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Sociology refers to the study of the society in terms of prototypes of how humans relate, interact socially as well as the study of their cultural beliefs and practices. The study ranges from an individual to the global social relationships of different countries. It usually concentrates on how and why people behave the way they do as well as societal organizations as either groups or institutions. Sociology is usually regarded as part of social science as it involves the scientific analysis of the society. As a discipline it developed from the fact that many believed that the society was changing hence they were determined and eager to understand what triggers that transformation. They believed that any society changes with time regardless of the background and the enlightenment of the people in that society.
Therefore, sociology developed as a result of attempts to understand why people behave the way they do, what triggers societal changes ranging from industrial revolution and the construction of the earliest empires to various political and economic organizations such as socialism, capitalism etc.. In addition, the earliest sociologists wanted to understand the effects of these changes on various social groups and organizations and hoe well they adapted to these changes. Sociologists attempt to understand the world and the changes taking place by observing various events and trying to explain to deduce why they happen using empirically or scientific evidence as the conditions or circumstances that cause people behave they do and the societal changes.
Sociologists usually base their theories on the information collected from the social world and then trying to figure out the cause and the effects of that behavior or results. For instance, Karl Marx attempted to explain why some countries opt for capitalism, communism and socialism. In addition, he explained why and how the society will change in future based on the economical and political ideologies that they will adopt for governance. The earliest sociologists relied on scientific methodologies and empirical evidence to explain various societal happening, in their efforts to distinguish the discipline from other non empirical subjects or fields such as philosophy. For instance, Comte argued that society develops in stages and that these developments occur at various levels of the society depending on how the society perceives the various changes.
Classical sociologists
There were several schools of thoughts regarding various sociological theories and explanations of social action and societal changes. The most prominent school of thought was classical school that includes Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Marx Weber among others. This school attempted to explain various societal happenings and interactions using the scientific methodologies and empirical evidence that they gathered on various societies. On the other hand, they mostly never agreed on various major social issues due to the fact they originated from different societies and each one of them based their arguments as per their societal values and conduct.
However, there are many important lessons that contemporary sociologists can learn from this school of thought. This includes their contribution towards how the agency and the structure relate to social life. For instance, Weber argued that social events like capitalism or state or family or religion or political party are products of individuals. He argued that agency and the structure are the two main determinants of social outcomes. To Weber, the structure emphasizes that social life is determined by social forces and individual agency are an outcome of the structure. This implied that individuals are the creatures of the society. Agency emphasizes individuals to construct and reconstruct their world.
He argued that the importance of the human intention is emphasized because the individual is at the centre of any analysis. Methodological individualism is a theoretical approach that insists that adequate sociological explanation involves reference to persons, their interpretation of circumstances and reasons or motives or actions they take. Therefore, one can understand that most of the time we take most of our values and characters from the society that we grow in and due to the fact we find the society still there when we are born hence we become its creations.
On the other hand, the arguments of Karl Marx in 1969 that men make their own history but they do not make it as they please i.e. they do not make history under circumstances determined by them but those encountered, given and transmitted from the past. For instance, the religion one follows is as a result of the society they were born in and we follow it just the way we found it or even the monetary system we use to pay debts is independent to the user. We therefore do not make decisions as we like or desire but under certain structural constraints. To many classical sociologists, they believed that the society is divided at the micro and the macro levels where the individual forms the micro and the structure forms the macro level. This implied that society is external to us and it usually dictates the decisions we make.
In addition, Karl Marx tried to analyze the gender and the sociology which he referred to as feminist theory. To him gender is socially created as a division of society where human beings are classified as either feminine or masculine. He added that the feminist theory is a holistic theory mainly concerned with global oppression of women and their subordination to men. To him, it I a social political theory and practice with the aim of freeing all women from men supremacy and exploitation. Marx classified women as non propertied class but are kept as procession to perform services that perpetuate their spouses. They produce heirs to the property, provide emotional support, nurture the family and provide sexual gratification for the men of property. According to him, working class women may be hired more than their men counterpart of the education standards.
Therefore, we can learn that fight for gender equality is a social movement aimed mainly to take power invested in men as women believe that men are the root cause of all women problems. He argued that women submit themselves to men because they lack the resources that are source of power and integration. Hence, we can understand why there has been emergence of materialistic feminist who wish to operate independently of men. Marx used feminism to make social scientist understand that what people know about the society was in fact the reflection of their experiences of those who are economically and politically dominant therefore many possess false consciousness.
On the other hand, the Weber theory on rationality and bureaucracy as the most important development in discipline has assisted many people understand that the repression produced by rationality has replaced economic exploitation as the dominant social problem. He argued that rationality leads to technocratic thinking whose objective is ton serve the forces of domination. The goal of rationality is to seek the most efficient means of achieving the most desired goal. He added that rationality is meant to bring about happiness, justice and peace. He considered technology to be a form of rationality in the modern world.
It is meant to ease the way people perform their actions as well as bring happiness, peace and justice. For instance, the TV helps to pacify and socialize the population as well as provide recreational pleasure to the people. On the other hand, computers assist people to work effectively and efficiently. The modern technology was as a result of rationality hence people have to think on how to improve their social life. This technology dictates the way people do their jobs hence the system becomes bureaucratic in nature.
