Category: Zoology

Over the past 50 years, the functions of zoos have changed significantly. Initially, they were intended to maintain wild animals in the areas where they had not spread and demonstrate them to the urban population and the city tourists. In addition, the construction of zoos implied a scientific function, as they present an excellent opportunity to research wild animals nearby and analyze their habits, instincts, and behavior in relatively comfortable conditions. However, these days, when the populations awareness of ecological issues, including the problem of endangered species, is gradually rising from year to year, the zoos are expected to accomplish a new function. Conservation has become an integral part of their activity, as well as promoting the necessity to care for nature and animals with respect, educating the public on this topic, and providing some methods of realization of these intentions. Maintaining species and breeding them present a matter of extreme importance for their survival.

Economic Pressures

Despite having beneficial for the entire society and nature aims, zoos have to encounter serious economic pressures. To realize the conservation ideas, additional funding is essential. However, according to Keulartz (2015), zoos investment in this sphere is not sufficient and frequently low. Tribe and Booth claim that zoos devote at least 10 % of their income to in situ conservation (as cited in Keulartz, 2015, para. 23). The cost of comfortable animal management is extremely high, as an organization should provide the endangered species with living conditions, which are relatively close to their natural habitats, including the vast territories. Moreover, the biodiversity factor should be taken into consideration too to breed animals successfully and prevent them from becoming extinct. One of the most difficult issues addresses the skill of hunting, procuring food, and surviving, as animals lose this skill in captivity. This way, conservation in zoos should be supplied with sufficient funding by various methods, implying encouraging the visitor to donate. Elsewise, the aim to prevent wild animals from extinction cannot be realized.

Endangered Species List

To minimize the negative influence on the life-sustaining activity of wild animals by human beings, it is crucial to understand which factors lead them to become endangered. The first and the major factor is the destruction the natural habitats. Urbanization, deforestation, and water pollution deprive birds, fish, reptiles, insects, and mammals of appropriate environmental conditions. In addition, water pollution, especially plastic, thrown in the ocean, kill its inhabitants. Frequently, fish or turtles mistake plastic for food and die after swallowing. It is also a common sight when animals get trapped in the rubbish and stay unable to release.

Another factor, which animals regularly incur, is poaching, and this commitment not only leads to including particular species in the list of endangered ones but also become the reason for extinction. That depicts a sorrowful picture, how greed, a desire to derive enrichment, and cruelty claim thousands of animals lives and threaten the entire world. This way, human activity affects nature and its inhabitant more significantly than any other factor, gradually expanding the Endangered Species List.

Observing Elephants

Today, zoos attempt to adjust to the present-day developments, minimize the harm, which might be done by visitors, and draw their attention to the ecological problems. A high-technology innovation, implying taking a virtual trip to a zoo and observing one of the endangered species lives in real-time, has become a great solution. I have tried this option too and chosen to observe elephants, and my findings are presented below:

The Impressions

The virtual trip and observing animals online have been both educative and engaging experiences. It appeared to be an excellent opportunity to explore elephants, understanding that the humans curiosity did not harm them. Furthermore, I could follow a link and enjoy watching elephants behavior at any time. Therefore, I noticed all the behavioral changes and habits of animals at different times of the day. This experience has broadened my mind and made my perception of wild animals lives wider.

The Impact of Technology on Conservation

Accomplishing an educative function for the broad masses, the observing animal on webcam has the potential to contribute to solving the conservation issues. First of all, this opportunity makes exploring wild animals easy, convenient, and e. Therefore, this method stimulates the interest and installs an indifferent attitude to the problem of endangered species, and the necessity to take action is promoted. The more the idea becomes popular, the greater chances to make the difference. In summary, watching the animals lives via telephones and computers is an effective solution for this ecological problem.

Reference

Keulartz, J. (2015). Captivity for conservation? Zoos at a crossroads. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 28, 335-351. 

Introduction

The National Zoo is situated along Connecticut Avenue in Washington, D.C. The National Zoo takes care of about four hundred species of animals. Additionally, it offers research and recreation services. Most of the animals in the park are in danger of extinction. I visited the National Zoo on 4^th May 2014. I walked to the zoo because it is located near my residence. I arrived at the National Zoo at 8.00 oclock in the morning. I had a great experience at the zoo because I saw many animals. The Great Ape House is one of the sections of the park that I visited. I was really amused by gorillas. This essay discusses nutrition for gorillas at the National Zoo.

Nutrition for Gorillas

Good nutrition is necessary for gorillas in confinement. Proper nutrition involves determining what gorillas should eat and the amount of food they should be given. Gorillas are herbivores that eat several pounds of vegetation each day. Most gorillas like eating wild fruits and herbs in the jungle. Thus, gorillas mainly eat foodstuffs rich in fiber. They also feed on insects intermittently (Cheeke and Dierenfeld 234).

Conversely, gorillas at the National Zoo do not have access to natural foodstuffs such as herbs and wild fruits (Wolfensohn and Honess 54). At the Great Ape House, gorillas mainly eat foodstuffs rich in vitamins, carbohydrates, and proteins. Nutritionists at the park ensure that gorillas eat a balanced diet. Due to the need to provide gorillas with an appropriate and carefully balanced diet, visitors are not allowed to feed them (National Zoo 1).

