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Introduction
Cyber-warfare refers to the situation whereby both computers and the Internet are used to undertake warfare actions through cyberspace (Jonathan, V.1979). Cyber-warfare can also be referred to as the “cyberwar” or the “cybernetic war”. In addition, cyber warfare attacks can be grouped into several classes with some being mild and others severe. The several methods of attacks that are used in warfare include, gathering data, distributed denial of service attacks, web vandalism, and propaganda, and attacking critical infrastructure.
All over the world, many countries have been identified to develop various Internet uses as a cyber weapon against other nations. The attacks are usually targeted at the utilities, financial markets, and even government computer systems.
Cyber-warfare attacks on critical infrastructure target the most vulnerable infrastructure such as fuel, water, power, communications, commercial, and transportation. In the United States, cyber-warfare attacks on critical infrastructure have posed a high risk of national disasters if fast and resolute mitigation actions are not taken, (Janczewski, L. et al, 2007). For instance, the Sept 11 terror attack on the US raised concerns and resulted in a group of concerned scientists writing a letter to President Bush urging him to initiate measures that will prevent future cyber attacks on the infrastructure.
The scientists recommended the formation of a cyber-warfare Defense project with a modeled style similar to that of the Manhattan Project, (Ryan N, 2008). The vulnerability of the US to the cyberattacks on its critical infrastructure has continued to create the need to develop technology-oriented policy-making to minimize or completely prevent such attacks in the future. In this paper, the ways in which the threat of cyber attacks on critical infrastructure within the US has influenced technology-oriented policymaking in the last decade will be discussed.
Discussion
The United States as a nation has recognized the great threat that cyber-attacks pose to its critical infrastructure, because the possibility of conventional terrorism against the US through the computer/internet may cause damage to its vital infrastructure. This is due to the purchase of commercial operating systems together with the software applications, which lack secure shipment from the manufacturers. In 1997, the US government presented problems that arise from cyber-warfare in a government review, “Infrastructure Protection Task Force (IPTF)”. The review was put together by then-President Bill Clinton to examine the US critical infrastructure.
The efforts to form the projects to protect the US from cyber-warfare can be viewed as a major step towards the development of technology-oriented policies that take care of such threats. The problems and possible solutions to the cyber attacks on the US critical infrastructure were pointed out in the multifaceted project referred to as “The Manhattan cyber project” (MCP). The project was developed by a joint Collaboration of the IPTF (Infrastructure Task Force), government sector agencies, private sector agencies the War Room Research, LLC, and Winn Schwartau of Info war-com, (Marshall, L., 1997).
In 2001, a working group of law enforcement representatives identified the common issues that were encountered in the crime scenes. The representatives who were from the different states’ police departments later developed a manual referred to as, “The Best practices for seizing Electronic Evidence”. The project to develop the manual was facilitated by the Advisory Committee for police investigative Operations and it provided an understanding of the technical and legal factors relating to electronic storage devices seizing.
Cyber-attacks occur which are viewed as criminal activities through the use of computers and the related devices with attacks on the critical infrastructure through the use of electronic devices (computers and related devices) resulting in the integration of technology-oriented policies that allow law enforcement officers to seize, identify, investigate and prosecute the offenders, ([email protected]). Over the years of experienced cyber attacks, the United States policies have been developed to enable law enforcement officers to recognize and stop any cyber attacks on the critical infrastructure.
In the year 2000, a national plan that was aimed at protecting the US from cyberattacks was formulated. The plan was referred to as, “Defending America’s cyberspace: National plan for Information Systems protection”. This plan has been very instrumental in ensuring that technology-oriented policies promote partnerships between the private sector and the US government. The partnership is vital in creating safeguards that are vital in other sectors of the economy (public health, safety).
The plan was an attempt by the US national government to design a way through which it could protect its cyberspace. President Bill Clinton directed that the federal government develop a plan to defend the US cyberspace in Dec 2000, which was to be fully operational by May 2003. The National Plan complimented the Federal computer security and Information Resources Management Responsibilities (IRM) and it would further manage vulnerability and risk assessment which is a requirement of the OMB Circular A-130, Appendix III, “Security of Federal Automated Information Resources (A-130)”
In addition, the plan through the CIO council would assist in the development of recommended practices, which would be in accordance with the 1987 Computer Security Act. In June 2000, the US federal government targeted to complete the critical physical infrastructure protection plan through maximum-security facilitation of its cyberspace through technology-oriented policies.
Technology-oriented policies that have enabled the federal government to develop government-wide intrusion detection capability have been promoted, (Clifford D.R. 1999). Through such policies, the intrusion detection capability offers both the civilian and national defense information systems a timely warning to any cyber attack threats, attacks, or vulnerabilities. Together with the infrastructure security issues analysis through the Computer Emergency Response Teams (CERT), the US government is always in a position to get a better understanding of the threats and vulnerabilities that may be present in its information systems.
The US technology-oriented policies have recommended the use of security systems in the web browser, as a result of cyber attacks on its critical infrastructure, (Janczewski L. et al, 2007). The US-CERT (United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team) encourages the use of security in the Websites, which protects individuals or the nation from cyber-terrorism acts. A technology-oriented policy in the US such as the USA PATRIOT Act ensures the US entry-exit system of cyberspace is surveyed.
