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This essay presents a summary of the review of foreign and local related literature and studies. The variables that are discussed in this essay include physical fitness as viewed by educators and researchers. To collect information on each of these topics, the researcher used educational research databases and journal databases with keyword searches including “fitness performance,” “physical fitness,” “physical activity,” and “physical fitness test.” This essay also includes a review of information on health-related fitness; and skill-related fitness. Furthermore, this essay also contains a review of related foreign a local pieces of literature and studies.
Fitness performance is extremely beneficial to health; it has several health-related benefits for individuals. There has been much interest in studies on the potential benefits of physical activity for the development of cognitive abilities over the last several years, strongly recommending physical activity as an effective instrument for building psychological well-being, in the provisions of CMO 59, series of 1996 for the General Education, CMO 54, series of 2007 for the Professional Education courses and CMO 23, series of 2011 for the Bachelor of Physical Education. It allows maximum opportunity for students to pursue various combinations of courses in teaching, coaching, programming, and administration, and within their particular areas of interest.
Physical fitness is vital for good health and active life. The total development of an individual should be ranked in terms of physical, mental, emotional, social, and health through a broad physical fitness program. The students can only function at the uttermost of their performance when the body is vigorous and durable. Thus, the students need to measure and evaluate their physical fitness status for their benefit and their improvement.
A study conducted by R. Giron (2017) determines and analyzes the physical fitness status of students in physical education. Two hundred students of PE classes were selected in his study the physical fitness status of the participants was generally “impressive” based on the CHED Norm of Physical Fitness. The average set by the groups of students was generally equivalent to or higher than the CHED standards. This means that the PE students could come across or even surpass CHED standards.
On one hand, teachers are presently facing the difficulty of competencies as to how they must be taught in the 12th century to meet the standard in teaching physical education. Every teacher has to develop and focus on the competencies or attributes of an educational system for them to achieve a high degree, A Physical Fitness Test is a necessary activity in the physical education program it gives information about the fitness status of learners. It serves as a guide to determine the possible P.E. activities suited to learners’ needs to develop and expand their fitness level.
On the other hand (Erisen, 2014) as cited by Tan (2018) not only meeting the standards but to teaching beyond the standards and more deeply to meet the goal of educating both teacher quality and significant student learning that hints at a healthy enhancing lifestyle (Ward, 2013). The core of physical education is to develop competencies, skills, and knowledge in body movement. Hence, the teacher competencies are measured based on the skills of students being evaluated such as measuring how far, how fast, or how many skills the student can perform. (Dumdumaya, 2016) stressed that highly qualified and competent teachers are more likely to produce and develop highly skilled students.
State-mandated academic achievement testing has had the unintended consequence of reducing opportunities for children to be physically active during the school day and beyond. (Maher, 2016). In addition to shifting time in school away from physical education to allow for more time on academic subjects, some children are withheld from physical education classes or recess to participate in remedial or enriched learning experiences designed to increase academic performance. Durst, (2014). Physical activity directly affects the cognitive processes – excitation and increased secretion of neurons increase the child’s confidence and affect his/her mental activity in physical education subject (Trudeau & Shephard, 2010).
Looking for ways to increase the effectiveness of physical education in college, some authors prefer sports-oriented physical education (Lubysheva 2012; Gråstén, 2015; Ulstad, 2016.). Conversion-like diffusion of Botagariyev, (2016) sports culture elements into the physical education promotes physical training of learners. This change in the school physical education methodology results in the improvement of physical fitness indicators, which is appropriate for the sports training level (Capel, 2016; Gordiyash, 2018).
Yet little evidence supports the notion that more time allocated to the subject matter will translate into better test scores. Indeed, 11 of 14 correlational studies of physical activity during the school day prove a positive relationship to physical performance (Rasberry et al., 2017). Overall, a rapidly growing body of work suggests that time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to a better mind (Hillman et al., 2018).
Basch (2010) conducted a comprehensive review of how youths’ health and health gaps influence physical performance and learning. The author’s report draws on empirical proof suggesting that education reform will be ineffective unless learner’s health is made a priority. Basch concludes that schools may be the only place where health imbalances can be addressed and that, if learner’s basic health needs are not met, they will struggle to learn regardless of the usefulness of the instructional tools used. More recently, Efrat (2011) conducted a review of physical activity, fitness, and physical performance to examine the reaching gap. He discovered that positive relationships between physical activity and physical fitness tests in physical education performance have been found among students (Chih and Chen, 2011).
