thorough understanding of the causes of premature pregnancy (Garwood et al., 2015, p. 160). Some of the determinants are race and whether or not the teen was maltreated during childhood (Garwood et al., 2015, p. 162). These items reinforce the claim that discrimination has a significant impact on the well-being of children. Because poverty also leads to emotional neglect, children living in poor households are often maltreated and in turn, get pregnant early.

Effects

Toxic Stress

Child poverty is accompanied by emotional struggles and these challenges may result in changes in stress hormones. Several empirical studies have been conducted and the results suggest that child poverty often leads to toxic stress (Francis et al., 2018). This type of stress is primarily caused by continuous adverse experiences (Pascoe et al., 2016). The human body’s reaction to short external influences is different (Pascoe et al., 2016). However, experiences that last throughout childhood significantly deteriorate the condition of stress hormones in the human body.

Delayed Growth and Development

Poverty predetermines how well a child will develop and its impact is seen from early infancy. For instance, children living in low-income families demonstrate delayed language development, significantly deteriorating the school-readiness (Wise, 2016). This outcome may be the result of the absence of books parents could have read aloud if they had them. Also, children in poverty are more likely to be of short stature (Wise, 2016). Therefore, it can be concluded that there are also physiological effects of poverty.

Infant Mortality

High child mortality rates have been a national concern in developing countries for more than a century. Children in impoverished communities are more likely to die because of malnutrition and the absence of adequate physical conditions before they reach the age of one (Chaudry and Wimer, 2016). Because of limited access to healthcare, children from low-income families have a higher chance of death caused by a non-severe disease. The absence of sanitation also contributes to adverse health outcomes of children at a young age.

Premature Pregnancy

Deprived of education and information, girls that grow up in poverty are more likely to face premature pregnancy. Teen pregnancy significantly increases the chances of living below the poverty line in the future (Wickham et al., 2016). The reason is that a young mother will have to work to feed her baby instead of getting a university degree and obtaining a well-paid job. Also, teens that lived in poverty are more likely to give birth to children with low birth weight (Wickham et al., 2016). In turn, low birth weight increases the possibility of premature death.

Poor Academic Progress

Children living in impoverishment often fail at school, both primary and secondary. This outcome is mainly caused by parental involvement in school and at home. When a child is neglected, there is a higher chance that the child will lack motivation and will perform much worse than classmates. Also, brain development in children in poverty is different – as stated before, children from low-income families develop language skills later (Johnson, Riis and Noble, 2016). This factor also adversely affects how a child does in school.

Problems with Mental Health

Constant emotional neglect, absence of appropriate shelter and food and maltreatment are associated with depression and other psychological disorders. Children in poverty are more likely to have behavioral problems and issues with the law when they grow up (Chamberlain et al., 2016). Scientific evidence shows that there are more criminals that come from low-income families (Chamberlain et al., 2016). Poor children are more likely to develop attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and other mental impairments (Jensen, Berens and Nelson 3rd, 2017). Parental depression is widespread in low-income families and it adversely impacts children.

Chronic Illnesses and Habits

Child poverty also contributes to the development of bad habits and chronic conditions. For instance, poor children are more likely to start smoking tobacco products at a young age. This condition increases the likelihood of being diagnosed with cardiovascular disease in the future (Chamberlain et al., 2016). Asthma and unfavorable overall health conditions are often a result of child poverty (Chamberlain et al., 2016). More nurses and health professionals should receive appropriate training to be able to help children living in poverty.

Potential Solutions

Increasing Household Income

Although childhood poverty encompasses multiple dimensions, the financial sustainability of a family is one of the most significant factors affecting child well-being. When a family has enough funds, it can provide children with clothing, access to healthcare, school supplies, books, food and shelter. Therefore, increasing the household income should be a primary goal of any government that wants to reduce the poverty rates within its borders. Income can be increased by setting a higher minimum wage, creating more jobs and providing low-skill individuals with retraining opportunities so they can go to the labor market with increased chances of getting a job.

Nuclear Families

It has been discovered that nuclear families are more favorable for children. Therefore, governments should work on reducing the decline in nuclear families and increasing their number. One of the possible interventions is improving parental relationships. The goal can be accomplished by providing counseling for low-income families and enforcing policies that allow male workers to take parental leave when their wives give birth. These measures will enable parents to support healthy relationships and contribute to the positive development of their children. If divorce is inevitable, laws should not limit fathers from caring for their children.

Active Role of Nurses

Because childhood poverty primarily results in health challenges, nurses and other healthcare workers play a significant function in alleviating the impact of deprivation. Nurses should inform families about the importance of nutrition and what products are necessary to keep a child healthy. Nurses should take the role of social workers and raise awareness about the health implications of childhood poverty and teen pregnancy. Also, as social workers, nurses should inform families about government programs and opportunities for lessening the burden of deprivation.

Mitigation of Adverse Health Outcomes

Health implications of childhood poverty are well-known and the goal of global healthcare is to solve challenges caused by deprivation. As the number of children living in poverty grows every year, healthcare systems should be ready for assisting individuals that grew up in unfavorable economic and social conditions. More investments should be made in relief programs that provide individuals with necessary health services, including psychological counseling. Health services should be made free for households that have a low income because children are deprived of opportunities to pass routine medical checks for identifying any discrepancies when their families cannot pay for a hospital visit.

Conclusion

Childhood poverty is a critical topic in the context of child health and well-being. Many children die daily because of malnutrition and the inability of parents to provide for their children. However, poverty, in the context of childhood deprivation, is not tied exclusively to financial income but instead associated with a wide range of factors. The type of family a child grows up in is a significant factor. Access to schooling, shelter and health services are also critical. Poverty does not end when childhood ends – there are many long-term impacts that adversely affect children when they become adults.

The list of negative consequences of childhood poverty includes health problems, a short-range of employment and education opportunities, limited intellectual capacity and premature pregnancy among girls. To battle this global issue, nations should come together to develop inclusive policies. Current Sustainable Development Goals may not address the issue of child poverty adequately because some groups seem to be left out. All children should be provided with education so that they are all able to compete for high-paid jobs equally.

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