Under section 403c of this act, a fingerprint matching system serving under the National Institute of Standards and Technology’s statutory requirement was administered in June 2003 (National Institute of Standards and Technology June 2003). The Fingerprint Vendor Technology Evaluation (FpVTE) is administered in order to certify the biometric technologies that may be used in the entry-exit system in the US.
President Clinton’s endorsement of filtering software used to screen Internet material is seen as having to be a good alternative to unsuccessful communication Acts. Many states in the US have continued to propose legislation that would promote the installation of filtering software packages in computer systems. For instance, Senator John McCain has in the past introduced legislation in the US Senate, which aimed at denying funds to schools, or libraries that do not implement a blocking system for the computers that are connected to the Internet.
This move clearly indicates that the US has realized the danger of cyber threats and is trying its best to make new legislation in technology policies to prevent the attacks. The US even developed a policy that promoted consistent approaches to physical and computer security. The policy is known as “Policy Issuance Regarding Smart Cards system for Identification and credentialing of employees” which provides the guidelines on smart card-based systems use, identification, and credentialing systems. Consistency in physical and computer security approaches is vital in discouraging cyber-attacks through this system.
The development of policies that protect the US critical infrastructure continues to encourage measures that protect computer systems from attacks. These proposed measures are expected to be integrated into technology-oriented policies in the future. Efforts that have been made to protect the computer systems include the identification of 18 commercially available cybersecurity technologies by the US General Accounting office.
The technologies are used by Federal agencies to protect computer systems from cyber attacks, (Clifford D.R. 1999). For instance, Smart tokens are used to monitor the user identities and the security correlation tools in order to monitor the network devices. Another proposal that has been made to mitigate cyber attacks in the US is the consolidation of terrorist watch lists to promote sharing and integration, which aims at preventing and defending the US from attacks in a better manner. According to a report by the US general accounting offices, in April 2003 standardization and merging the federal government’s watch list structure would promote US border security through technology-oriented systems.
Assessments continue to be done to identify cybersecurity requirements. The information gathered is used to improve technology-oriented policies to make it better in protecting the US critical infrastructure against cyber attacks. Technology Assessment in relation to cybersecurity for CIP (Critical Infrastructure Protection) identifies key cybersecurity requirements in each CIP sector as well as the cybersecurity technologies to be applied. In addition, the assessment provides ways in which the cybersecurity requirements can be implemented in the present technology policy issues such as privacy and information sharing.
The President’s National strategy to secure cyberspace and the Homeland security Act of 2002 implementation has been good in combating cyber threats. This has even seen the creation of the National Cyber Security Division to increase effective results in curbing cyber threats. Finally, the US-CERT (United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team) currently ensures that the web browser’s security settings are evaluated. These measures protect against cyber-terrorism, which is a great threat to the US critical infrastructure.
Conclusion
The US has one of the strongest economies in the world, which has stimulated its great advancement in technology, especially in computer use. This has made it very vulnerable to cyber attacks, which have in the past damaged its critical infrastructure, and continues to threaten it. The US government in the past has made efforts to prevent these attacks through security measures integrated into their technology-oriented policies. This has been very instrumental in combating the attacks but will require future improvements.
References
Best practices for Seizing Electronics Evidence. A joint project of the International Association of Chiefs of police and the United States Secret Service.
Clifford D.R. 1999. Computer and Cyber Law: Cases and Materials. Carolina Academic Press Dougherty. US Developing Cyber-warfare Capabilities. World Net Daily Exclusive.
Janczewski L.J and Colarik A.M 2007. Cyber Warfare and Cyber Terrorism. IGI Global Federal Identity and Credentialing Committee Report. Web.
Jonathan V. Post, “Cybernetic war” Omni, 1979 pp 44-104 Reprinted, The Omni Book of Computers and Books Marshall, L., U.S. Government to Participate in the Manhattan Cyber Project,” Press release by Schwartz Communications. Web.
National Institute of Standards and Technology Report 2003.
Fingerprint Vendor Technology Evaluation (FpVTE) preliminary Announcement. Web.
Report on Information Technology: Terrorist Watch lists should be consolidated to promote Better Integration and sharing by US GAO, 2003. Web.
Ryan N. Manhattan Project e WEEK. 2008 Chertoff Describes Manhattan Project for Cyber-defenses.
Staten, C. L. Asymmetric Warfare, the Evolution and Devolution of Terrorism; The Coming Challenge For Emergency and National Security Forces,” published in the Journal of Counter-Terrorism and Security International, 1999 edition, Vol. 5, No. 4, Pg. 8-11. Web.
US-CERT Report. 2008. Evaluating Your Web Browser’s Security Settings. Web.
US General Accounting Office (GAO). 2004. Information Security Technologies to Secure Federal systems. Web.
US General Accounting office Report. 2004. Technology Assessment cyber security for Critical Infrastructure protection. Technology Assessment: Cyber security for Critical Infrastructure Protection.
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