On the other hand, Karl Marx arguments that capitalism is there to oppress and exploit the majority helps us to understand the various problems associated with different kinds or forms of government. He argued that the modern is dominated by economic elements. These elements are meant to exploit the workers by overworking them in major industries in order for the owners to make enough profits.
He argued that the workers live on low wages so they are poor with little time left for leisure and recreational activities. To him, capitalism utilized workers leisure time to survive, recover and reproduce itself this is mainly because capitalism insists on high productivity and the oppression of workers in order to make big profits. He argued that in the modern world man is alienated from work and leisure where people have little time left for recreational activities due extended working hours.
In addition, Marx concluded that modernity was synonymous with emergence of capitalist therefore criticized its deformities like alienation, domination, false class consciousness, pauperization and exploitation. Therefore, there was need to change this form of government to a more favorable system. This analysis assists sociologists to understand the problems associated with capitalism. On the other hand, the Weber understanding of the modernity included the emergence of rationality or organizations and the rise of the lion cage of rationality in which people were imprisoned and unable to fulfill their dreams and their goals. He also acknowledged the advantages of rationality compared to the earlier form of social organizations this included technocratic thinking, technology etc.
On the other hand, by observing a 20th century contemporary sociologist likes of Anthony Giddens who also contributed much too various sociological theories and criticism of the earlier sociologists. According to Giddens, structure and agency are complementary to each other i.e. structure influences human action and the individual agency is capable of changing social structure. To him, society includes many individuals behaving in regular ways; therefore human beings are not the creatures of society but its creators. Giddens argues that individuals are capable of shaping the society rather than the society shaping them. This analysis helps us to learn much has changed over the years and that society is diverse and complex. In addition, it assists the sociologists take a forefront in sharing the society they live in.
Modern sociologist: Anthony Giddens
In addition, he argued in 1924 in his structural theory that a duality between the micro and the macro levels of social organizations. He added that the two are inseparable because agency is implicated in structure and the structure is involved in agency. He refuted the earlier arguments that structure is constraining but viewed as both constraining and enabling. To Giddens, sociologists have exaggerated the constraining nature of structure upon our actions. Therefore, there is need to overcome our structural constraints that we always carry or act as stereotypes to our actions and behavior as this affects our achievement of the desired goals and objectives. Therefore, sociologists ought to consider agency and structure the two sides of the same coin as they are dual and complement in nature.
On the issue of modernity he found out that it is like a juggernaut or too powerful and he called it the late modernity. He said that this late modernity is radical and highly handled. He compared modernity to an engine of enormous power which collectively as humans we can drive but threatens to run out of control. It can resist us, crashes those who resist, sometimes steady other times erratic. It is not always pleasant and is unrewarding, at times wonderful.
He concluded that as long as institutions of modernity persist we shall never control it completely, never be secure because it has many risks and consequences. We can therefore learn that modernity is dynamic and has momentum, in most cases it does not follow a single path and it is made up of different functions or pieces that conflict and contradict it. This helps the sociologist to accept their social life and look forward to ways they can improve this juggernaut and make it a bit conducive for human survival and living.
Therefore, sociologists can learn that we make our own decisions not confined under the structural constraints but depending on where we want to be in future. Though the structural constraints exist at the same time they can bring us down depending on what we focus on. These constraints ought to our driving force to make us achieve the dreams and goals we make in life. However, focusing on the harmful side of the constraints would make us loose the beneficial outcomes of the structures because these structures are supposed to enable us achieve our goals.
References
Giddens Anthony. Sociology (5th edition), Polity publishers, Cambridge, 2006.
The book emphasizes on the structural theory that regards a duality between the micro and the macro levels of social organizations. He added that the two are inseparable because agency is implicated in structure and the structure is involved in agency. He also analyzes on various other sociological theories such as the modernity theory which he referred to as late modernity. This modernity is dynamic and radical.
Weber, M.The theory of social and economic organization. The Free Press, New York, (1947).
In the book, Weber argued that social events like capitalism or state or family or religion or political party are products of individuals. He argued that agency and the structure are the two main determinants of social outcomes. To Weber, the structure emphasizes that social life is determined by social forces and individual agency are an outcome of the structure. In addition, the structure dictates on the individuals or agency decision making and their social actions.
Max Weber, Basic Concepts in Sociology, Kensington Publishing Corp, Kensington 1976.
The book offers a comprehensive research and information on the sociological theories and concepts that determine our social actions and behavior. The book attempts to analyze the society and its various structural organizations that the human beings live in. in addition, he talks about the theory on rationality and bureaucracy as the most important development in disciplinary as assisted many people understand that the repression produced by rationality has replaced economic exploitation as the dominant social problem.
Max Weber, Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, University of California Press, 1978.
The book attempts to analyze various forms of governance. This includes the capitalism, socialism and communism that various governments have adopted as a way of ruling the society and exercising power. He tries to explain how the economy affects the society. The book talks about the various transition systems that the society will tend to adopt as the time goes on. It will change from capitalism to socialism because capitalism has adverse deformities on the society such as alienation, oppression, pauperization among others.
Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, Penguin publishers, USA, 1993.
The book offers the Marxism critique to the capitalism form of the government that many societies have adopted and seem suited to it as a way of life regardless of the adverse effects on the workers and the society. He argued that capitalism eats up on the people leisure time and is concerned with low wages and workers exploitation in order to attain an economic profit. He added that capitalism is concerned with increased productivity and cutting on operating costs where many industries pay very little wages to the workers and yet overwork them to increase their production.
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