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This paper will argue that tattoos in modern society are a form of art used to represent identity and self-expression or to symbolize personal experiences and growth. I will begin with a review of relevant literature discussing the history of tattoos, with an emphasis on how the art form was used and the significance of them in ancient times. I will discuss how tattoos were used in a cultural context and the negative perceptions of tattoos that followed as a result of these historical and cultural uses of tattoos. I will look at how the art form has evolved from its primitive uses and the reasoning behind why people get tattooed in modern society. Following that, an analysis of the use and significance of tattoos acquired by women specifically, concentrating on two primary areas where tattoos are used as a means of self-expression, empowerment, and therapeutic healing.
Introduction
Tattooing has a long and extensive history. Tattoos are thought to have been around for over five thousand years and were used by almost every human culture. In many cultures, tattoos can signify a rite of passage, symbolize dedication and membership in a tribe, or be seen as a symbol of prestige and beauty. That said, some individuals still have negative stereotypes about tattoos and tattooed individuals, culturally associating them with criminals, convicts, low-class status, and sexual promiscuity. I will begin by examining the progression of tattoos from antiquity to the present, focusing on the diverse cultures’ uses and motivations for tattooing.
I will discuss how tattoos came to have such a negative connotation and how they continue to persist in modern society. Modern-day uses of tattoos have evolved into symbolic markers of identity and expression, to symbolize personal experiences, or overcome insecurities and trauma. To support this argument I will refer to Stanislava Pinchuk’s exhibition ‘Our bodies, our voices, our marks,’ which examines tattooing as a form of self-expression, identity, culture, and art form. Additionally, I will look at Alan Powdrills study on the increasing number of tattoos in modern society and the motivations for acquiring them.
My final chapter will focus on women and tattoos, with an emphasis on how tattoos may be used to reclaim their bodies from victimization and objectification, as well as to empower and reinvent their identities. Discussing how tattoos can help people heal after a traumatic experience such as sexual assault, and the impact tattoos can have on people who have survived breast cancer resulting in a mastectomy. Referring to Jeniffer Kempton Survivors Ink initiative, which involves interviewing people and covering tattoos they had obtained after being sex trafficked. In addition, I will review Eshcler et al.’s study on the impact tattoos can have on cancer patients who have endured trauma as a result of their battle with cancer, to further support my argument. Tattooing has been practiced in practically every human culture throughout history, as stated by anthropological artifacts and historical writings. In 1991, what was considered a modern corpse encased in ice following a mountaineering accident, was discovered by two German hikers in the Alps. The mummified body was salvaged, and what they uncovered was quite the opposite of modern. The mummy, Otzi, underwent an examination and on his skin, sixty-one tattoos were found, which had been incredibly preserved by the glacial climate for 5300 years(Gannon, 2019). Markings such as lines and crosses were tattooed on his torso, making this the world’s oldest known evidence of tattooing. Many of his tattoos were on the joints of his knees, ankles, and spine (South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology, 2016).
Traditional acupuncture points, notably those used to alleviate back and stomach discomfort, feature markings similar to those found on Otzi’s body. Furthermore, forensic examinations revealed that Otzi had arthritis in these areas, and indications of whipworm eggs in his stomach, known to cause gastrointestinal pain (Barton, 2016). Acupuncture or ceremonial healing rituals, and being part of a religious belief system have all been proposed as theories to explain Otzi’s tattoos. As a result, Otzi’s tattoos had therapeutic and sacred significance(Krutak and Deter-Wolf, 2018).
Before the discovery of Otzi, the oldest conclusive evidence of tattoos came from several Egyptian female mummies dating from around 4000 years ago when the great pyramids were built( Museum, 2018). Tattoos seemed to be an exclusively female practice in ancient Egypt, and as a result, male excavators often disregarded female mummies with tattoos, assuming the women were of ‘dubious status,’ described as dancing girls in certain cases(Graves-Brown, 2022).
Despite this, the mummies were laid to rest in Deir el-Bihari, an area associated with royals and noble burials. As revealed by her burial inscriptions, one of the women described as possibly a royal concubine, was a high-status priestess named Amunet(Watson, 2016).
It has long been considered that the tattoos seen on the mummies were signs of prostitutes or were intended to protect women against sexually transmitted diseases(Graves-Brown, 2022).
Although archaeologist Anne Austin discovered several tattoos, including hieroglyphs, and power symbols used in ancient Egyptian writing, which led experts to believe she was a high-status woman, probably a sorceress( Museum, 2018). A tattoo of an eye on one women’s neck was depicted, an ancient Egyptian emblem for protection, additionally sporting a tattoo of a seated baboon on each side of her neck. These findings challenged the notion that tattoos were a protective talisman associated with fertility and motherhood(A. Austin et C. Gobeil,2017).
