Psychology of Aggression and Violence

NB: We do not resell your papers. Upon ordering, we do an original paper exclusively for you.

NB: All your data is kept safe from the public.

Table of Contents

Introduction
Aggression and Conflict in the United States
Aggression and Instinct
Aggression as Externally Stimulated
Aggression as Learned
Conclusion
Reference List

Introduction

Youth aggression and violence are a perennial problem amongst students in American schools and institutions of higher learning. Although the rate of aggression and violence is said to have dropped, nonetheless, this problem continues to be an issue in these institutions, if the increase in cases of violence is anything to go by. The magnitude of some of these violent acts in the recent past draws has only acted to draw attention to this perennial problem. For example, there have been many cases of school and college shootings in the recent past. Such acts of violence result in the loss of many lives and injury to several people. Debate on youth violence mainly focuses on the causes and what can be done to prevent these violence cases (The New York Times, 2010). Some of the explanations offered to youth violence are the availability of firearms and increased drug use. Although some of these explanations appear somewhat valid, nevertheless, there is the need to undertake an in-depth assessment of the problem in order to provide long-term solutions. One of the issues that crop up whenever violent acts involving students are reported is psychological explanations of the act. There is great interest in explanation into the motivation behind youths who involve themselves in violent acts. In this paper, the researcher tries to relate psychological concepts and acts of violence among the youths.

Aggression and Conflict in the United States

Aggression and violence are not only a problem of the youths alone but also the society in general. There are many cases of aggression and violence in our society. We have had cases whereby individuals are reported to have fought leading to injury or even death. Cases of domestic violence are skill reported in our society. Aggression and violence between gangs is a major problem in slums. Such violence leads to the loss of lives to several people every year. They also instill fear as people dread being caught in the violence.

Aggression can be understood as an act that human beings engage in either harming or injuring another being. Aggression is generally categorized into two forms: hostile aggression, and instrumental aggression. Hostile aggression refers to those acts of aggression performed purposely to harm another person. Instrumental aggression on the other hand refers to acts of aggression not purposely intended to harm or injure another person but injury occurs incidentally in pursuit of another goal (Devine, 2008). Various research initiatives have been taken to understand and explain aggression. Aggression is common in animals. In animals, aggression is demonstrated by some animals showing aggression toward their prey of other animals of different species. Aggression is also observed in animals of the same species. Aggression in animals and in human beings shares some common properties but aggression in humans is more complex. In human beings, aggression takes various forms. It can be physical, verbal or mental aggression. Aggression should not be mistaken for assertiveness although the words are sometimes used interchangeably. Aggression is used in this paper refers to negative human behavior that actually leads to injury to other individuals.

As mentioned above, the main divisions of aggression are hostile and goal-oriented aggression. Individuals involved in hostile aggression usually do not have objects for their act. Affective aggression is usually described as unplanned, overt, impulsive and uncontrolled acts of aggression. Individuals involved in this kind of aggression do so without a clear objective. Goal-oriented aggression on the other hand is conducted with a clear objective. The two kinds of aggression are substantially different both psychologically and physiologically. For instance, research shows that individuals involved in hostile aggression are of low IQs. There is also a difference in aggression tendency between men and women with more men being more likely to express aggression. Women on the other hand express aggression in various nonphysical means (Campbell, 1993). As much as aggression is considered to be natural to animals, it is considered to be deprivation in human beings. America has a long history of youth violence in learning institutions (The New York Times, 2010). However, the severity of recent incidences of youth violence makes them appear to be recent.

Aggression is a common concept in the study of human behavior. The main issue on aggression has been to understand the reasons why people involve themselves in aggression. Aggression is usually used to refer to a situation where an individual assaults another. It can also be used in another setting to refer to animals seeking prey or storm wreaking havoc. To discuss the issue, a common definition is required. In psychology, aggression is used to refer to behaviors that lead to harm to another individual. A more specific definition of aggression defines aggression as a sequence of behavior whose purpose is to lead to harm to people to whom it is directed (Devine, 2008). This definition lays open the main issue in aggression: the intention of the actors. Definitions of aggression vary from one scholar to the other. These definitions can, however, be categorized into three main categories. There are those definitions that consider aggression natural, as instinct. Other definitions regard aggression as a reaction that can be predicted. Lastly, there are those definitions that consider aggression as a learned behavior. The three categories of definitions of aggression can further be grouped into two major groups: those that consider aggression as innate and those that consider it as external. In other words, debates over aggression can be viewed and “nature versus nurture”.

