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Introduction
Reading is an essential skill that children acquire from a young age based on the techniques and theories applied by mentors when it comes to improving the practices that facilitate this activity. There are numerous theories that exemplify different approaches to reading, ways to improve it in regard to various components, and methods teachers can apply to encourage students. The views can be applied to the dataset of students assessed prior. The four groups of students have been examined based on their abilities for decoding, phonological awareness, knowledge of sight words, comprehension, and reading level. Based on the results, four different groups were formed according to the results of the evaluation. Since the groups have been constructed according to the level of reading, an individual approach is needed to address the issues and concerns of every group. Moreover, the cultural aspect is to be considered since English is not the first language for several of the participants. The needs can be addressed through several teaching measures based on the reading theories and the specific areas that are to be considered based on the prior evaluation.
Reading Theories
In order for the teaching measures to be effective, it is essential to assess reading theories, the salient features that correlate with each framework, and the practical implementation based on the needs of the aforementioned groups of children with different levels of reading abilities. The theories that relate to reading include bottom-up, top-down, contractual, and critical ones. In order for an effective approach to the different needs of the students to be implemented, it is crucial to apply evidence-based frameworks such as the aforementioned theories. The systems are to be reviewed for an efficient plan establishment that can improve the level of reading in the evaluated groups of students.
Bottom-Up Theory
The bottom-up theory implies that reading is a complex process that is to be approached on multiple levels for the results to be efficient. Thus, all the aspects involved in the process are to be confronted for positive results. For example, researchers mention reading to consist of such elements as knowledge of letters and sounds, word decoding, understanding the meaning of words and their context, spelling, phonics, and other aspects (Ray Reutzel & Clark, 2011). Based on the bottom-up theory, the teacher is to apply the skill-based paradigm. Thus, each element is to be improved in order for reading itself to be at a higher level. The method is evidence-based as it is inevitable that reading is not entirely intuitive and is based on multiple activities and skills.
Practical Implementation
As mentioned prior, the bottom-up theory can be practically implemented to address specific challenges correlating with the reading evaluation of the students. The advantage of the theory is that it can be applied to solve most problems. Thus, the group with reading levels evaluated as 5-7 can benefit from applying the skilled-based paradigm. As a result, the teacher is to focus on each aspect individually and increase the level of phonological awareness, decoding, sight words, and reading comprehension to achieve better reading results from students. The practical implementation is to be considered as a focus on each individual skill to address the general issue. The areas considered within the framework are based on the standard approach to the curriculum, which may be a limitation of a diversity-based intervention (Simpson & Wigglesworth, 2018). However, the system may not be as effective for EALD and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students as it is based on the general improvement of simple skills to reach a higher universal one. The measure does not address cultural-specific needs yet can be integrated to address the gaps in knowledge for students with lower phonological, decoding, and comprehension abilities.
Top-Down Theory
The top-down theory, in contrast with the aforementioned bottom-up one, is centered around the idea that the act itself facilitates learning. Thus, children practice reading, and despite gaps in knowledge, they practically apply the skill, which ultimately leads to its improvement. The salient features of the top-down theory include a consideration of the experiences and cultural specifics of each participant. As each child has different levels of knowledge, skills, abilities, and background, these aspects may influence reading. Nonetheless, the top-down theory is one based on what the reader brings to the experience rather than the assignment itself. It can be exemplified through the meaning of the text as, according to researchers, it is primary when it comes to comprehension (Hudson et al., 2008). As children are different, the meaning they put into the content is substantial and not less crucial than the skills.
Practical Implementation
Applying the top-down theory into practice can significantly help EALD students (Seth, Taya, Fumitaka, Roke, Marwa, Yen, Rana, Nur, Viana, and Jo). As English is an additional language or dialect, a different approach is needed that considers the cultural background of the students. The framework can be implemented as a way for students to express what they understand in a text that they may find familiar based on the setting, characters, and actions described. For example, students may not know specific words or how to pronounce them, but understanding the overall message is to be evaluated and encouraged. This may be facilitated by the teacher by asking questions such as “who”, “where”, “when”, and “why” (Humphrey et al., 2013). As a result, the experience becomes less focused on academic performances and becomes more personal, hence, pleasurable.