At the National Zoo, some of the common foodstuffs consumed by gorillas include dandelion greens, romaine lettuce, green beans, alfalfa, apples, formula biscuits, and bananas (National Zoo 1-2). Additionally, they are given clean water regularly. Therefore, the diet for gorillas at the National Zoo is relatively similar to that of human beings. For example, gorillas in the zoo feed on similar fruits consumed by human beings (Caputo 1).

At the Great Ape House, gorillas are less active compared to those in the jungle because they do not search for food. Therefore, they are more likely to become overweight than those in the jungle (Wolfensohn and Honess 67). Similarly, human beings that eat unbalanced diets are susceptible to heart diseases and obesity.

It is important to note that gorillas are mainly vegetarians. Nonetheless, young gorillas at the National Zoo are often given foodstuffs rich in proteins to make them healthy (Caputo 1). The same nutrition plan is applied in feeding children. According to the zoo nutritionists at the park, gorillas in captivity should mainly feed on vegetables because fruits and formula biscuits contain a lot of sugar, which can lead to health challenges. In other words, gorillas need a lot of vitamins but require fewer carbohydrates and proteins. Human beings also need a lot of vitamins (Rees 132).

Conclusion

This essay has discussed the nutrition for gorillas at the National Zoo. It has been revealed that gorillas require a balanced diet. Nonetheless, they mainly eat vegetables because they are less active in the zoo. Gorillas at the National Zoo are regularly supplied with food because they need a lot of calories. Indeed, they feed on high-quality foodstuffs, which human beings can eat. Therefore, the diet for gorillas at the National Zoo is comparatively similar to that of human beings.

Works Cited

Caputo, Joseph. Feeding the Animals at the National Zoo. 2009. Web.

Cheeke, Peter and Ellen Dierenfeld. Comparative Animal Nutrition and Metabolism. New York: Wiley, 2010. Print.

National Zoo. Feeding the Animals at the Zoo. 2010. Web.

Rees, Paul. An Introduction to Zoo Biology and Management. London: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011. Print.

Wolfensohn, Sarah and Paul Honess. Handbook of Primate Husbandry and Welfare. London: Wiley-Blackwell, 2005. Print.

Ruschas rat (Abrawayaomys ruschii) and giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) were selected for the analysis of mammals. First of all, it should be stated that the similar features of all the mammals are shared among all the species, and the two selected are not an exception. The common features, which Ruschas rat and giant panda share as mammals are the three middle ear bones, hair, and the ability to produce milk for the feeding of newborn litter with the sweat glands, which are also called mammary glands.

The differences between these species are covered in the sizes of the animals (15 cm in length of Ruschas rat, and up to 80 cm high for pandas). These animals differ in their natural environment and position in the food chain.

As for the issues of order, it should be stated that the giant panda belongs to the order Carnivora (coyotes, dogs, and foxes), and has a diet that is 99% bamboo. It may also eat other foods such as honey, eggs, fish, shrub leaves, and fruits when available. Ruschas rat belongs to the order Rodentia (squirrels and capybaras), as its ration includes corns, insects, eggs, and roots.

The next two species are the representatives of Insects. These are Pipevine Swallowtail (Battus philenor) and Camberwell Beauty (Nymphalis antiopa).

As for the common features, all the insects have a complete and rather complex digestive tract. As Agassiz (2001, p. 76) states, all the insects are dioecious: fertilization is internal in most. How mating is accomplished, however, is incredibly variable; study of this variability by evolutionary biologists has greatly advanced our understanding of the evolution of behavior, social evolution, and traits such as number, size of young, and patterns of investment in them. Both species are completely different in the young stages of life from the mature form of the insect.

The selected species differ with the coloring (iridescent metallic blue sheen of Pipevine Swallowtail and very dark red, with a bright, yellowish border around the wings of Camberwell Beauty). The young specimen differs in appearance, however, they are almost similar in coloring.

As for the orders, Camberwell Beauty (Nymphalis antiopa) belongs to Lepidoptera, also sharing this order with Pipevine Swallowtail (Eriocraniid Moths, Ghost Moths and Swifts and Mandibulate Moths). The representatives of this order undergo essential metamorphoses during a four-stage life cycle: egg, larva/caterpillar, pupa/chrysalis, and imago/adult. Moreover, the life cycle may also entail inactive periods, or diapauses, aimed at overcoming unsuitable environmental conditions.

The following species, which should be analyzed are from the class of Aves (Birds) Coopers hawk (Accipiter cooperii), and chukar (Alectoris chukar). The key features which define birds from other animals are the following:

First of all, feather covering should be mentioned. This gives them perfect aerodynamic characteristics, as well as simplicity and lightness of body constitution. The bones of the birds are hollow inside, nevertheless, durable enough for overcoming extreme g-forces (especially for birds of prey). A horny beak without teeth is another feature, which defines birds. The beak is aimed at consuming corns, insects, or tearing the fleshes of the victims (for birds of prey)

The differences between these two species are covered in the fact that Coopers hawk is a bird of prey, and has the corresponding body constitution. Chukar is the bird of flock (5 to 40 species in a flock), while hawks and similar birds prefer living single, covering huge territories for hunting.

Chukar belongs to the order Galliformes (fowls, gallinaceous birds, or galliforms) and Coopers hawk is the representative of Falconiformes (Falcons, Eagles). Galliformes are birds that are chicken-like in appearance, with small to large bodies and blunt wings. Falconiformes are the birds of prey, created for killing and enduring extreme speeds, g-forces, and hights.