Aggression and Instinct

One of the prominent psychologists in this school is Sigmund Freud. Sigmund Freud considered aggression as a result of primary instinct. He referred to the natural drive as Thanatos and explained that this was a drive against self. According to Sigmund, this was the driver responsible for suicide. He explains that the reason why all people do not commit suicide was a natural balance between Thanatos and Eros. According to him, Eros is a natural drive that motivates people to continue to live. He asserts that the fortunate thing is that Eros usually wins over Thanatos. He asserts that this displacement redirects the self-destruction tendencies of an individual outside (Campbell, 1993). Consequently, he explains, people aggress other people in order to avoid aggressing themselves. This explanation leaves a quest for answers on the way in which people manage to avoid aggression on others. He explains that a force referred to as catharsis help people manage their aggression tendencies. Freud explains that watching events of anger and aggression helps to reduce the tendency to aggression. In addition, engaging in mild displays of anger help to reduce aggression urge and help people avoid aggression. According to him, watching aggression and mild anger help to purify and calm an individual helping reduce the likelihood of aggression.

Many people support Freud’s view of aggression as instinctive. Although most people have no information on Freud’s position on aggression, they tend to believe that aggression is instinctive. Were the people aware of Freud’s notion of a death instinct, most would not support Freud’s explanation over aggression. Many people do not vie aggression much as outward displacement internal destructive drive. Instead, most people view aggression as externally directed a drive that is mostly connected to a survival instinct, which unites human beings to other animals. Many assert that human aggression can be explained in a better way by relating it to aggression in animals.

Many scientists, especially socio-biologists and ethologists try to explain aggression in human beings by relating it to aggression in animals. Among those popular in relating human aggression and aggression in animals is Konrad Lorenz (Lorenz, 1966). Lorenz’s definition of aggression demonstrates his belief in the connection between aggression in human beings and animals. He views aggression as an instinct found in men and beasts that urge them to fight. The fight, according to him, is directed towards other members. He relates aggression in human beings and animals to Darwin’s survival for the fittest (Lorenz, 1966). He explains that it is through competition the evolution occurs and says that aggression is one of the natural processes. Lorenz’s study on the issues is in fact based on a variety of animal species (Lorenz, 1966). He mainly used various species of birds and fish to aggress the issues. In his study, Lorenz found a tendency to protect territory in most species. His findings also show a tendency toward defeating rivals for a mate and drive to protect young and defenseless species. He explains that aggression in animals seem to serve them well as it leads to a better distribution of animal over the available environment. Lorenz also asserts that aggression has an important role in developing social structure due to criticism that results in form aggression. He explains that this criticism is important as it helps in the development and advancement of social life.

Aggression as Externally Stimulated

This second theory considers aggression as originating from external stimuli rather than inborn tendency. The main assumption in this theory is that aggression is a reaction that can be predictable given some stimuli. According to this theory, the stimulus to aggression is usually frustration. Dollard et al. (1939) posit that aggression always shows frustration and the existence of frustration motivates aggression in one way or the other. Dollard et al.’s (1939) assertions are bold as they claim a correlation between aggression and frustration. Considering the multifaceted nature of human behavior, drawing such a relationship was daring. In fact, Dollard et al. (1939) attracted criticism after making their remarks. Despite earlier criticism, many authors agree that there is a strong relationship between aggression tendency and frustration. According to Dollard et al (1939), frustration is viewed as an interference with the occurrence of goal-response at the appropriate time. Frustration has an important role in aggressive tendencies. An example of a frustrating instance is when a husband goes home from work to meet dinner not ready as expected, a child is excluded from a game in the school playground or an employee fails to get a promotion in spite of working hard. Frustrating situations do not necessarily lead to aggression or violence. Not all husbands, children or employees engage in aggression by finding themselves in frustrating situations.

