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Introduction
The Darfur genocide is one of the Sudans most remarkable conflicts. The genocide led to a massive loss of life. Apart from this, several people remained displaced from their native lands. The genocide caused a severe disruption in the settlement patterns. There are detrimental impacts of the war on the humanitarian situation.
There was an evident intervention of the humanitarian organizations during the war (Varma, 2012). This was evident, particularly, with agencies such as the United Nations. Most people indicate the presence of natural resource as the fundamental reason for these conflicts. Generally, oil as natural resource holds significant value. Most genocides and civil conflicts within African nations often emanate from the struggle over this resource.
There are other significant natural resources with the capacity to cause remarkable level of conflicts. This research paper analyzes the critical issues behind the Darfur genocide. The paper highlights the basic research questions. It seeks to examine the various causes and perpetrators of the Darfur genocide. Apart from this, the paper analyzes the various consequences of the genocide.
The Darfur Area
People have diverse sentiments on the issue of Darfur. Evidently, many investigations on the causes and impacts of this genocide are eminent. Most of these studies are based on the socio-political and economic impacts. However, it is important to note the disparity of ideas about the development and cause of the war.
This is the basis of this research paper. In Africa, Sudan remains as the biggest nation. This is by its expansive geographic extent. Its strategic location on the end of a desert is critical. Perhaps, this explains why the nation is endowed with the oil (Arabie, 2012). To emphasize on its importance and sincere economic value, oil is widely termed by most people as the black gold (Totten, 2011).
It is important to review the significance and geographical placement of the Darfur area. Foremost, Darfur is located in a potentially drought-prone area. This is approximately the exact orientation of the Western Sudan. Comparably, this area is approximately equal to the geographical extent of Texas. The population of the area remained considerably large and thriving. Indicatively, this was before the period of the start of the Darfur genocide. In 20003, the collective population stemmed up to about six million numbers of occupants.
This was notably before the beginning of the renowned war in 2003 (Totten, 2011). A review of the United Nations population census depicts significant reductions in the total number of present occupants. Observably, these reductions might be due to a significant majority of factors or elements. For instance, it is important to note the number of death cases and limitations due to persistent emigrations.
These were largely observable during the period of the Darfur genocide. Observably, subsistence farming forms the basic economic activity within this area. Alternatively, there are other Darfur occupants involved in the practice of nomadic herding. It is vital to scrutinize the level of ethnic composition within this area. In fact, according to most investigations, the mixed ethnic composition of the area was a contributory factor.
Particularly, this relates to the development of the war within the area (Levy, 2009). A critical investigation indicates the presence of a wide variety of tribal composition within the area. It is observable that the area has approximately 80 ethnic varieties. There is an eminent history of a harmonious coexistence amongst these groups. There are some of the notable domestic dialects within these areas of Darfur. Some of these include the Arabic, Fur as well as the Massalit.
The Emergence of the Darfur Genocide
It is important to examine the development and evolution of this genocide. From this analysis, the research is able to elicit some of the vital factors of the war. Analytically, the beginning of this genocide dates back to the spring of 2003. This era is marked with significant occurrences in the history of the greater Sudan as a nation. There was an evident establishment of two significant rebel movements during this time.
This included the Darfuri rebel movements, otherwise termed as the Sudan Liberation Movement, (SLM). The other important rebel group was the Justice and Equality Movement, (JEM) (Reeves, 2005). An interview of most personalities concerning the emergence of the genocide is important.
Indicatively, most individuals indicated that the two rebellious movements bear the obligation of starting the massive genocide. This view is also widely held by most government sources and agencies. There are notable intrinsic perceptions and convictions held by the two rebellious movements during this time. One of these perceptions included the historic injustices propagated by the government. The rebellious movements launched attacks on the statutory military activities and formations (Reynolds, Reynolds & Saunders, 2009).
Evidently, this attack formed part of an advocacy to fight against these observable discriminations. Up to the present state, several personalities still reiterate some of the historic socio-political and economic injustices that the propagated by the incumbent government during that time. The engagement of the Sudanese government in important negations with these movements came into foreplay. These processes were undertaken within a period that spanned three decades.
Astonishingly, the three decades marked the entire duration in which the genocide lasted. Indeed, the severity and impacts of one of the longest genocides remain haunting (Byrne, 2007). Generally, most Sudanese citizens exist all over the countries of the world. According to some reliable sources, certain average states within the East Central and Sub-Saharan Africa formed the appropriate niche for these Sudanese.
