James Weldon Johnson’s “The Red Summer” Term

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Table of Contents

Introduction
Causes of the Red Summer Riots
Role of James Weldon Johnson in the Red Summer
Results of the Red Summer
Conclusion
Annotated Bibliography
Work Cited

Introduction

Racial discrimination has been in existence in the U.S. since the colonial era. The blacks were considered inferior to their white counterparts. During the early 20^th century, when racial discrimination was at its peak, civil rights movements were formed to fight for the rights of blacks. In 1916, lynching was common for blacks as government officials subscribed to white supremacist ideologies (Meiners 18). The secretary of the National Association for Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), James Weldon Johnson, was at the forefront of opposing the extra-judicial killings of blacks (Meiners 14). The red summer is a term coined by James Weldon to represent a period in mid-1919 where racial riots and terrorism supported by white supremacists occurred in dozens of cities and villages in the USA (Balto 66). The highest number of casualties was reported in the rural town of Elaine in Arkansas, where 247 blacks lost their lives (Lieberman 16). Racial discrimination remains a significant problem in the contemporary world because the memory of the suffering encountered by the blacks instills hatred and anger in the hearts of black descendants.

Causes of the Red Summer Riots

The red summer was a manifestation of the racial strife in the USA. The Jim Crow laws legalized all statutes that promoted racial segregation (Lieberman 26). The whites’ and blacks’ superiority and inferiority complex heightened the hatred between the races. The Jim Crow policies made the blacks resist and started the riots to demand their rights. On the 30^th of September 1919, as the blacks rioted in Elaine, they were attacked by their white counterparts (Meiners 6). The massacre was caused by the revenge mission that was proposed against the black Americans living in the region. The blacks in Elaine were mostly subsistence farmers working for their white employers. One black was being mistreated and underpaid by his employer and decided to fight for his rights. In the process, the white farmer was shot dead, and others were wounded. Consequently, the whites regrouped to avenge the death, and in the process, they maimed, tortured, and killed the blacks while torching their houses. The black sharecroppers were already suffering from hunger and disease, and the attack by the whites shattered their lives, so they had to revolt.

The Red Summer was characterized by immense suffering when the blacks were lynched, shot, and some burnt alive. Black-owned residential areas were terrorized by the whites during the massive riots. Black’s wealth accumulated for generations was stolen, and the blacks were reduced to the worst-ever financial status. Historians note that the Red Summer did not start instantaneously in 1919 (Meiners 8). They argue that precedence was set in 1917 when the labor-related conflict in East St. Louis in Illinois led to fifty black Americans being murdered by their employers (Meiners 14). The whites mercilessly descended on the blacks and killed them as they begged forgiveness. In the incident, helpless blacks were shot dead as they were on their knees, pleading and begging the whites to spare their lives. The blacks became bitter, the survivors swore revenge for the killings, and the strife between the two races increased even further.

Role of James Weldon Johnson in the Red Summer

James Weldon played a significant role during the Red Summer. He was vocal in pressuring the government of the day that the people of color had a right to live and acquire wealth. James wrote numerous letters requesting the ratification of the ant-lynching law and ensuring that people would be heard fairly. One of the most important roles he played was to motivate the blacks and enhance their unity through works of art. For example, he coined the Negro anthem, which empowered the blacks to rise for their rights despite the challenges they were facing. He formed the basis for a new Negro where blacks could express their views. As a scholar and a linguist, James combined his skills and knowledge in law to be a seasoned advocate for the rights of blacks. He advocated passing the anti-lynching bill, which allowed criminals to be treated relatively. Through his effort and writing, most blacks understood their rights and rose to fight for equality (Meiners 21). Issuing the NAACP crisis magazine informed the blacks of the injustices committed against them and made them revolt.