The final part of the analysis is dedicated to Echinoderms. Sea stars and starfishes (Asteroidea), sea cucumbers (Holothuroidea) are selected for the comparison. Haldane and Huxley (2005, p. 391) in their zoological review give the following classification of echinoderms: An internal skeleton is present throughout members of the phylum. Ossicles, which make up the skeleton, are below an outer dermal layer. The skeletal and muscular arrangement varies among groups. Pedicellariae produced by the skeleton, are pincer-like structures. Found mainly in echinoids and asteroids, their function is debatable. They may be used to capture prey, clean, or hold items to disguise from predators. Originally, these are the main features, which unite Sea stars and Sea Cucumbers. As for the matters of differences, it should be stated that these two species are different in form and have a place in the food chain.

The mouth of the sea stars is located underneath the star itself, while the cucumber has its mouth in front of the body. The spiny upper surface of the star differs essentially from the covering of Sea Cucumber. Moreover, the Holothuroidea is also featured with the sticky civilian tubules (enlargements of the respiratory tree that float freely in the coelom) to entangle potential predators. (Scientific American, 2003). Sea Cucumbers represent the order Aspidochirotida (Parastichopus californicus and Parastichopus parvimensis), and Sea stars are the representatives of Forcipulatida (Ampheraster, Anteliaster, and Aphanasterias)

References

Agassiz, L. (2001). Methods of Study in Natural History. Boston: Ticknor and Fields.

Haldane, J. B., & Huxley, J. (2005). Animal Biology. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Scientific American, inc. (2003). Twentieth-Century Bestiary. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Is wolves coming back to Colorado beneficial for citizens? is the main research question for this project that has to be thoroughly discussed and analyzed. The history of gray wolves in this state can be traced back to the middle of the 19th century. A wolf was recognized as a symbol of the West to prove wild nature fascination and human fear of its strength and unpredictability. In 1945, the last wolf was shot to promote the safety of the population in the region. Current wildlife defenders cannot accept the fact that gray wolves continue disappearing, and their howl is not recently heard in the Southern Rockies. On November 3, 2020, Colorado Proposition 114 was offered, and the Grady Wolf Reintroduction Initiative was approved. More than 56,000 votes were used to support the creation of a new plan in terms of which wolf reintroduction can be possible by the end of 2023. Such states as Montana and Idaho have rather controversial experiences in promoting wildlife support, and it is believed that Colorados experiences may demonstrate a successful implementation example. I will prove that wolf reintroduction is beneficial for the state.

Regarding the existing debates and concerns about the importance of wolf reintroduction, this research project has to cover several critical areas. I plan to answer the following questions and achieve the initial goal about the possibility of wolves returning to Colorado: What is the history of wolves in Colorado?, What are the current legislative options for wolf status in the state?, What are the reasons for wolf debates in Colorado?, What are the conditions under which reintroduction of gray wolves is possible in the region?, and What do people think about the wolf legacy in their state?. My attention to these specific questions helps create a solid basis for understanding the benefits and threats of wolves coming back to the state. Although it is easy to state that wildlife has to be protected, not many people are ready to accept this idea with all its pros and cons. Therefore, I find it necessary to investigate the historical background of this issue and underline the current situation in Colorado.

The investigation of the offered question requires the development of a definite plan. I want to use several sources that can be valuable for this topic. Colorado Parks and Wildlife is a well-known agency to controls and improve wildlife, manages hunting and fishing licenses, and protects animals. Its reports and observations can help discover the truth about wolf reintroduction. Articles from local and national newspapers and magazines like Sierra or National Geographic describe how environmental and social needs are balanced in the region. Governmental sites are necessary to explain the worth of Proposition 114, and communication with local people contributes to a better understanding of how citizens treat the offered idea. A systematic review and a quantitative survey are the best research methods that do not require much time and effort.

Regarding the offered plan and the current status of wolves in Colorado, it is expected to prove that their coming back may be associated with a number of benefits for the citizens, the state, and the country in general. This topic matters because I believe that it is a human responsibility to protect wildlife and create appropriate conditions to predict gray wolf extinction. My readers, like peers, instructors, as well as local citizens and governments, can find this study interesting because I underline the importance of human-wildlife balance and prove that the implication of my ideas can provoke new studies in this area. It is not enough to consider the theme of wolves coming back as something negative or positive but focus on the conditions under which this reintroduction should occur.

Binomial Nomenclature of Modern-day Chimpanzee

In this paper, the organism of focus will be the Modern-day Chimpanzee. It is also referred to as chimp, robust chimpanzee, or common chimpanzee.

Chimpanzees are of the species great apes native to the savannah and forests in Africa. There are four main subspecies: the western, central, eastern, and Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee.

The fifth proposed subspecies is the southeastern chimpanzee.

They belong to the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Mammalia, order Primates, family Hominidae, genus Pan, and species group troglodytes.

Therefore, their scientific name is Pan troglodytes.

The Cladogram

The cladogram above shows the evolution of chimpanzees.

The earliest ancestor of modern-day chimpanzees is the hominoids or apes.

The hominoids fossil records date back to 18-25 million years ago (Henrich, 2018).

