Overview of Brain Development and History of Neuroplasticity: Analytical Essay

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Introduction

How Does our Brain Change? I am submitting this for class Psych 6014 A Biopsychosocial Approach to Counseling. The Program for this presentation will be as follows: I will start with a brief overview of Brain development focusing on the important aspects for Brain Plasticity followed by a description of Brain Plasticity, the history of Neuroplasticity, the fundamentals and why it is so important. I will then give a brief story of neuroplasticity from the work of Dr. Barry Sternman on Neurofeedback and its effects on temporal lobe seizures Finally, I will discuss Brain Plasticity and its implications for Psychotherapy.

Brain Development: Anatomy of the Brain

The anatomical stages of brain development begin early on in the prenatal months. The brain’s structure is predetermined before birth by our genetic makeup. However, there are many other elements that can impact that development, both prenatally and postnatally. An example of pre-natal toxins on brain development are maternal smoking and/or drinking. Smoking has been found to lead to possible changes such as reduced brain growth, altered brain microstructure and changes in brain function (Ekblad et. Al, 2014). Perinatal changes in the brain structure can be caused by physiological elements such as nutrition and toxins, and psychological elements such as attachment. In the following insert, one can see what elements in maternal smoking result in these changes and the mediating factors that lead to them. (Ekblad et al, 2016, p. 13) The first stage of brain development is neurulation. Within three weeks after conception, the embryo has developed into a three-layered spherical formation. The cells begin to thicken and form into what is referred to as the neural plate. This plate continues to fold over on itself, creating a tube that will eventually close at the bottom and top. This structure, called the neural tube will continue to develop into the central nervous system (CNS), which consists of the brain and spinal cord. The outer cells of this structure are referred to as the autonomic nervous system which is made up of the nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord and are referred to as the peripheral nervous system (PNS). As the brain continues to develop it will section off into four main structures: The Brainstem, which is what connects the brain and the spinal cord and is responsible for basic life functions such as breathing, heart rate and our bodies natural rhythms; the Diencephalon contains the thalamus and the hypothalamus, which act as a relay station between the cerebral cortex and subcortical areas of the brain; the Cerebellum, is responsible for motor control, balance, equilibrium and muscle tone and is located just above the brain stem at the back of our head; and lastly the Cerebrum, which consists of the Cerebral Cortex and a number of other subcortical structures. The Cerebrum is the upper part of the brain and controls conscious mental processes. The outer layer of the cerebrum is called gray matter, the inner portion, white matter. It is arranged into two hemispheres called cerebral hemispheres. The area that separates the two hemispheres is called the Corpus Collosum, which is a large thick nerve tract that connects the two hemispheres and sends messages back and forth. The cerebral hemispheres are divided into four sections or lobes: the frontal lobe, responsible for thinking, making judgments, planning, decision-making and conscious emotions, the Parietal Lobe, mainly associated with spatial computation, body orientation and attention, the Temporal Lobe, concerned with hearing, language and memory, and the Occipital Lobe, mainly dedicated to visual processing. The following picture demonstrates the lobes of the brain and their functions. https://psychotherapycanada.com/neuroplasticity Alliance Psychotherapy Axons, Dendrites & Synapses The brain is made up of about 86 – 100 billion neurons. It is important to note that these neurons differ from other cells mainly because they have a cell element called dendrites and axons. The dendrites bring electrical signals to the cell body and the axon takes information away from it through an electrochemical process. Our neurons carry messages in the form of electrical signals which are called nerve impulses. To create this impulse the neuron needs to be aroused, perhaps by a thought or an experience in order to send a current through the cell, which either excites or inhibits the neurotransmitters at the end of the axon. Data will transfer from one neuron to another neuron via a synapse or a gap. The synapse is the small space between the two neurons. At birth, every neuron has around 2,500 synapses and by age three, this number has grown to close to 15,000 synapses per neuron. However, most adults will only have half of this number because as we age and experience new events, some connections are strengthened while others are eliminated. This process is referred to as synaptic pruning. The neurons that are used more often strengthen their connection while those that are rarely used will eventually die. This was first described by Donald Hebb who in 1949 showed that “any two cells or systems of cells that are repeatedly active at the same time will tend to become ‘associated’, so that activity in one facilitates activity in the other” (Hebb, 1949, 70). In simpler terms it is often referred to by the adage “What fires together, wires together” and it is through this process the brain is able to adapt to its ever-changing environment – now known as Brain Plasticity.