Tattooing may have been around far earlier and more prevalent than the mummies would have us believe based on indirect archaeological evidence such as statuettes with etched designs which are depicted with needles and clay discs. There was evidence of medical tattooing and scarification that did not appear to be decorative or aesthetic and was hypothesized that they acted as a treatment for pelvic peritonitis, Daniel Fouquet discovered this in 1898 (Angel, 2012). Tattoos were once used as a method of treatment for illnesses or even as a kind of branding for slaves and criminals before evolving into a form of expression, identity, and artwork. Influenced by colonialism and beliefs of European supremacy, people with tattoos were usually associated with deviance, and the tattoos themselves were considered trashy. During this time, tattoos were mostly employed to further discriminate against people from ‘Newly found’ nations (Hawn, 2021).
Tattoos were frequently literal emblems on stigmas, the word ‘sigma,’ was even used to describe tattoos in Latin. The word stigmatize was used to characterize a marked slave, using phrases such as stigmatic (tattooed), raptor (written upon), and inscription (inscribed). For a long time tattoos have been used as a means to identify people and, unfortunately, for branding. Many slaves who attempted to flee had the word fugitive or FUG, tattooed across their faces(Tyler, 2020). The names of the crime were frequently tattooed across their face, with slogans such as ‘thief’, or ‘stop me, I’m a runaway’ inscribed on their flesh. Throughout the Roman Empire periods, Penal tattooing was intentionally visible, they were used to punish the wearer for offenses, to humiliate and shame them, and to identify individuals if they were a slave. This lasted until AD787 when emperor Constantine declared all tattoos as ‘pagan,’ banning the use of tattoos(Silver, 2020). However, the most well-known case of involuntary tattooing originates from the Holocaust. The prisoners at the Auschwitz concentration camp were tattooed with serial numbers, used to identify them in the event of escape or death. The total amount of serial numbers assigned to convicts is estimated to be 400,000(Raughty, 2016). The contemporary perception of tattoos as symbolic markers of humiliation and deviance emerged from these early usages of tattoos. Later, missionaries imposed Christian values that despise the tattooing practice, calling it ‘unholy’ to disfigure or alter the human body, ‘gods likeness,’ by permanently marking the body(Belden, 2020).
Tattooing was abolished in Europe and other Christian nations, other civilizations, such as Asia, believed that tattoos were mostly worn by criminals and therefore avoided the practice.
Western civilization was re-introduced to tattooing, in 1770, during Captain James Cook’s second voyage to Tahiti, where he came across individuals with tattooed bodies and faces. Traditional moko tattoos were obtained by the indigenous Maori people and were used to indicate rank, cultural heritage, skill, pain endurance, or that an individual had attained marriageable age (Fennel and Ross, 2020). If a person with a moko facial tattoo died, their head would be preserved and used as either a trophy of war, to negotiate peace treaties, or to commemorate a loved one’s life. The trafficking of Maori tattooed heads covered in moko tattoos is what began the negative European influence on the Maori population(Royal Museums Greenwich, 2022).
White linen was traded for the head of a teenage boy, by Captain James cooks botanist, Joseph Banks. It was then taken back as a souvenir trophy, and a grim fascination erupted. There was a high demand for tattooed heads driven by, which caused a war between the different tribes. This demand caused tribes to steal each other’s heads, with some even murdering and decapitating their slaves and tattooing their heads once deceased to sell them. When the Treaty of Waitangi was signed in 1840, these mokomokai exchanges came to an end. The American Museum of Natural History houses thirty severed, tattooed heads of men from the Maori tribe(Serena, 2020).
Additionally, during this time many Maori natives were kidnapped or misled into returning to Europe with these explorers. They were frequently shown before the royal court or displayed as ‘curiosities’ to be gawked at, especially if they had tattoos covering their bodies. Many of these are sad stories of white European exploitation, and many of them end in death as a result of illnesses that their immune systems couldn’t handle (Fennel and Ross, 2020). Joely, a slave from the Miangas islands, was purchased by William Damper, also a member of Captain James cooks voyage. The ‘painted prince,’ Jeoly, was put on display across Europe. Dampier characterized his tattoos as a huge diversity of lines, flourishes, checkered work, etc. that covered the vast majority of his body(Mckay and Eldridge, 2020). The methods of tattooing are done in a variety of ways, but all of them entail puncturing the skin to insert a pigment into it where the ink will remain trapped while the body heals the wound( Oxford Advanced Dictionary, 2022). Before the invention of modern-day tattoo machines, many cultures created tattooing instruments by making ‘needles’ out of shell or bone and making repetitive puncture dots densely packed to create lines and patterns, a practice known as stick and poke. Other cultures used different methods, making a series of slashes in the skin first and would then apply the ink directly to the wound. Ancient Egyptians used needles made of bronze, that varied in size to create both basic and intricate designs (Roe, 2005).
As they did not have ink, the needles would be dipped in an alternative such as ash, charcoal, or soot that had previously been combined with breast milk or oil (Lineberry, 2007). Candlenut is traditionally used to make Samoan tattoo ink, which is left to burn on a fire. Soot is then collected from the burning nut and blended with sugar and water(The National Park of American Samoa, 2019).