Through evolution, the present-day chimpanzees are the closest known relatives of human beings. Human beings split with chimpanzees five million years ago. There is fossil evidence of the existence of both chimpanzees and people during the Middle Pleistocene Period.

Later on, bonobos and chimpanzees split. This occurred less than one million years ago.

Picture of Chimpanzee and Its Ancestor

On the top, there is a picture of the chimpanzee, with its body covered with coarse hairs, except for the face, palms, and toes.

On the bottom is a drawing of the common ancestor, Proconsul Africanus.

Modern Chimpanzee Environment

Chimpanzees have higher adaptability; hence they have the widest range of habitats. According to National Geographic (n.d.), they are mainly found in the Central and Western parts of Africa.

Most Chimpanzees occupy the tropical rainforests, which include the evergreen rainforest, swamp forest, and semideciduous forests.

However, some of them can be found in the woodlands and grasslands that span West and Central Africa.

They usually sleep on trees where they use leaves to build themselves nests of a height of 7.90 meters every night in new locations (Badji et al., 2017).

Each chimpanzee has its own nest except for the infants, which spend the night with their mothers.

Chimpanzees prefer eating fruits besides other foods. However, they also feed on leaves, leaf buds, stems, seeds, barks, piths, and resin.

Ancestor Environment

The primitive hominoids such as Proconsul Africanus occupied a wide range of environmental niches. These varied from dense rainforests to open deciduous woodlands (Andrew, 2020). Some apes preferred to partially stay on the ground for some time.

The environment was generally referred to as a mosaic environment. The term mosaic refers to the heterogeneity of habitat, and it is thought to have occurred in the Plio-Pleistocene of South Africa and Kenya. However, there were variations between the two places.

The image above represents the hominoids in their natural environment (Ward et al., 2019).

Environmental Comparison/ Contrast

In both cases, their main environment is in Africa. According to Starr (2019), the modern chimpanzees are located in Central and West Africa.

However, the ancestors were located in the Mosaic environment in Kenya and South Africa (Parravicini & Pievani, 2019).

They both have a wide range of habitats, and some of them occupy the open woodlands.

The modern chimpanzees mainly prefer the tropical rainforests, while their ancestors lived in dense forests.

Traits of a Chimpanzee

According to National Geographic (n.d.), chimpanzees have an average lifespan of 45 years and a height of about four to five feet.

The adults have an average weight of between 70 and 130 pounds (National Geographic, n.d.)

Their bodies are mainly covered with coarse hair except on the faces, toes, fingers, and palms.

As the animals age, they start developing grey and white patches of hair, mainly on the chin.

Their heads are rounded, with a prognathous face and a prominent brow ridge. They have a small nose, eyes that face forward, the ears are round and non-lobed, and their upper lips are long and mobile.

They have a long pelvis with extended ileum.

With opposable toes, chimpanzees have adapted to terrestrial and arboreal movements. When on the ground, their movements are either bi- or quadrupedal.

According to Wallace et al. (2020), they have a pronounced curvature on foot and hand phalangeal as those of humans. These developments are a result of mechanical loads when the chimpanzees are grasping, hanging, and swinging from one branch to another.

Traits of Ancestor

During the middle of the Miocene period, the ancestors had a monkey as a body plan (Andrew, 2020). Moreover, their posture was also associated with the environment they lived in. However, towards the end of this period, some apes emerged with a broadened shoulder, scapula repositioned to the back of the top, long clavicles, and they had an upright posture.

The crown hominoids had enhanced limb motility and grasping ability, with long and opposable thumbs and curved phalanges.

Their skull was lightly built, and it lacked brow ridges (Andrew, 2020). They also had a broad incisive canal which provided a connected the oral cavity and nasal passages.

According to Andrew (2020), the ancestors had enlarged dentitions; the incisors were large, broad, and spatulate. Moreover, their canines were highly crowned and projected.

Their molars had a reduced molar cingulum.

Comparison of Traits

Both the chimpanzee and its ancestor have opposable toes. However, the phalanges in the former are curved as such of those of humans, while in the latter, they are long and curved.

Chimpanzees have long and pointed canines, while in the hominoids, they are highly crowned.

In both cases, there are quadrupedal movements. Nevertheless, modern chimpanzees also have bipedal locomotion.

Fun Facts

According to Voinov et al. (2020), amongst chimpanzees, facial expressions are key in their communications. For instance, a full-closed grin implies they are frightened. An open-mouthed grin shows they are happy and playful.

Amongst adults, the most common vocalization is the pant-hoot, and it signifies bonding and social ranks (Voinov et al., 2020).

Chimpanzees go hunting when the forest canopy is irregular or interrupted. They hunt in coordinated teams and mainly go after small monkeys like red Columbus.

There is a concept that DNA similarity between humans and chimpanzees is about 98%. However, it has been proved that the DNA similarity is around 84% (Tomkins, 2018).

The oldest known chimpanzee was called Little Mama, and she lived from around 68 to 72 years old, and she died in 2017 (Goodall, 2017).

References

Andrews, P. (2020). Last common ancestor of apes and humans: Morphology and environment. Folia Primatologica, 91(2), 122-148.

Badji, L., Ndiaye, P. I., Lindshield, S. M., Ba, C. T., & Pruetz, J. D. (2018). Savanna chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) nesting ecology at Bagnomba (Kedougou, Senegal). Primates, 59(3), 235-241.