Brain Plasticity History

Although today we are well aware that the development of the brain is a lifelong process, it was not until the late 1800’s that the term plasticity was first heard in any reference to the brain. It was William James that suggested that the brain was not as unchanging as previously believed and in his book The Principles of Psychology (1890), he wrote that “organic matter, especially nervous tissue, seems endowed with a very extraordinary degree of plasticity (James, 1890)”. Unfortunately, this theory was ignored for many years until the 1920’s when Karl Lashley studied rhesus monkeys and demonstrated that there were changes in neural pathways. At around the same time, Santiago Ramon Cajal, also known as the father of neuroscience coined the phrase “neuronal plasticity” to describe nonpathological changes in the structure of adult brains. He acknowledged that the brain was able to change even during adulthood and did not stop throughout the lifespan. But it was not until the 1960’s that researchers began to discover that neurons were capable of recovery after a traumatic event and thus were even more malleable than previously believed. With time and research, it has been determined that the brain has the remarkable capacity to reorganize pathways, create new connections and even create new neurons, known as neurogenesis. What is Neuroplasticity The brain is a very complicated tool and although as was pointed out previously, until the last century it was considered to be a static organ that stopped developing in early adulthood. We now know that this perception is false and that, in fact, the brain is continuously changing and developing and this is due to the nature of its own plasticity. One may think of the term plasticity as an odd way to refer to our brain and may possibly make you think of plastic cups or your child’s Barbie doll; however, it is a very common term when referring to the brains ability to be malleable (as some plastics are) throughout the life span. This neuroplasticity is best described as the brain’s ability to not only change but to re-wire itself as a result of experience and/or trauma. The brain goes through these changes in order to develop and adapt not only to new experiences and environments but also to optimize healing after any type of brain injury.

There are two types of Neuroplasticity:

Structural – This is the change that happens when we create new synaptic connections and add new neurons.
Functional – this is the brain’s ability to move functions of the brain from a damaged area to an undamaged area.

An example of this are the many studies that have shown superior hearing and olfactory senses in people that are born or even become blind (Areneda et.al, 2016). This happens because the two enhanced senses have now taken up neurons and space given up from the occipital lobe. It is important to remember that plasticity can also be additive or subtractive. As Norman Doidge points out “Additive plasticity occurs when the brain change involves growth. But plasticity is also subtractive and can involve taking things away as occurs when the adolescent brain prunes away neurons, and when neuronal connections not being used are lost” (Doidge, 2007, p 298). How does it work: Although there are already synaptic connections made by the time the infant comes into the world, the real work begins then. Picture a large set of building blocks with a billion tiny pieces. The possibilities are infinite but it will take a very long time to assemble them. Dr. Merzenich,(2013) also referred to as a father of neuroplasticity, describes the baby’s brain in the following way: “You can imagine a newborn’s brain like a highway map of North America or Europe or Asia with just the largest freeways and most important highways laid onto the map. Those major thruways interconnect regions to one another — but no one has yet constructed any local highways, secondary roads, streets, byways, lanes, driveways, or garden paths. Most places (specific abilities) remain inaccessible until these routes are in place!” (Merzenich, 2013, p. 39) As mentioned, the brain is made up of billions of neurons, and each neuron is connected to thousands of other neurons through its dendrites – tree like branches that carry signals from one neuron to the next. Whenever you learn something new, your neurons form new connections with other neurons, and a new pathway in the brain is established. Dendritic branching is the process by which the dendrites of one neuron branch out to establish connections with other neurons. The sum total of all your brain’s neurons, and the connections between them, can be thought of as an enormous neural network. Every thought, memory, emotion or behavior is linked to a certain neural pathway in the brain. The more often you engage in a certain neural pathway, the stronger that pathway becomes, and the more likely it will become activated in the future. That is how habits form (which can be both a positive and a negative aspect of brain plasticity). On the other hand, when we stop using a pathway – for instance, give up practicing a musical instrument that pathway will weaken and, in some instances, disappear. The interesting aspect of brain plasticity is that our brain changes with every new thing that we do. An example of this is that if you read your child a bedtime story, you change the child’s brain but you also change your own brain. There is a real simplicity in what can actually change our brains. Children begin by having no control over how their brain changes, which is why events and experiences, such as learning and attachment can have such a lasting effect. This makes the nervous system particularly vulnerable during the developmental stages and David Wallin in his book on Attachment and Psychotherapy (2007) states, “Healthy relationships of attachment, especially in the first years of life are necessary for the development and integration of right and left brain functions – and of limbic and cortical functions as well” (Wallin, 2007, p. 78) As we age, we begin to learn how to control our selective attention and in turn we gradually learn to control brain change. As children grow into adolescence and adulthood, the brain starts to only allow change to take place when it chooses. But a key point to remember is that brain activity is crucial for brain reorganization; stimulating our brains through environmental stimuli is a requirement for creating new and strengthened synaptic connections. It is now evident that our biological makeup is only one factor in determining how our brain will evolve. Our environment and will always play a vital role in the shaping and reorganization of our brains; changes in neural pathways result from various types of experiences – both positive and negative.