Some of the nations that presently harbor a significant population or number of Sudanese refugees are notable. These include Kenya and Uganda. However, there are other notable global destinations with a significant number of Sudanese refugees. It is important to examine the methodologies applied by the government to target some of these militia movements within the Darfur area. For instance, it is obvious that through systemized military attacks supported by the governments military forces, many targeted missions were achievable.
The action of various militias such as the janjaweed became prominent within the Darfur area (Bellamy, 2010). Indicatively, the focus and concentration of the Sudanese forces was eminent. These groups specifically targeted the prominent ethnic diversities within the marked areas or regions.
Majorly, they targeted the ethnic factions from which all the rebels obtained significant support. The reports from various humanitarian organizations on the Darfur situation during this time are shocking. Accordingly, these astonishing reports also streamed from the national, regional and international media sources. The recognition and response to the extensive humanitarian crisis in Sudan by most international development organizations was critical.
The recognition and response to the extensive humanitarian crisis in Sudan by most international development partners was appropriate. From the Darfurs situation, one can easily note the complexities associated with conflicts and civilian wars. Most peace and conflict resolution experts reiterated the significance of involvement of the international community in peace building in Sudan. The genocide had a remarkable number of civilian casualties (Grzyb, 2009).
An analysis of the general situations during the process of conflict reveals appalling humanitarian conditions. The genocide led to the development of poor environmental health situations. Most victims indicate that they lacked adequate access to basic social amenities. The several casualties lacked access to critical health infrastructure. Apart from this, there was an eminent reduction in the basic food supplies.
The genocide led to the development of a complex system of inadequacy in the various enabling factors. There are diverse media reports on the issue of Darfur genocide.
For instance, there are indications that approximately 400 villages recorded severe attacks and destructions from during the process (Reeves, 2005). These villages underwent complete destruction. Consequently, several millions of the occupants and civilians suffered forceful evictions and untimely emigrations. Perhaps, this explains why most Sudanese refugees and other emigrants lack their social and family ties.
The emergent and untimely disruptions in the settlement patterns led to the rise in the number of unplanned evictions. A significant humanitarian crisis emerged from the extensive dislocation of the civilians. These included severe direct attacks. In addition, the living conditions deteriorated in a remarkable manner. Several experts approximate the extent of humanitarian disruption during this period.
Indicatively, approximately 300,000 individuals passed on because of the genocide. Particularly, this statistic relate to the period of 2003 to 2005 (Reynolds, Reynolds & Saunders, 2009). These were the major high peak periods of the genocide in Sudan. The genocide declaration made by President George W. Bush regarding the state of Darfur was important. This declaration was eminent in 2004. Indeed, this marked a turning point in the developments and occurrences in the processes of war.
Ideally, it is notable that the declaration led to the start of initiation and engagement in the international humanitarian intervention in Sudan. However, the interventions from most international societies, unions and other nations had insignificant impacts on the genocide. Notably, the condition worsened despite these noble interventions. The violence was still persistent. In the process, the number of casualties and displacement steadily increased as the war intensified.
There are many theoretical frameworks and explanations about the development and process of this genocide in Darfur (Booker & Colgan, 2004). For instance, according to most individuals, the issue of oil filed ownership emanated as one of the most critical elements.
However, there are also individuals that believe that the rebel unions fought for their basic entitlements. The issue of oil as a natural resource has complex conspiracies. These are notable within domestic, regional and even within the general global platform. Therefore, according to some elite personalities, the Darfur genocide emanates from a conflict of interests. These are evident even in the global scenario.
Several agreements between the government and the rebel groups mark the period of occurrence of this genocide. The continuous processes also entailed important inputs and involvement from the general international society. Interestingly, it was also observable that most of the rebel groups persistently experienced severe internal divisions.
As indicated by most stakeholders, the severe internal divisions within these groups were important and indicative of the genocide. This is because the divisions led to the development of internal conflicts (Grzyb, 2009).
These evident conflicts of interests spread and dispersed to the general communities within Darfur. Principally, this remains as one of the critical elements that had potential contributions to the development of the intricate situations during the genocide. The increasing complexities in the genocide further led to an increased loss of lives and disruptions in the settlement patterns (Booker & Colgan, 2004).
The common civilians suffered the greatest extent of marginalization and death from the operations of the genocide. The research recognizes the significance of reviewing the critical interventions from the international society. Particularly, the engagement of the African Union, (AU) in the process of restoring peace in Darfur and the greater Sudan was important. The extent of the engagement included the military intervention, material and the general humanitarian support.