Goodall, J. (2017). Sad loss of Little Mama, one of the oldest chimps. Jane Goodall Institute.

Henrich, J., & Tennie, C. (2018). 18. Cultural Evolution in Chimpanzees and Humans. In Chimpanzees and human evolution (pp. 645-702). Harvard University Press.

History Files. (n.d.). Priminitive hominoids.

National Geographic. (n.d.). Chimpanzee. National Geographic.

Starr, E. (2019). Central chimpanzee: Pan troglodytes troglodytes. New England Primate Conservancy.

Parravicini, A., & Pievani, T. (2019). Mosaic evolution in hominin phylogeny: meanings, implications, and explanations. Journal of Anthropological Sciences, 97, 1-24.

Tomkins, J. (2018). Comparison of 18,000 De Novo assembled chimpanzee contigs to the human genome yields average BLASTN alignment identities of 84%. Answers Research Journal, 11, 215-219.

Voinov, P. V., Call, J., Knoblich, G., Oshkina, M., & Allritz, M. (2020). Chimpanzee coordination and potential communication in a two-touchscreen turn-taking Game. Scientific reports, 10(1), 1-13.

Wallace, I. J., Burgess, M. L., & Patel, B. A. (2020). Phalangeal curvature in a chimpanzee raised like a human: Implications for inferring arboreality in fossil hominins. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(21), 11223-11225.

Ward, C. V., Hammond, A. S., Plavcan, J. M., & Begun, D. R. (2019). A late Miocene hominid partial pelvis from Hungary. Journal of human evolution, 136, 102645.

Today, the debates about the benefits of wolves coming back to Colorado for citizens continue. On the one hand, we cannot neglect the well-known fact that a gray wolf was a symbol of the West during a long period in the 19th century. On the other hand, it is necessary to remember that something made people shoot all wolves in 1945, which resulted in their eradication from the state. There is a great controversy of wolves as evidence of nature fascination and strength and wolves as the source of human fear and unpredictability. However, several Colorado Parks and Wildlife officers admit that one pack of gray wolves has already returned to the state (Koen). Now, the point is either to support or to oppose the possibility of this returning. Focusing on the history of the state, the current legislative options, and public opinions, I want to prove that Colorado should follow natural migration rules instead of applying artificial methods to bring wolves back.

Current State of Affairs

One of the main arguments that support the idea of natural migration of wolves to Colorado is the change that people can observe today. During the last two years, many journalists and environmentalists discuss the conditions when potential Canis Lupus (the Latin name for gray wolf) sightings were officially reported at the end of 2021 (Phippen). It was also possible to take photos of actual animals, while other cases are evidenced by the photos or real-life observation of wolf prints on the ground. These facts may be enough to explain that gray wolves are ready for natural migration, and the participation of humans is not as significant as it could seem. Artificial interference has nothing to do with the presence of wolves in the state of Colorado.

At this moment, gray wolves are defined as endangered species, and natural migration is a chance for these animals to demonstrate their potential and position in the wildlife. If people consider their goal of no interference with the process, this way may allow wolves to stay in the areas that need their presence and expand freely (Kuijper et al. 104). Even being properly aware of the principles of biodiversity and ecology, people cannot understand the true essence of wolves as a part of the ecosystem function (Brasch). They believe that it is their direct responsibility to protect nature and develop new interventions. In European or African countries and Australia, researchers focus on the social, ecological, and economic impact of artificial contributions like fences and specialized reserves where wolves are bred and treated (Kuijper et al. 105). Fencing remains an ambiguous practice in the United States with its pros and cons. Despite the possibility to control human-animal conflict, this method has its cost that is usually high and time-consuming.

Wolves have already demonstrated their intention to return to the land of Colorado, and people have witnessed this fact, regardless of their level of readiness. The reintroduction of these species changes the ecosystem, but people want to participate in this process. The government and eco-activists are involved in the development of new management plans and do not pay attention that wolves are kind of introducing themselves independently (Phippen). A gray wolf, as a representative of the apex predator family, is able to recognize access to large food sources. If Colorado is the place where elk, deer, and moose can be found, the animal has enough reason to return to this land.

Wolves History in Colorado

The success of natural migration of gray wolves to Colorado is also predetermined by its history. Local citizens of the state usually know that wolves are Colorado native, and many packs lived on its territory between the beginning and the middle of the 20th century. The co-existence of different species was not a problem for the state, and each group of animals completed its functions and kept the balance. Many scientists admit that there has to be predator and prey to restore the balance and avoid unnecessary conflicts (Koen). However, as soon as humans decided to expand their rights and use natural resources, they deprived wolves of their food resources. As a result, declines in bison and deer populations were observed, and livestock losses were inevitable (Hamilton et al.; Niemiec et al.). The next step to protect the population and the cattle was obligatory. In the 1940s, the bounty campaigns were initiated, and almost all Canis Lupus species were eradicated, while some packs managed to run away (Brasch). In their desire to create safe short-term conditions, humans forget about a long-term effect on the natural ecosystem.