Contractual Concept
The contractual concept is a theory based on the connection between the writer and the reader. Hence, the reader, in this case, the students, understands the concept based on the meaning that the author has intended to imply. Researchers mention the importance of the contact between the individual who wrote the piece of literature and the person engaging in its study (Rodda & Eleweke, 2000). As a result, the connection is evidence-based in terms of improvement of reading techniques, which is the goal of the intervention.
Practical Implementation
An example of the contractual concept is repetition. Through repetition, the child is able to go in-depth in regard to the text and its meaning. This method is supported by researchers who mention that repetitive reading of sentences and words facilitates information retention and faster expression recognition when the student encounters it again (Hudson et al., 2020). It increases accuracy and can potentially assist children with low phonological awareness. Thus, teachers can put the theory into practice by picking authors who have expertise in books for second-grade children or by individually picking books and pieces of literature based on the needs of each child. An example would be implementing a book with a theme that EALD and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students would find more familiar.
Critical Theory
The critical theory emphasizes the conscious decision of the reader to engage in reading. Thus, despite a child having adequate reading skills, the critical approach emphasizes the importance of understanding, focusing, and analyzing the material. An example is phonological awareness, which is the ability to focus on the sound of the letter rather than the meaning of the word or phrase (Carson and Bayetto, 2018). Thus, the child chooses to focus on reading, and the ‘The Big Six’, namely oral language, phonological awareness, phonics, vocabulary, comprehension, and fluency. The effort is conscious, which is the core salient feature of the framework.
Practical Implementation
The critical theory can be implemented to improve the levels of decoding, phonological awareness, and knowledge of sight words through conscious effort toward comprehension. The approach is practical since it can be applied through direct assessments. The teacher can conduct lessons in which children are to link sounds to letters, identify meanings, and decode spelling. As a result, an assessment in which each student is to exemplify the acquired skills can show whether the conscious effort is made or the child reads more intuitively. The results are to them be examined by the teacher, and each student is to be assisted if gaps are found.
Diverse Learning Practices
As mentioned prior, several of the children are classified as EALDs and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students. Thus, diversity is to be considered for efficient results in terms of reading improvement for the entire class. While the theories mentioned prior can be applied universally, it is essential to create an environment in which all students are motivated to read. This can be achieved with support from the teacher when it comes to choosing texts, focusing on different areas of reading based on the student’s needs, and allowing the children to incorporate certain aspects of their cultures in the process of reading. One of the frameworks that can be useful for the agenda is the top-down theory, in which the children read a text and give it a special meaning rather than one implied by the author.
Conclusion
Another beneficial tactic is the contractual concept in which the author connects with the reader through books. Certain authors specifically write books in which specific cultural aspects are manifested through words and images. Moreover, researchers mention mixed languages such as Light Warlpiri or Gurindji Kriol (Simpson & Wigglesworth, 2018). The children may have difficulties pronouncing certain sounds or remembering specific letters and words. Thus, the critical theory can facilitate a more in-depth and conscious approach to the reading material. A similar process can be implemented through the bottom-up framework, in which reading is dispersed into different categories, and each is addressed separately. As a result, separate classes for vocabulary, phonics, fluency, and comprehension can facilitate positive results.
References
Carson, K., & Bayetto, A. (2018). Teachers’ phonological awareness assessment practices, self-reported knowledge, and actual knowledge: The challenge of assessing what you may know less about. Australian Journal of Teacher Education (Online), 43(6), 67-85. Web.
Hudson, A., Koh, P. W., Moore, K. A., & Binks-Cantrell, E. (2020). Fluency interventions for elementary students with reading difficulties: A synthesis of research from 2000–2019.Education Sciences, 10(3), 52. Web.
Hudson, R. F., Pullen, P. C., Lane, H. B., & Torgesen, J. K. (2008). The complex nature of reading fluency: A multidimensional view.Reading & Writing Quarterly, 25(1), 4–32. Web.
Humphrey, S., Droga, L., & Feez, S. (2013). Grammar and meaning. Primary English Teaching Association.
Ray Reutzel, D., & Clark, S. (2011). Organising literacy classrooms for effective instruction. The Reading Teacher, 65(2), 96–109. Web.
Rodda, M., & Eleweke, C. J. (2000). Theories of Literacy Development in Limited English Proficiency Deaf People: A Review. Deafness & Education International, 2(2), 101-113. Web.
Simpson, J., & Wigglesworth, G. (2018). Language diversity in Indigenous Australia in the 21st Century.Current Issues in Language Planning, 20(1), 67–80. Web.
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