According to most personalities, this involvement was critical. Specifically, this relates to the general humanitarian support and the consequent establishment and realization of peace within the entire Sudan. The United Nations-African Union particularly played a significant role in the Darfur peace restoration process (Midlarsky, 2005).
Indicatively, this United Nations agency presently remains critical in the larger Sudan nation. There were indications in the post-genocide era on the incompetency of the union to meet the monetary resource requirements for the peace process.
The high statistics of the persons within the Darfur refugee camps was shocking. Approximately 2.7 million displaced persons occupy several camps built within diverse areas of Darfur. According to recent United Nations information sources, about 300,000 refugees from the war torn Darfur region inhabit the neighboring country Chad. Generally, the United Nations also approximates that about 4.7 million individuals within Darfur still experience the negative impacts of the genocide.
Myths and Tensions in the Darfur Genocide
The fight in Darfur continued for a very long time. Indeed, up to presently, there are still eminent tensions in this area. The United Nations and other humanitarian organizations hold similar sentiments on the situation.
Most inhabitants still dread the possibility of occurrence of another deadly attack or incidence of genocide in the area (Levy, 2009). It is important to note the role of other opportunist groups in the development and impacts of the general conflict. For instance, it is identifiable that other bandits also take advantage of the volatile situation in Darfur.
The post-genocide era remained characterized by social evils within the general society of Darfur. The persistent banditry and high incidences of looting also worsen the situation. Generally, these increasingly jeopardize the entire humanitarian aid. Apart from these, there was a notable rise in the incidence of gender-based criminal activities within the Darfur region. However, this trend was observable both during the course of the genocide and even in the post-genocide periods.
Most individuals believe that the government of Sudan is highly responsible for this act of violence or genocide in the land. Most scholars emphasize on the role of political disparities in the evolution of the Darfur genocide. In most instances, political leaders, including President Bashir are widely mentioned (Lebor, 2006). Principally, this relates to the potential causers and manipulators of the Darfur genocide.
The obvious hindrance of the global peacekeeping troupes was indicative of the governments unwillingness to maintain peace. Similar obstructions on the activities of most humanitarian organizations were also eminent. Notably, limited prosecutions are presently ensured for most individuals who had active roles in the development and propagation of the Darfur genocide. There are significant debates concerning the likely causes of the Darfur genocide (Reeves, 2005).
Diverse scholars and research have different views on the sociological constructions and causative factors behind the great genocide. For instance, a significant percentage of the population believes that high level of ethnic diversity led to this conflict. On the other hand, others assume that the scramble over the ownership of the oil-rich Darfur region was an important contributory factor.
The investigation highlights some of the prevalent myths and perceptions that exist around the initiation and development of the conflict. There are those who believe that the Darfur genocide was mainly an Arab versus African dispute. In this argument, most people regard the janjaweed as an Arab militia (Booker & Colgan, 2004).
However, there are alternative arguments on the real ground. There are indications that most of the Arab societies actually oppose the militia. There are also arguments that the diverse multicultural compositions have indicative roles. For instance, there are reiterations that these diversities signify the natives socio-economic linkages.
There are present factors that potentiate a high level of integration. These include the intermarriages as well as the mixed settlements. However, it is logical to indicate that the genocide increased the identity disparities of the inhabitants of Darfur. The research also discovered that the genocide might be attributable to the conflict due to the limited water resources.
The Darfur area falls almost in the Sahel geographical area of Sudan. Indicatively, this area has remained as a desert for the past two decades (Grzyb, 2009). Therefore, the increased drought level has important contributions in the marginalization of Darfurs water resources. Consequently, these potential challenges have caused an elevation in the incidences of conflicts. Particularly, this is notable amongst the nomadic as well as the sedentary peasants.
The basis of these conflicts lies in the customary land-tenure systems (Reynolds, Reynolds & Saunders, 2009). There are basic indications that a majority of the conflicts remain solved through customary approaches. Some of the prevalent methodologies applicable in the management of these conflicts include negotiation and arbitration.
The investigation also indicates other notable and important causes of the Darfur genocide. These include the important natural resources such as oil. However, these do not hold any real legal affiliation. There are other indications that the religious differences formed the basic reasons for the genocide (Levy, 2009). Indicatively, the disparities between the Muslim versus Christians are presumed as some of the critical influencing factors in the process of genocide.