Since the 1940s, not many citizens report wolf attacks, and the population is no longer under the threat of sudden conflicts with animals. At the same time, the biological recovery of wolves is supported, and natural migration becomes a solid contribution to animal growth. It is not allowed to kill wolves for hunting purposes in Colorado, and people have to pay high fines to cover their hobbies. However, in many other states, Americans have obtained legal freedoms to kill wolves. Wolves continued disappearing due to car accidents (accidental collisions), irregular shooting, and poisoned food. In the late 1970s, gray wolves were declared as an endangered species in the United States, and some states have been participating in reintroduction initiatives since 1995 (Koen). It seems that people have already done enough to make wolves disappear or, at least, leave this land for some period. It is high time to stop human interference in the natural balance and give a chance for animals to restore the ecosystem.

Wolf Status Legislation

To prove that natural migration of wolves is more beneficial for society and nature compared to artificial interventions, it is also necessary to investigate the legal perspective of the case. Governments aim at establishing laws to stabilize interpersonal and international relationships as well as the conditions under which people have to live in respect to nature. Natural migration depends on laws that protect wolves or other representatives of the fauna. Besides, to support wolf reintroduction in Colorado, environmentalists and other stakeholders should develop local plans and guidelines, relying on their experiences and observations. In other words, additional funds, financial and human resources, and public attention are the elements of artificial reintroduction.

Regarding recent returning of gray wolves to Colorado and other parts of the United States, the Presidents Administration and specialized organizations and services were involved in the discussion. The Endangered Species Act is one of the oldest American legislations. It was signed at the beginning of the 1970s to protect endangered species from extinction and promote wolf recovery in different regions (Hamilton et al.). During the next several decades, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service was reorganized to focus on wolf presence in Oregon, Wyoming, and Colorado. However, in most cases, reintroduction was from Canada to particular areas like Yellowstone National Park (Hamilton et al.). Fences were used to keep animals away from areas where conflicts with humans were possible (Kuijper et al. 106). People thought that they improved living conditions for animals by creating good services, medical care, and regular food. However, artificial restoration requires constant participation, money, and resources, and if wolves do not receive what they need all the time, their reactions may be unpredictable. No laws would be enough to protect a human from a wolf whose living was fenced.

Between 2019 and 2020, Initiative 107 was developed and offered to support wolf reintroduction in Colorado. Environmentalists and local ecologists needed funds to introduce a plan for managing wolf migration (Initiative 107 Full Text). Although locals and policymakers anticipate natural migration to happen, they expect to find additional help from the government (Koen). Using the right to freedom of speech and movement, people organize themselves in groups and share their thoughts through such campaigns as Call of the Wild. Their goal is to deliver a message and prepare society for wolf migration. Still, their position about the worth of artificial reintroduction or natural migration remains unclear because they continue to gather opinions from local citizens, biologists, and other stakeholders who may add value to these debates.

Public Opinions about Wolves in the State

As well as in any debate, the theme of wolves coming back to Colorado divides people into several groups. Many individuals are ready to support this returning and underline the necessity to choose different means of interventions. The Colorado Wolf and Wildlife Center representatives promote the importance of reintroduction of wolves either through natural migration or artificially because their absence has a number of negative outcomes on local ecology (Koen). According to the 2019 poll, about 67% of the citizens of Colorado want to see wolves on their land (qtd. in Phippen). People usually use such facts as the importance of wolves to the landscape, the human-nature balance, and prey-predator control. Wolves neither ask for permission nor set some specific conditions for their returning, and talking about artificial reintroduction is worthless because actual natural changes that are necessary for the region have to be promoted by anyone but humans.

Many ranchers do not like the idea of returning because they believe that human interventions are not as beneficial as they might be. For example, Steve Wooten (qtd. in Koen) admits that natural migration is better than an artificial plan because the system is proved to be working today, and wolves reintroduce themselves to a manageable extent. Still, there are many individuals who define negative outcomes only. Frank Daley and some commissionaire from Garfield County oppose reintroduction, both natural and artificial, because wolves kill the cattle, chase them around, damage fences, and cause physical injuries for people and other domestic animals (Phippen). Natural migration of wolves can be dangerous for people because predators do not understand the purposes of cattle farms but come and get what they need. Artificial intervention is characterized by human control and management, with fences and reserves being properly implemented for wolves of different ages. No extra resources are usually damaged, and wolves are reintroduced within the necessary amount.

Finally, the government and researchers continue cooperating with local citizens and gather their opinions about the current situation with wolves in Colorado. In 2020, natural moving was successfully reported and documented in the states history (Niemiec et al.). People cannot understand why additional resources and funds should be organized to support something that has already been successfully promoted under natural conditions. Therefore, instead of creating some artificial conditions for wolves, Kuijper et al. recommend the establishment of soft boundaries and reduce human-wolf conflict by managing behaviors (106). As soon as wolves naturally inhabit some lands in the state, people should be educated and informed on how to avoid dangerous places and predict unwanted meetings with wolves.

Conclusion

The desire to control all events around is a part of human nature. Therefore, when the first wolf pack was recognized in Colorado, people recognized the importance of their inevitable intervention in this process. Instead of accepting wolves coming back as an element of natural migration, many individuals began to think about their contributions and develop attitudes toward wolves impact on modern life. Regarding the history of the state, the existing laws and initiatives, and the impossibility to come to the same conclusion on wolf reintroduction, natural migration seems to be the only rational solution. At this moment, wolves have already moved back to Colorado, relying on their own reasons and conditions. A man should not penetrate the natural world to improve it but allow everything to happen on its own. Not all communities, as well as animals, are ready for artificial reintroduction, and Colorado needs to open its doors for wolves naturally, with all related pros and cons.