Results of the Red Summer

The Red Summer enabled blacks to understand the importance of art and creativity to express their views and grievances. James Weldon, for example, used his intellect to instigate the blacks. Numerous black activists, such as W.E. B Dubois, were motivated by the actions, and the fight for racial equality gained momentum. The red summer increased the tension among the people in the USA, destroying both social and economic systems. The red summer led to the development of the new Negro, a new version of the black Americans who were fearless, defiant, and ready to sacrifice their lives for the course of justice (Meiners 11). The seed planted during the Red Summer spread worldwide and motivated blacks to stand up for their rights and advocate for racial equality. The motivation gave rise to contemporary movements such as black lives matter.

The racial discrimination led to numerous riots in the U.S., as the blacks demanded their rights. The continuous demonstrations and retaliation by the whites led to the destruction of lives and property. Thousands lost their lives due to the Red Summer, and the fight for equality became stronger. The activities of the Red Summer and the effort by Weldon Johnson and other activists led to the ratification of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which ended racial discrimination (Balto 76). The efforts of the blacks resulted in a law that brought equality to the USA. The events of the Red Summer brought significant changes that changed the relationship between the blacks and the whites.

Conclusion

The Red Summer is a period that changed American history and the fate of discrimination. Minor conflicts from the labor unions led to the killings of thousands of blacks. The racial strife between the blacks and the whites originated from economic disparity. As poor farmers advocated for their rights, they were met with ruthless attacks and murder. Consequently, the blacks revolted in a quest to fight for their rights. The numerous race riots and murders in mid-1919 were referred to as red summer, and the conflict had numerous outcomes. The events strengthened the blacks, and the fight for equality took a global approach.

Annotated Bibliography

Balto, Simon. Occupied Territory: Policing Black Chicago from Red Summer to Black Power. UNC Press Books, 2019.

The book by Balto expresses the great migration and how the black southerners traveled to Chicago and other parts of the USA. The politicians in Chicago viewed the blacks as a problem in the cities and started mistreating them. The racial strife between the blacks and the whites escalated and led to numerous riots. The book further reiterates the cause of the Red Summer brutality, murder, and the discriminatory policies that emerged. The pattern of riots and chaos that affected the black communities sparked nationalism among the blacks and made them unite to fight for equality.

Lieberman, Robbie. “The Black and Red Scare in the Twentieth-Century United States.” The Palgrave Handbook of Anti-Communist Persecutions, 2020, pp. 225–243.

The resource explains the persecutions in the early 20^th century that were motivated by racial discrimination. The resource traces the origin of discriminatory policies in the USA since the Civil War. Further, the resource underscores the acts of violence orchestrated by the whites towards the blacks and the impact it had in the long run. The Red Summer is one of the numerous acts of racial discrimination in the U.S. in mid-1919. Lieberman further illustrates the contribution of civil rights activists who sacrificed their lives in the quest for racial equality in the USA.

Meiners, Erica R., and Therese Quinn. “Introduction: defiant memory work.” American Quarterly Vol. 71 no. 2, 2019, pp. 353–361.

The resource underscores the events that manifested racial strife between blacks and whites in the early 20^th century. It further underscores the origin of the conflict between the races and what had transpired to escalate the hatred between the blacks and the whites. The author illustrates the other attacks orchestrated by the whites to harm the blacks in the region. The role of James Weldon, a poet and activist in the fight for racial equality, is expressed. The defiant memory work shows how the events of the Red Summer affected the blacks and made them more resilient. The thought of freedom and equality, as expressed by the poets, made the blacks sacrifice their lives in a quest to fight for equality. The resource is helpful because it explains the origin of the red summer, the preceding incidences and the key contributors.

Work Cited

Balto, Simon. Occupied Territory: Policing Black Chicago from Red Summer to Black Power. UNC Press Books, 2019.

Lieberman, Robbie. “The Black and Red Scare in the Twentieth-Century United States.” The Palgrave Handbook of Anti-Communist Persecutions, 2020, pp. 225–243.

Meiners, Erica R., and Therese Quinn. “Introduction: defiant memory work.” American Quarterly Vol. 71 no. 2, 2019, pp. 353–361.

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