Lessons and Implications
The genocide lasted for a period of four years. It is obvious that a significant number of persons lost their lives in the process. According to the United Nations statistics, about 450,000 persons perished due to this notorious conflict. The genocide also led to a huge number of displacements within the general population of Darfur.
There are several lessons eminent from the occurrence of the genocide (Booker & Colgan, 2004). Particularly, there evident vital lessons about resource use and conflict in Africa. The period of post-genocide also depicts an increasing level of severity of the humanitarian situation. Notably, the involvement of other external forces had important contributions. Amongst some of these external forces, include the infiltration of rebellious groups from neighboring nations such as Uganda.
However, some of the neighboring nations have critical roles in the development of a peaceful Darfur. Observably, these significant roles also extended to the larger Sudan region. For instance, the occupation of the various refugee camps within these states by the Sudanese war victims is critical. There is an evident involvement of other important nations in the development of the peaceful process (Byrne, 2007).
Some of the Sudanese citizens and victims of war indicate the United States as one of the important nations in this process. Ideally, the investigation also recognizes the important role that the US played in the elimination of the genocide. An analysis of different recommendations and insinuations from diverse interest groups and stakeholders is critical. This is because these recommendations provided the crucial springboard for the development of a peaceful Sudan as a nation.
Most Christian communities perceived Khartoum and the larger Muslim group as the major source of their turmoil. This perception is widely common within the international society. Perhaps, it streams from the larger belief that the rebellious janjaweed was predominantly composed of the Muslim faithful (Arabie, 2012).
This explains the critical reason behind the involvement of the United States. This process occurred through diverse mechanisms. For instance, the U.S applied the necessary sanctions on the larger Khartoum area. The oil transactions provided a critical intervention point for the imposition of the notable sanctions.
It is also notable that the United Nations Security Council played a vital role in the peace process. The African Union also refers to some of the organizations that had significant inputs in the process of establishing peace. Other important reiterations on the process of peace building are eminent from different stakeholders.
Indicatively, this is notable even within the greater international platform. Indicatively, certain individuals and entities emphasize on the need to engage peaceful negotiations. In such contexts, the development of peaceful consultations with the rebellious movements is appropriate (Booker & Colgan, 2004).
Amongst some of the vital initiatives is to enhance the processes of harmonious coexistence and unification of these rebel movements within the larger Sudan as a nation. According to most organization, observation of deterrence processes might not result into the best method of conflict mitigation. These include some of the important recommendations on the genocide from different stakeholders.
Conclusion
Generally, there are several presumptions and myths about the Darfur genocide. There is need for more investigations on this issue. Ethnic diversification has a critical role in the manipulation of most prevalent genocides in the third world. The varied composition reflects the peoples multicultural associations. Furthermore, this concept also indicates the significant disparities.
Particularly, these relate to the level of significance and attachments given to the present natural resources. Most of these communities in Darfur attach different values to their inherent natural resources. According to most occupants, these disparities are some of the critical factors. They had an important role in the development of this genocide. However, to most individuals, the area had enjoyed a remarkable state of harmony. This trend was notable before the emergence and inception of the great Darfur genocide.
References
Arabie, B. (2012). Darfur-road to genocide: Road to genocide. S.l.: Authorhouse.
Bellamy, A. J. (2010). The Responsibility to ProtectFive Years On. Ethics & International Affairs, 24 (2), 143169.
Booker, S. & Colgan, A. (2004). Genocide in Darfur. Web.
Byrne, D. N. (2007). Public Discourse, Community Concerns, and Civic Engagement: Exploring Black Social Networking Traditions on BlackPlanet.com. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13 (1), 319340.
Grzyb, A. F. (2009). The world and Darfur: International response to crimes against humanity in western Sudan. Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press.
Lebor, A. (2006). Complicity with evil : The United Nations in the age of modern genocide. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Levy, J. (2009). Genocide in Darfur. New York, NY: Rosen Pub.
Midlarsky, M. I. (2005). The killing trap: Genocide in the twentieth century. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.
Reeves, E. (2005). Genocide in Darfur How the Horror Began. Web.
Reynolds, L., Reynolds, J. & Saunders, G. (2009). Dedicated to the people of Darfur: Writings on fear, risk, and hope. New Brunswick, N.J: Rutgers University Press.
Totten, S. (2011). An oral and documentary history of the Darfur genocide. Santa Barbara, Calif: Praeger Security International.
Varma, R. (2012). Summary of the Crisis in Darfur, Sudan. Web.
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