Works Cited

Brasch, Sam. Should Wolves Be Brought Back To Colorado? A Rancher And A Biologist Have Their Say. CPR News, 2020, Web.

Hamilton, Lawrence C., et al. Wolves Are Back: Sociopolitical Identity and Opinions on Management of Canis Lupus. Conservation Science and Practice, vol. 2, no. 7, 2020.

Initiative 107 Full Text. Colorado Secretary of State, 2019, Web.

Koen, Andy. Wolf Pack Evidence Suggests Migration to Colorado. KOAA News5, 2020, Web.

Kuijper, *Dries P. J., et al. Keep the Wolf from the Door: How to Conserve Wolves in Europes Human-Dominated Landscapes? Biological Conservation, vol. 235, 2019, pp. 102-111.

Niemiec, Rebecca, et al. Public Perspectives and Media Reporting of Wolf Reintroduction in Colorado. PeerJ, vol. 8, 2020. Web.

Phippen, Thomas. Garfield Co Commissioners Oppose Wolf Reintroduction. The Aspen Times, 2019, Web.

Species typically live in groups where they should involve in cooperation with other living creatures for feeding, breeding, and others. Non-human primates can use various signals and cues to achieve the tasks above. Számadó (2011, p. 4) indicates that the two can influence the receivers behavior, while signals are peculiar since they can increase the signalers fitness to this function. Anthropologists and biologists have agreed that non-human primates can offer either honest or deceptive signals, depending on a specific situation. The essay will demonstrate that animals would benefit more by providing one another with truthful information when food and sex are involved.

To begin with, one should explain why non-human primates engage in deceptive behaviors. On the one hand, Pfefferle et al. (2008, p. 571) stipulate that Barbary macaques can use their copulative calls to cheat and present false information regarding their fertile phases. This strategy results in the fact that females attract more males to influence mating outcomes. The sperm competition and paternity confusion hypothesis typically describe this process. According to Pfefferle et al. (2008, p. 576), this approach is beneficial for females because, in the Barbary macaque, paternity confusion can lead to the fact that multiple males will provide care to infants. Garcia and Ravignani (2020, p. 1) also indicate that dishonest vocalizations are used to create an exaggerated impression of signalers body size. On the other hand, cheating can generate some advantages in relation to feeding. For example, tufted capuchin monkeys can use false alarm calls during feeding in a manner that functions to deceive competitors (Kean et al., 2017, p. 37). These findings reveal that there is some robust reasoning behind primates cheating.

Even though the information above seems undeniable, it is reasonable to consider the opposite side. It refers to the fact that cheating can imply adverse consequences for non-human primates when it becomes discovered by other creatures. Thus, there exist numerous theories to describe the rationale behind following honest behaviors by these animals and what outcomes this strategy brings. That is why the following paragraphs will comment on these theories and explain why it is more beneficial for non-human primates to provide truthful information.

The first argument against being deceptive is that this approach wastes primates valuable resources. It mainly refers to those cases when sex is involved. For example, Zinner et al. (2004, p. 77) offer the reliable-indicator hypothesis showing that sexual swellings are honest indicators of female quality because they are costly to produce. Simultaneously, Vaglio et al. (2021, para. 2) demonstrate that the graded-signal hypothesis also focuses on this feature because female olive baboons should be honest to attract the best males. The rationale behind this claim is that strong-smelling vaginal secretions perform this function, meaning that primates odor depends on their physiological conditions that cannot be impacted for cheating (Vaglio et al., 2021, para. 9). Furthermore, Gouzoules and Gouzoules (2002, p. 842) admit that signals are typically accurate based on their cost. These findings reveal that being deceptive implies some noticeable disadvantages for non-human primates.

However, it is not reasonable to ignore the fact that honest behavior can also have drawbacks. For example, it refers to male ring-tailed lemurs olfactory displays of anointing wafting tails to females (Walker-Bolton and Parga, 2017, para. 1). On the one hand, this strategy attracts females, which is necessary to meet the reproduction goal. On the other hand, the behavior subjects these primates to higher levels of aggression from other ring-tailed lemurs. It allows for supposing that it is not a rule that honest behavior only offers benefits.

The second argument against deception refers to the situations when food is involved. It can occur that non-human primates fail to announce food discoveries not share the findings with others. Hauser (1992, p. 12137) demonstrates that such a failure can result in significant aggression against silent rhesus monkeys; these female discoverers also ate less food compared to those who announced their findings. Figure 1 below summarizes this information and offers a visual representation of why deception is not appropriate for non-human primates. Diagram A reveals an average amount of time of receiving aggression, Diagram B presents a number of aggressive acts, while Diagram C demonstrates an amount of food that was given to female discoverers (Hauser, 1992, p. 12138). Wright et al. (2021, para. 3) also indicate that dishonest signals can be punished by other creatures, and the punishment is severer for low-quality primates. Consequently, there are essential stimuli for non-human primates to avoid deception in their behavior.

Even though the information above demonstrates that deception leads to numerous disadvantages, it also brings another essential point that is worth considering. It refers to the fact that being honest does not protect rhesus monkeys from other primates aggressive behavior. Simultaneously, the case with male ring-tailed lemurs has demonstrated that honesty also subjects them to aggression because other males can consider their olfactory displays a threat. That is why it is necessary to follow a critical thinking approach to explain why honesty is more beneficial for multiple non-human primates.