Tattooing had a ferocious reputation among men from Austronesian civilizations who participated in headhunting. After each successful kill and return of their enemy’s head, that a warrior had gained in combat, the Dayak people were granted a tattoo. They were used to indicate a tribesman’s skill, expertise in an activity, and success; the more heads they collected, the higher their rank; and unless a man retrieved an enemy’s head, he was forbidden to marry(Heaphy, 2021).
Tattoos were also extensively employed among tribe members to initiate rites of passage into adulthood and successful hunting.
The picture, placement, and quantity of tattoos an individual would acquire all have their own meanings and shouldn’t be done carelessly. Facial tattoos were a sign of prestige, skills, and beauty among the Austronesian women, and were frequently used to symbolize that the girl had attained marriageable age or was ready to carry a child(Belden, 2020).
Native Americans, such as the Yurok, Yuma, and Cree, used tattooing to signify their tribal affiliation. Each Native American tribe has its own set of cultural peculiarities regarding tattoos; the Cree males got tattoos covering them from head to toe, yet their wives were not allowed to wear more than three or four lines on their faces especially if they were married (Guzman, 2013). The Yurok had more women tattooed than men, and their age was depicted through lines tattooed on their chin roughly every five years(DeMello, 2014).
The Yuma tribe used tattoos to signify status and community. Additionally, tattoos decorated warriors in an attempt to make them appear more menacing. They also believed that anyone who did not have tattoos would be refused admission to the afterlife (Belden, 2020).
In many of these indigenous societies, tattoos were performed by experts who were initiated or apprenticed into their position and had to learn tattoo rituals to perform. Occasionally, the practice of tattooing was reserved for shamans, healers, and priestesses in the community(Krutak, 2014).
Tattooing is thought to have originated in Japan during the Palaeolithic period. Originally, tattooing was done for spiritual or decorative purposes in Japan. The indigenous Ainu and Ryuku tribes of Japan practiced tattooing for similar reasons. Tattooing was part of the religion of the Ainu people and was commonly practiced mostly by women(Krutak, 2013). The women could only acquire facial tattoos which were said to be passed down from the gods and would enhance their beauty. While most importantly protecting them from evil spirits. The eye-catching lip tattoos are first obtained at a young age and each year a tattoo is added until the girls had matured. Signifying that they were ready to marry, and after marriage, the women would tattoo their arms instead(The Smiling Tattoos of the Ainu Women, 2020).
Tattooing among the Ryukyu people was also mainly practiced by women, except rather than facial tattoos, the women would tattoo their hands to signify the transition from child to adult. Secondly, tattoos were used to indicate social class, with women from the upper class adorning themselves in intricate designs that began at their hands traveling up their arms. Because the ornate tattoos were considered to ward off evil, ensure safety, bring happiness, and function as signifiers of feminine authority, they were valued higher than wealth, their partners, or even life itself(Kanasa, 2021). When the Japanese government overthrew the Ryuku, their traditional tattooing practice was outlawed. The tattoos became a symbol of shame after being mocked and ostracised by their fellow Japanese workers after having to emigrate from their homeland. During the Edo Period, Japan’s government expanded its reach to different parts of the county, prohibiting tattooing in various areas as a way to subjugate and incorporate the local cultures into their own. Tattooing at this point was used as a way to mark those who had committed crimes, this commenced the association between tattoos and criminals(Oskow, 2021).
Unfortunately, as those cultures disappear, their tattoo culture fades with them. Some people still use traditional tattooing methods, but it’s anticipated that in the not-too-distant future, the only proof of its presence will be in museums or history books. As time passed, the perceptions of tattoos changed, with tattoos even being banned to suppress minority cultures. Japan has prohibited people with tattoos from entering certain places as it thought their art may be insulting for other people to see(Meier, 2020).
Tattoos themselves, and by extension tattooed people, have been stigmatized and discriminated against for millennia, with the ink on their skin being culturally connected with criminality and deviance. Tattoos are often regarded as an important element of gang and mafia culture. Specific images and slogans are used to show allegiance and commitment to specific groups, similar to prison tattoos (TSU, 2022). The Almighty Latin Kings Nation, a Hispanic gang situated in Chicago, has the letters ‘ALKN’ tattooed on their bodies.
The five-pointed crown is their most renowned symbol; the number five represents the five beliefs of the group; obedience, sacrifice, honor, love, and righteousness (Kleyman, 2020).
Tattoos have been associated with marginalized subcultures and social outcast groups such as bikers and convicts since the 1960s and 1970s, which has contributed to the preconceptions of people with tattoos. Inmates in many prisons today continue to tattoo themselves using whatever materials they can get their hands on in jail. Tattoos remain prohibited in China, this was influenced greatly by the association between criminals and tattoos
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