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According to W.K. Kellogh Foundation (1998), program evaluation is the efficiency, effectiveness, and accountability of a department, program or agency. It applies systematic measures and comparisons so as to provide the outcome of the program to executives who in turn use the results in making decisions for the program (W.K. Kellogh Foundation 1998).
An outcome is usually a description of short or long term effects, including those that were not planned for but occurred as a result of the programs outputs (United Way of America, 1998).The basic process of program evaluation involves outcome evaluation as discussed below.
Outcome Evaluation (W.K. Kellogh Foundation,1998)
According to W.K. Kellogh Foundation (1998), there is no specific method or approach can suit all programs in outcome evaluation. However, W.K. Kellogh Foundation (1998) recommends that it is important to start with the overall goals and outcomes of the program and then come up with a way of measuring these outcomes.
The initial step is to identify outcomes (W.K. Kellogh Foundation, 1998).This can be achieved by creating a team which may comprise of internal and external stakeholders to help you have a wider view of the outcomes of your organization (Herman & Associates, 2005).
The next step is to think about areas whereby change is eminent in the program. It could be change in clients, in the society or even in the larger systems (W.K. Kellogh Foundation, 1998).The outcomes can be classified into three groups: initial outcomes, intermediate outcomes and longer-term outcomes (Herman & Associates, 2005).
One way in which these outcomes can be measured is by is by identifying indicators. According to Lanzerotti & Lanzerotti (2004), an indicator should be something that is visible, audible, tangible or something that can be verified and every outcome should have at least one indicator .
Their main purpose is usually to determine the extent to which an outcome has been realized. The indicators can also be compared with targets and benchmarks. In this case, targets are your expected achievements in form of numbers while benchmarks are data from a past program that one can use to compare with a current program.
Logic models can also be used to measure outcomes in program evaluation. According to W.K. Kellogh Foundation (1998) a logic diagram is a diagram that helps clarify the links between the components of your program design.
The logic diagram is usually composed of inputs, activities, outputs, initial outcomes, intermediate outcomes and long term outcomes (W.K. Kellogh Foundation, 1998). This diagram can them be compared with the programs outcomes.
Quantitative and qualitative approaches can also be used in evaluating the program outcomes (United Way of America, 1998). According to Lanzerotti & Lanzerotti (2004), quantitative method involves experimentation and testing, a reflection of changes introduced by a program in numeric form, interviewing a large group of people, and analyzing relationships between hypothesized variables and the outcomes.
On the other hand, United Way of America (1998) notes that qualitative evaluation seeks to explain how a program functions, the views of the program implementers and the clients as well as the extent to which the objectives are met.
Some of the qualitative measures that can be applied include collection of non- numeric, in depth descriptions of the program, sorting through large amounts of data and allowing for in-depth study of selected issues (United Way of America, 1998).
The other evaluation method of outcomes is effectiveness and efficiency (Lanzerotti & Lanzerotti, 2004).Effectiveness seeks to examine how well the program performed. According to Lanzerotti & Lanzerotti (2004), this can be achieved by identifying standards, benchmarks or criteria against which progress or performance can be assessed.
On the other hand, efficiency seeks to find out whether the cost was worthy the outcome by determining the output to input ratio (United Way of America, 1998).
If the output ratio is greater than the input ratio, then there was efficiency but in case the input ratio is greater than the output ratio, then there was lack of efficiency in the program (W.K. Kellogh Foundation, 1998).The problem of inefficiency can be solved by looking for ways to minimize costs.
The final evaluation method of outcomes is by use of cost benefit analysis (W.K. Kellogh Foundation, 1998).although this method is commonly applied in the profit sector, it can also be applied in the non-profit sector. One is supposed to determine the relationship between the costs and the benefits.
According to W.K. Kellogh Foundation (1998) the cost benefit relationship is the relationship of the cost of the program to the cost of achieving them.
Politics of Goal Definition (Hellriegell & Slocum, 2007)
Political behavior often occurs in organizations due to different opinions over goals, different views about the organization and its limitations, different knowledge about dealing with situations as well as how to make use of resources that are scarce (Hellriegell & Slocum, 2007).These are the basic forces that result in politics of how goals are defined.
However, doing away with these forces is not possible because there is no point in life when all people will have similar views. Similarly, organizations are always striving to make use of the scarce resources so as to obtain the required goals. As a result, political behavior must be exhibited as every individual in the organization strives to acquire their preferred results (Hellriegell & Slocum, 2007).
In cases whereby such situations arise, a manager should not use force to stop such behavior but instead should work to see that such behavior does not impact the organization in a negative way (Herman & Associates, 2005).
According to Hellriegell & Slocum (2007) the political behavior among employees can be stimulated by the actions of a manager. For instance, as Hellriegell & Slocum (2007) notes in departments like accounting, human resources, and quality control, legal and information systems among others employees performance is hard to measure.
Thus, leaders processes give yield to inadequate resources in terms of pay, bonuses, and benefits (Hellriegell & Slocum, 2007).Other leaders tend to give the political behavior in the process of appraisal a blind eye and assume that it does not exist. However, politics in appraisal is a fact that can not be done away with and which can have several impacts.
Some of these impacts as noted by Hellriegell & Slocum (2007) include organizational goals and performance are undermined; increase political behavior in other decision making processes and expose the organization to litigation if employees are terminated.
In conclusion, program evaluation involves several steps. The first step should be to identify the outcomes. After that, other processes follow. These other processes include: identifying indicators, use of logic model, use of quantitative and qualitative methods, determining effectiveness and efficiency as well as determining the cost-benefit analysis.
On the other hand, political behavior is often displayed in organizations when it comes to formulation of goals. It is important for managers to know that this can not be avoided but can be minimized. One of the ways in which a manager can minimize political behavior is by ensuring that the goals are clear and specific.
References
Hellriegel, D. & Slocum, J.W. (2007). Organizational behavior. New York: Thomson Learning.
Herman, R. D. & Associates. (2005). The Jossey-Bass handbook of nonprofit leadership & management. 2nd ed. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons.
Lanzerotti, R. & Lanzerott, L. (2004). Measuring Change to Make Change: The Fundraising Case for Program Evaluation. Grassroots Fundraising Journal, 23, 4-8.
United Way of America. (1996). Measuring Program Outcomes: A Practical Approach. Alexandria: United Way of America.
W. K. Kellogg Foundation. (1998).Outcomes Logic Model. Mexico: Kellogg Foundation
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