Not all aggression is the outcome of frustration and neither does frustration always lead to aggression. It’s true that frustration can lead to aggression but this does not imply that every form of aggression is an outcome of frustration. It is also not true that frustration always leads to aggression as there are many occasions where one is frustrated but fails to engage in aggression. According to Berkowitz, anger and interpretation are required for the relationship between frustration and aggression to hold true (Berkowitz, 1980). Berkowitz asserts that frustration increases the tendency to aggression, but this tendency is referred to as anger. Berkowitz also asserts that frustration can only lead to aggression when appropriate cues are available (Berkowitz, 1980). For instance, individuals may feel that expressing frustration through aggression is not appropriate thus making them less likely to be involved in aggression.

Aggression as Learned

Learning theory can explain aggression and violence. Scholars under this school of thought hold that aggression is a learned behavior other than a natural response to frustration. From this school of thought, people learn aggression and violence from their environment. Learning mainly takes place during development. Advocates of learning theory reject the notion the aggression is innate or result from the frustration-to-aggression relationship. There have been various studies trying to explain aggression through learning theory. One of a major researcher a proponent of social learning theory of aggression, Albert Bandura, show how children aggression by observing their parent (Bandura & Ross, 1961). Bandura observed that children that witness aggression between their parents are more likely to adopt similar behavior. He explains that a similar tendency would be observed where the model is different. This implies that children can learn to be aggressive by watching violent films. He concludes the aggression is not exceptional to other forms of social behavior but develops as a result of the stimulus, reinforcement and cognitive control (Bandura & Ross, 1961). As people learn aggression, they can also learn not to adopt the behavior. Draper proposes ways in which people can learn not to be aggressive (Draper, 1978). She advises that adults should not punish children who tend to be aggressive but separate children. She also advises that parents should strictly avoid physical punishment as this may lead to aggression. Lastly, she advises that mothers should avoid children when they make angry outbursts. Through this, she explains, children will learn that they cannot get anything through aggression.

Conclusion

Aggressive and violence are major issues amongst students in American schools and other institutions of higher learning. Youth shootings in learning institutions have led to the loss of many lives. An increase of aggressive and violent incidences not only in learning institutions but also in other areas raises questions on how people become aggressive or violent. There are generally three schools of thought on how people become aggressive. Aggressive innate instinct, aggression as externally motivated and aggression as a learned behavior are the common schools of thought. Aggression as an innate predisposition toward destruction fails to give a convincing explanation as to why some people do not turn violent while others do. Frustration can lead to aggression as proposed by aggression but individuals can decide not to turn to violence after experiencing frustrations. Learning theory provides a convincing explanation for aggression and violence. Individuals learn to be aggressive from their environment. Violent families, violent films and exposure to firearms and drugs play a significant role in school shootings. To manage school shootings, there is a need for improving the environment for development by eliminating access to firearms and drugs, addressing domestic violence and taking other appropriate steps.

Reference List

Bandura, D., & Ross, A. (1961). Transmission of Aggression Through Imitation of Aggressive Models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology.
Berkowitz, L. (1980). The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis. In R. A. Falk and S. S. Kim, (Eds.), the War System: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Campbell, A. (1993). Men, Women and Aggression. New York: Basic Books.
Devine, C. (2008). School Shootings are becoming an American dilemma.
Dollard, J., Doob, W., Miller, E., Mowrer, H., & Sears, R. (1939). Frustration and Aggression. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Draper, P. (1978).The Learning Environment for Aggression and Anti-social Behavior Among the! Kung. In A. Montagu (Ed.), Learning Non-aggression: The Experience of Non-literate Societies. New York: Oxford University Press.
Lorenz, K. (1966). On Aggression. (Marjorie Kerr Wilson, Trans.) New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.
The New York Times (2010). School shootings. Web.

Click Here To Order Now!