Food Insecurity in Philadelphia, PA: Literature Review

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Table of Contents

Introduction
Food Insecurity in Philadelphia
Review of Food Relief Policies
Health Implications of Food Insecurity among Children
Recommendations and Discussion
Conclusion
References

Introduction

Food security is a matter of increased discussion among scholars and policymakers. Food insecurity is commonly understood as inadequate access to enough food to lead active, healthy lives (Drexel University, 2018). In 2015, the level of food insecurity in the United States varied between 12% and 17%, depending on the area (Bruening, Dinour, & Chavez, 2017). Having inadequate access to healthy nutrients may lead to decreased productivity, lower academic achievements, higher rates of chronic diseases, and mental health issues (Bruening et al., 2017).

Thus, food insecurity is a significant problem that needs to be addressed to improve US citizens’ quality of life. The present paper aims at reviewing the problem of food insecurity in Philadelphia, PA, by conducting a historical analysis of the issue, discussing the policies designed to address the issue, and overviewing the possible health implications.

Food Insecurity in Philadelphia

Currently, the problem of food insecurity in Philadelphia is growing as the national level of hunger decreases. The data on food insecurity in Philadelphia, PA, was tracked by Children’s Health Watch since 2005 (Drexel University, 2017). In 2006, the level of household food insecurity was 14%, which was in the range of the average national food insecurity level (Drexel University, 2017). During the economic recession of 2008 and 2009, the level of hunger in the city increased drastically; however, it started declining in 2010 and the following years (Drexel University, 2017). However, in 2015 and 2016, food insecurity levels started to climb up even though the national level of food security was growing (Drexel University, 2017).

As a result, in 2016, the level of food insecurity in the city was as high as 22.4%, which was outside the national average of 12%-17% (Drexel University, 2017). It is also crucial to note that the level of food insecurity among children also increased from 4.6% in 2006 to 11.8% in 2016 (Drexel University, 2017). In short, the problem’s dynamics in Philadelphia are worrying, which implies that the issue needs to be addressed in the nearest future.

Food insecurity is more likely to occur in households of minorities. The United States Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service (USDA-ERS) has been measuring the level of food insecurity among different ethnic groups since 1995 (Drexel University, 2018). The data conducted by USDA-ERS confirms that racial and ethnic disparities concerning food insecurity persisted for more than 20 years (Drexel University, 2018). In 2016, 20% of African American households and 19% of Latino households reported food insecurity in comparison with only 10% of white households (Drexel University, 2018).

Moreover, families with young children and female-headed households were more likely to report inadequate access to healthy nutrition options (Drexel University, 2018). In Philadelphia, more than 30% of minority households experienced food insecurity at some level in 2016, which is higher than the national level (Drexel University, 2018). Access to low-wage jobs was not the answer to the problem, as household food insecurity more than doubled among families with a caregiver working at least 20 hours per week between 2006 and 2016 (Drexel University, 2017). In short, the issue appears to have severe implications for minorities.

The COVID-19 pandemic had a tremendous impact on food insecurity around the US in 2020. According to Wolfson and Leung (2020), the national level of food insecurity among adults increased from 11.7% to 35% during the first months of the pandemic. The issue emerged due to the fast growth of unemployment around the country (Wolfson & Leung, 2020). In Philadelphia, the pandemic also had a significant impact on people’s ability to afford healthy food options.

According to the spokesman of Philabulance, the region’s largest food relief organization, the demand for free food boxes in the city rose by 80% since the start of the pandemic (D’Onofrio, 2020). The organization expects a drastic rise in food insecurity if the government stops providing supplemental weekly unemployment payments (D’Onofrio, 2020). Therefore, there is a high possibility that the food security in Philadelphia will continue to decrease.

In summary, Philadelphia had a historically low level of food insecurity in the city. However, in the second decade of the twenty-first century, the city experienced a significant decline in food security even though its national level was growing. The COVID-19 pandemic worsened the situation due to rising unemployment. Thus, food insecurity in Philadelphia is one of the central problems in the city that should be addressed to reduce the chance of possible negative outcomes.

Review of Food Relief Policies

The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) acknowledges the problem of food insecurity in the United States. Thus, the Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) of USDA developed a total of twenty programs designed to address the problem of food insecurity among various populations (FNS, 2021a). USDA created policies to address the needs of special populations, such as single mothers, infants, school children, and older adults (FNS, 2021a). Additionally, FNS developed educational programs for families and people working in federally funded nutrition assistance programs (FNS, 2021a). The present paper will focus on three of such programs, including the Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP), the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC).