Positive and Negative Effects of Neuroplasticity

Although our brain is an extraordinary organ that is incredibly capable of adapting to its environment, it is also neutral in nature. It does not know the difference between positive and negative. It will learn whatever is constantly repeated, which can result in behaviors that are either adaptive or maladaptive. So, in this way, neuroplasticity is not always working in our favor and just as athletes rewire their brains with practice, so do many negative behaviors such as self-criticism, drug and alcohol abuse, gambling to name a few often lead to mental disorders such as depression, anxiety, obsessiveness, drug dependency and over-reactive tendencies. But positive brain plasticity results in beneficial behavior outcomes. An example of this would be by improving the neural networks responsible for cognitive functions such attention, memory and mood. There are many ways that we can go about improving our brain function, one example of this is mindfulness. Individuals who continually practice meditation learn to control their attention and eliminate distractive thoughts. Repetitive practice of mindfulness encourages structural growth of synaptic linkages among activated neurons. These networks in the prefrontal cortex are strengthened and lead to physical changes such as improvements of the immune system, lower cortisol levels and blood pressure. Another great example demonstrating the benefits of brain plasticity are the changes observed in individuals who attempt to learn a new skill. A study involving music training found that by measuring magnetoencephalography results of individuals with an average age of 26, there was a noticeable difference in the prefrontal cortex and noted that there was a greater neuroplasticity response in musicians who had long time training than those that practiced less. In a similar study observing individuals who were between the ages of 60-84, after 4 months of piano lessons there was a significant improvement in their mood, wellbeing, cognitive function, attention, motor and visual function and executive functioning (Shaffer J. (2016) ). It is important to note here that Brain Plasticity can have negative effects and most of us have some habit we wish we could break and now have an understanding of what we need to do to prune those synaptic connections and replace them with more positive connections, which through effort and practice we can strengthen to become our new norm. Following is a short story about how Neurofeedback, which is a brain therapy that relies not only on operant conditioning but on the knowledge that the brain can change has made a difference in the world of neurology because of its effects on temporal lobe seizures.

Plasticity and Therapy

Neurofeedback & Temporal Lobe Seizures In 1967 Dr. Barry Sternman did research on cats trying and succeeding in changing their brain waves by the use of Neurofeedback and operational conditioning. After the publication of his article, he was approached by NASA because a number of their astronauts were experiencing seizures due to exposure to the toxic chemical Hydrazine. Dr. Sternman then began another experimentation exposing cats to Hydrazine to see what neurological effects they would experience. The cats demonstrated seizures and other neurological effects except for a small number that appeared to have a very high tolerance and did not exhibit seizure activity. These were the same cats that had been in the previous Neurofeedback experimentation. The results of this was that the cats that had gone through NFB and had changed their brain waves had also changed the physiological structure of their brains. This new knowledge resulted into investigations on the value of NFB and seizure activity. NFB has been found to be efficacious in the treatment of temporal lobe seizures in humans by either reducing the number of seizures as well as in some cases eliminating them altogether. This is a perfect example of how brain plasticity can serve to heal the brain by altering its very structure. Psychotherapy Prior to neuroplasticity becoming a major area of research, all mental disorders were considered exactly that – a mental disorder. There was a saying that psychiatrists are the only physicians that do not look at the organ that they treat. This is no longer true because the fields of psychiatry and psychology are starting to recognize brain therapies: EMDR, Brain Spotting and Neurofeedback. These are therapies that are utilized in helping clients to deal with their mental pain and anguish. If we accept that adults are capable of directing their neuroplastic changes via attention and practice of new behaviors, then through the help of psychotherapy they can do exactly that – direct their attention, change behaviors and learn new ways of thinking that will slowly prune the connections that have strengthened their disorder and strengthen the connections that are now new and more effective for healthy living. Just like an exercise therapist or physiotherapist can create new synaptic connections and force other areas of the brain to take over when there has been an injurious loss, so too can psychotherapy change the brain to heal psychological trauma and pain.

Conclusion

In reading about brain plasticity and learning about how our thoughts and behaviors are linked to the strength or the weakness of our synaptic connections, it has strengthened my resolve that when working with people who come to us for help on any level, we must take a biopsychosocial approach. If our psychological perspectives and our social support systems have an effect on our very brain structure, counsellors must address the biological effect on the brain as we try to help our clients change behaviors, reframe thoughts and start changing behaviors to be more adaptive. I am left with the question “Are mental disorders not brain disorders?”

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Overview of Brain Development and History of Neuroplasticity: Analytical Essay

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