Physical fitness levels have a direct correlation with obesity, higher body mass index, and a strong correlation to health risks in adult life such as heart disease, Type II diabetes, musculoskeletal difficulties, high blood pressure, and cancer (Corbin & Pangrazi, 2018; U.S. Surgeon General, 2016; Philanthropic, 2017). Research has shown that high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol can be lowered in learners with sports participation, training, and regular physical activity, which can lead to health benefits as adults (Hager, Tucker, & Seljaas, 2011). A high percentage of body fat can contribute to psychosocial risks, cardiovascular risks, liver disease, asthma, sleep apnea, and Type II diabetes among children and adolescents (Datar & Strum, 2014; Dietz, 2018; Luder, Melnik, & Dimaio, 2018; Mallory, Fiser, & Jackson, 2019; Swartz & Puhl, 2015; U.S. Department, 2017). Once a person is overweight or obese, physical activity is less enjoyable and it is more difficult. Physical inactivity is a well-known cause of overweight and obesity in children, adolescents, and adults (Welk & Blair, 2018).
Health-related physical fitness includes cardio-respiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, body composition, and flexibility (Haapala et al., 2014) these characteristics are often referred to as health-related components (Contreras et al., 2018), and are associated with disease prevention and health promotion.
Several studies have drawn attention to increases in physical inactive (Santana, 2016) and declines in aerobic fitness (Tomkinson et al., 2013) in school children. The implications of decreasing fitness levels in children are considerable. Children are losing the metabolic effects of fitness that might protect them from excessive weight gain as well as other metabolic ill-health risk factors (Stratton et al., 2017). The risks of poor fitness and obesity are cumulative and may be carried from childhood to adulthood (Eriksson et al., 2003). This situation is extremely worrying for future public health. Given that fitness is an important component of metabolic health (Eisenmann et al., 2015) and a strong independent predictor of premature death (Blair et al., 2016), examining the fitness levels of children could be useful for stimulating interventions to improve fitness among children. Physical fitness is not just a help to sports and physical education, it is also a major factor in leading a happier and fuller life (Rudolf et al., 2001; Grund et al., 2011). For the individual child, being fit can help to develop a positive attitude enabling the child to achieve a self-awareness of their physical state and thus become more motivated to maintain or improve their fitness (Wright et al., 2017).
Controversy has arisen as to what the components of physical fitness are, and this led to the grouping of physical fitness into health-related fitness and skill-related physical fitness. Health-related fitness focuses mainly on the optimum health of the individual. The five major components of health-related fitness are cardiorespiratory endurance, body composition, muscular strength, muscular endurance, and flexibility.
Daily physical activity in general has been declining over the last few decades. Children and adults alike are spending less time outdoors working and playing, and more time indoors viewing television and playing video games. The movement to a more sedentary life is the result of business and industry’s progression away from agriculture, and innovations in technology. This development to a more inactive lifestyle is no exception in schools as physical education increased practical accountability and improved the physical education programs, as well as extracurricular sports offerings in the public schools. Many students once received much of their physical activity in conjunction with their school. Currently, many of those opportunities are unavailable, and many students do not take the initiative to participate in physical activity on their own.
Skill-related physical fitness concepts are an important part of an individual development. Not only are they important for the total health of the future adult, but they also serve as key determinants in athletic success. However, many physical educators and coaches say it the important to determine whether any teaching or coaching instruction is improving skill-related health concepts. According to Hilgers (2016), “an estimated 41 million teenagers are playing competitive sports” In nearly every sport there has been a significant increase in the past 10 to 20 years. With this particular increase in sports and athletic competition, many parents are interested in helping their child become an elite athlete and experience success in a specific sport. However, although a focus on one sport is common, this may not be the best method for evolving an elite athlete. Instead, research recommends that the best development is acquired through participation in a diversity of sports during early adolescence where an emphasis is on enjoyment as a key component (Côtê, 1999) as cited by (Rosalejos, 2018). Balyi and Hamilton (2014) report that “scientific research has determined that it takes 8 to 12 years of working out for a capable player/athlete to reach elite levels. This is called the 10-year or 10,000-hour rule and translates to more than three hours of exercise every day for 10 years”. Athletes familiar with these findings may attempt to begin intentionally practicing as early as possible believing that practicing sooner will equal an earlier, best-level ability. Unfortunately, such actions fail to consider factors such as inspiration, burnout, or other personal interests.