CACFP

CACFP is a federal policy that provides reimbursement for meals and snacks in child care centers, daycare homes, and adult daycare centers to adults and children (FNS, 2021b). Moreover, the program reimburses meals served to children in afterschool care programs and emergency shelters (FNS, 2021b). Additionally, adults over 60 or living with disabilities enrolled in daycare facilities can apply for the program (FNS, 2021b). The statistics demonstrate that more than 4.2 million children and 130,000 adults receive food as a benefit of this program (FNS, 2021b). Households and organizations can receive full or partial reimbursements for meals and snacks depending on pricing, income level, and family size (FNS, 2021b). Thus, the program has proven its effectiveness in addressing food insecurity among vulnerable populations.

SNAP

SNAP is a food relief program that provides families with the money they can use to purchase healthy food. The beneficiaries of this program receive SNAP money on an Electronic Benefit Transfer (EBT) card (FNS, 2021c). This card acts like a debit card; however, it can only be used for buying food only. In order to receive SNAP benefits, households need to meet certain requirements determined by state agencies (FNS, 2021c). In Pennsylvania, households can apply for SNAP benefits if their level of income is below $1,354 for one person, $1,832 for two persons, $2,311 for three persons, and $2,790 for four persons (Department of Human Services, 2019).

Other requirements for eligibility should be checked with local representatives of the program. As a response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021, signed by President Donald J. Trump, increase the allotments to 115 percent of the June 2020 value of the Thrifty Food Plan (FNS, 2021c). Thus, the US government uses SNAP as one of the measures to address food insecurity in the country.

WIC

The WIC program is designed to help low-income pregnant, postpartum, and breastfeeding women, infants, and children up to age 5 receive access to healthy nutrition (FNS, 2013). The program provides three types of benefits, including supplemental nutritious foods, nutrition education and counseling, and screening and referrals to health, welfare, and social services (FNS, 2013). WIC is a federal grant program for which Congress allocates a specific amount of funds each year. In order to apply for the program, a person is to be determined at nutrition risk by a healthcare professional (FNS, 2013).

The food provided by the program may include infant cereal, baby foods, iron-fortified adult cereal, fruits and vegetables, vitamin C-rich fruit or vegetable juice, eggs, milk, cheese, yogurt, peanut butter, dried and canned beans/peas, canned fish, and whole wheat bread (FNS, 2013). The program also promotes breastfeeding by providing education to mothers (FNS, 2013). The program started in 1974 and proved its effectiveness throughout decades of work (FNS, 2013).

Health Implications of Food Insecurity among Children

Food insecurity is known to have significant health implications for all populations. As it was mentioned in the introduction to the present paper, food-insecure people are more likely to have chronic health, such as diabetes and hypertension (Bruening et al., 2017). Additionally, food insecurity can lead to depression, anxiety, and stress (Bruening et al., 2017). In non-senior adults, food insecurity may also lead to hyperlipidemia, worse outcomes on health outcomes, and problems with sleep (Gundersen & Ziliak, 2015). In older adults, food insecurity and marginal food security lead to decreased physical activity (Gundersen & Ziliak, 2015). However, food insecurity is the most dangerous for children.

Food insecurity among children is a matter of increased concern among scholars and practitioners. Food insecurity of mothers has tremendous implications for infants’ health. Gundersen and Ziliak (2015) report that having decreased access to healthy nutrients may lead to an increased chance of congenital disabilities and anemia in newborns. Additionally, Drennen et al. (2019) report that food insecurity may be associated with the low birth weight of children. In infants, food insecurity is associated with an increased risk of developmental problems (Drennen et al., 2019). Such problems may occur due to the lack of healthy nutrients and depression of mothers associated with food insecurity (Drennen et al., 2019). In general, infants from food-insecure households are less likely to be in a good or excellent health condition, which was confirmed by recent research.

Food insecurity was associated with anemia, cognitive problems, asthma, aggression, and anxiety in all ages of children (Gundersen & Ziliak, 2015). Moreover, food insecurity was associated with depression and suicidal intentions (Gundersen & Ziliak, 2015). Children from food-insecure households were found to be 2.5% more likely to be in poor health condition (Thomas, M., Miller, & Morrissey, 2019). Additionally, children from food-insecure households are more likely to have severe eczema, skin allergies, poor dental health, and mental problems (Thomas et al., 2019). Children from food-insecure families are also more likely to experience harsh discipline strategies, which may result in psychological issues (Johnson & Markowitz, 2018). In summary, food insecurity in children may lead to significant health issues in all ages.

Recommendations and Discussion

There are several recommendations for policies that can help to reduce food insecurity in the USA in general and in Pennsylvania in particular. First, it is crucial to ensure that offered jobs pay family-sustaining wages in the state. According to Drexel University (2017), even though job offers were abundant in Pennsylvania in 2016, food insecurity was higher than the national average. Moreover, more than 80% of families with children using SNAP benefits have at least one working adult in the family, which demonstrates that the current level of wages is low (Drexel University, 2017). Therefore, it is crucial to monitor the level of wages in the state to ensure that families can move to self-sustainability if adults work full-time.

Second, the government needs to maintain the current benefits as many people rely on them. According to Drexel University (2017), “the existing structure of SNAP is one of its key strengths, allowing it to respond when disaster strikes or need increases” (para 12). The fact that the Federal Government increased spending on SNAP twice during the pandemic, the program appears effective to authorities (FNS, 2021c). Moreover, it is crucial to continue providing supplemental weekly unemployment payments to ensure that people have sustained access to healthy nutrition options (D’Onofrio, 2020). Therefore, it is crucial to maintain the current level of support to food-insecure families, at least during the pandemic.

Third, it is recommended that FDA increases access to child nutrition programs, as food insecurity can have significant negative implications for the youth. Drexel University (2017) suggests that no child should be denied lunch at school because their parents had difficulties with applying for benefits. Parents in food-insecure families often have depression and other mental health conditions that can prevent them from applying to the programs (Gundersen & Ziliak, 2015). Thus, applications for programs like CACFP and WIC should be simplified.

Finally, it is also crucial to identify food-insecure families and educate them about food relief programs. One of the strategies for identifying such households is screening for food insecurity in healthcare organizations and schools. According to Drennen et al. (2019), systematic screening and education on food insecurity help to reduce its impact on parents and children. The present literature review demonstrates that the US has numerous federal food relief programs that can benefit all types of populations.

Conclusion

Food insecurity is a significant problem in all parts of the US. Philadelphia’s level of food insecurity is higher than the national average, which is alarming. Even though there are numerous federal food relief programs, such as CACFP, SNAP, and WIC, they are not enough to reduce food insecurity in the city as it continues to grow. Inadequate access to healthy nutrition leads to severe health complications in all populations; however, children are affected the most. Therefore, carefully designed strategies are needed to solve the problem of food insecurity in Philadelphia. The suggestions provided in the present paper can help to resolve the problem of food insecurity on the state and on the national level.

References

Bruening, M., Dinour, L. M., & Chavez, J. B. R. (2017). Food insecurity and emotional health in the USA: a systematic narrative review of longitudinal research. Public Health Nutrition, 20(17), 3200-3208.

Department of Human Services. (2019). SNAP income limits. Web.

Drennen, C. R., Coleman, S. M., de Cuba, S. E., Frank, D. A., Chilton, M., Cook, J. T.,… & Black, M. M. (2019). Food insecurity, health, and development in children under age four years. Pediatrics, 144(4).

Drexel University. (2017). Philadelphia hunger increases. Web.

Drexel University. (2018). From disparities to discrimination: Getting at the roots of food insecurity. Web.

D’Onofrio, M. (2020). In Philly, food insecurity expected to worsen as coronavirus pandemic drags on. Pennsylvania Capital Star. Web.

Faught, E. L., Williams, P. L., Willows, N. D., Asbridge, M., & Veugelers, P. J. (2017). The association between food insecurity and academic achievement in Canadian school-aged children. Public health nutrition, 20(15), 2778-2785.

Food and Nutrition Service. (2021a). FNS nutrition programs. Web.

Food and Nutrition Service. (2021b). Child and Adult Care Food Program. Web.

Food and Nutrition Service. (2021c). Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP). Web.

Food and Nutrition Service. (2013). About WIC. Web.

Gundersen, C., & Ziliak, J. P. (2015). Food insecurity and health outcomes. Health affairs, 34(11), 1830-1839.

Johnson, A. D., & Markowitz, A. J. (2018). Food insecurity and family well-being outcomes among households with young children. The Journal of pediatrics, 196, 275-282.

Thomas, M. M., Miller, D. P., & Morrissey, T. W. (2019). Food insecurity and child health. Pediatrics, 144(4), 1-16.

Wolfson, J. A., & Leung, C. W. (2020). Food insecurity and COVID-19: Disparities in early effects for US adults. Nutrients, 12(6), 1648-1661.

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