According to the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE), physical educators should be trying to impart performances in their students that will promote life-long physical activity which will help fight the obesity rampant. One way that NASPE suggests that physical educators assess students’ skills-related physical fitness test levels and work to improve those skill levels. If students can become more skilled at specific sports then they will be more inclined to participate in physical activity outside of class time (Mason, 2013). Balyi and Hamilton (2014) suggest certain “windows of opportunity” that children possess at certain age levels. The first window is one of “accelerated adaptation to speed” which occurs in girls and boys between the ages of 6-8 and 7-9 respectively. This is the optimal time for them to develop agility, quickness, and change of direction which applies to many sports and activities. A second window of opportunity occurs during the preadolescent years that highlight speed and explosive strength, or power (Lloyd, 2012). These windows of opportunity are very crucial times for children to develop these physical skills. Lloyd and Oliver (2012) point out that not utilizing these critical opportunities may limit the development of the athlete and may lead to a decreased full potential.
To address the goals of NASPE and develop specific skills that will ultimately reduce obesity, the long-term athlete development (LTAD) model should be encouraged (Mason,2009). Long-term athlete development breaks down a person’s lifespan into six categories and specifies how, what, and when to train/develop in those particular stages. The present article focuses on the early levels of development and training, such that could be found in an elementary physical education class setting. These stages of development should span grades one through six and focus on skill-related concepts.
Skill-related health concepts are the underlying skills that are needed in sports competitions and include speed, agility, power, coordination, and reaction time. Skills such as these are not only important for use in sports, but they are also very beneficial in everyday life. Helping students feel more confident in playing a variety of recreational sports will in turn make them more likely to be physically active (Mason, 2019). Many adults are approached with the opportunity to participate in recreational activities, and if they had already developed these skills they would be much more likely to participate and enjoy the activity (Balyi, 2014). These skills-related components provide a foundation of basic movement principles.
Physical Education teachers must utilize these so-called “windows of opportunity” if their students are to develop these skills-related fitness components that can be used throughout their lives to help them enjoy different types of physical activity through competitive and recreational sports.
Maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max), the maximum rate at which oxygen can be consumed, is a commonly used measure of cardiorespiratory (or aerobic) fitness. It is also called maximal oxygen uptake or aerobic capacity and indicates the maximum capacity of a single body to transport oxygen during exercise. VO2 max is expressed in terms of milliliters of oxygen consumed per kilogram of body weight per minute. Various predictive tests have been devised to evaluate aerobic fitness, which includes performance-related measures, such as the progressive shuttle test and the Cooper 12-minute walk/run test. The conclusion has been reported to be the best predictor of VO2 max.
VO2 max is also known to be a strong and independent predictor of cardiovascular disease and death, providing reproducible documents. A longitudinal study by Grant et al. (2014) indicated that VO2 max is one of only three factors, excluding age and co-morbidity, able to predict future reliance in the elderly. VO2max has been widely used as a predictor of survival and performance in a variety of clinical and athletic populations. Conventional methods of measuring physical fitness, such as VO2 max, are expensive, time-consuming, and require specialized methods. Although many studies use a memory-based survey as an alternative pointer of fitness, recall bias is a known complication.
Knowledge of resting metabolic rate (RMR) is important in clinical applications for suitable dietary support and determining caloric needs for energy balance and weight management. For measurements of RMR to be optimally useful, healthcare experts need to have confidence in the accuracy of the measurement and knowledge of the variability in repeated measures. Regardless of whether measured RMR is being used in clinical or nonclinical situations, healthcare professionals must be aware of the inherent variability in repeated tests to allow for appropriate interpretation and application. This is becoming increasingly important as technological advances make measurements more accessible. Thus, measurement conditions are likely to deviate from the current standard methods. Specifically, measurements may be scheduled throughout the day. It is important to understand how measurements taken throughout the day vary and to quantify the differences in metabolic rate measured under less stringent conditions.
The professional literature and reports from government organizations have demonstrated an interest in physical activity, the consequences of obesity, and trends in fitness testing regarding learners. The connection between body composition, especially body fat percentage, and physical fitness levels of learners has not been examined in detail. Studies concerning the relationship between physical fitness and performance are few; therefore, more research is needed.
Measuring student fitness levels on various components such as aerobic capacity, body composition, flexibility, and muscular strength and endurance is valuable, as fitness testing helps students and teachers understand the benefits of preserving a healthy and active lifestyle. The quantity data is also important as one considers the negative effects of excess weight and body fat that can occur in early adulthood. Fitness report cards can serve as an informational tool for students, parents, and physical educators to discuss how to integrate physical activity into everyday life. As students accept accountability for personal health and become fundamentally motivated to be physically active, the impact can be transferred to parents and siblings to adopt a healthy family lifestyle as a whole.
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