At this point, one should draw attention to the fact that the two behavior models, honesty and deception, imply both benefits and disadvantages. Since this relationship exists, it is necessary to assess these consequences to compare their effects. Firstly, a non-human primate can face aggression and the necessity to deal with rivals irrespective of whether signals are honest or deceptive. However, sufficient evidence proves that the amount of punishment is essentially higher when it is revealed that a primate is a cheater. Secondly, the benefits of honest behavior are more significant because this strategy does not result in the fact that primates should waste costly resources of their bodies. It relates, for example, to specific swellings that are linked to physiological conditions, meaning that female primates should carefully use them. Higham (2014, p. 10) proves the thought above since the researcher indicates that primates engage in honest behavior when the cost of cheating outweighs its potential benefits. Consequently, since it occurs that deception can bring more harm than advantages, some primates tend to refrain from this behavior and typically follow honesty in situations where food and sex are involved.

In conclusion, the essay has demonstrated that non-human primates can behave honestly or deceptively in the same situations. They can send vocal and olfactory signals to reveal, hide, or present wrong information. Each of these strategies offers benefits and drawbacks, and multiple theories try to explain primates decisions. While the paternity confusion theory and desire to eat more food present the argument for deception, the reliable-indicator and graded-signal hypotheses oppose it. Credible evidence and critical thinking approaches have revealed that honesty is more beneficial for non-human primates when food or sex are involved because deception costs outweigh its potential advantages.

References

Garcia, M. and Ravignani, A. (2020) Acoustic allometry and vocal learning in mammals, Biology Letters, 16(2020081), pp. 1-7.

Gouzoules, H. and Gouzoules, S. (2002) Primate communication: by nature honest, or by experience wise? International Journal of Primatology, 23(4), pp. 821-848.

Hauser, M. D. (1992) Costs of deception: Cheaters are punished in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 89, pp. 12137-12139.

Higham, J. P. (2014) How does honest costly signaling work? Behavioral Ecology, 25(1), pp. 8-11.

Kean, D. et al. (2017) Feeling anxious? The mechanisms of vocal deception in tufted capuchin monkeys, Animal Behavior, 130, pp. 37-46.

Pfefferle, D. et al. (2008) Female Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus) copulation calls do not reveal the fertile phase but influence mating outcome, Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 275, pp. 571-578.

Számadó, S. (2011) The cost of honesty and the fallacy of the handicap principle, Animal Behavior, 81, pp. 3-10.

Vaglio, S. et al. (2021) Olfactory signals and fertility in olive baboons, Scientific Reports, 11(8506). Web.

Walker-Bolton, A. D. and Parga, J. A. (2017) Stink flirting in ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta): male olfactory displays to females as honest, costly signals, American Journal of Primatology, 79(12). Web.

Wright, E. et al. (2021) Chest beats as an honest signal of body size in male mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei), Scientific Reports, 11(6879). Web.

Zinner, D. P. et al. (2004) Sexual selection and exaggerated sexual swellings of female primates, in Kappeler, P. M. and van Schaik, C. P. (Eds.) Sexual selection in primates: new and comparative perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 71-89.

Introduction

The main objective of physiology is to observe, describe, and analyze the various processes that occur within biological organisms. Through these procedures, the field provide new knowledge in regard to the profound mechanisms of animal and human bodies. The data is applied across a range of adjacent disciplines, utilizing the physiological potential of an organism to a fuller extent. In this regard, excretion is one of the key biological processes that serve as the subject of intense interest for researchers. It reflects the ability of an organism to maintain self-regulation, eliminating the waste produced by other systems of the body. Furthermore, excretion helps to maintain the biochemical balance of a body, often becoming adjusted to the external context of living. In other words, the patterns of excretion are subject to change depending on the environment in which a body seeks to optimize its functioning. This effect is attained through excreting the excessive, unrequired, or even dangerous chemical compounds, while retaining the elements that may support the bodys functioning. In a way, excretion variations reflect the natural physiological strive to survive, fully utilizing the self-regulation potential.

This paper focuses on the process of excretion in rodents, aiming to synthesize and evaluate the current body of academic knowledge. Two detailed primary research reports are analyzed that explore this topic, applying the new analysis framework to describe it. In fact, rodents represent an area of increased interest for such research, as these animals are generally known for their abilities to survive in harsh environments, often characterized by the shortage of food and clean potable water (Korine et al., 2003). More specifically, both primary research papers discussed in this report focus on the survival of rodents in the extreme conditions of a desert. In this regard, the physiological processes of excretion play a role of paramount importance in maintaining the functioning of the organism in spite of the high temperature amplitudes and water shortage (Huang et al., 2001). Gallardo et al. (2005) state that the organisms of desert rodents display physiological features that favor body water conservation, such as efficient kidney function, low fecal water content, and comparatively low evaporative water loss (p. 145). These factors are of increased interest for research, as they show how excretion contributes to rodents survival potential. Comparing Gallardo et al. with Huang et al. in regards to retention and conservation in water channels, living conditions, and the balance between survival mechanism and the environment, it is planned to gain a better understanding of how environmental and physiological modifications should be treated to adjust to new conditions and demonstrate solid biological performance.

Critical Analysis

Retention and Conservation in Water Channels

The present report compares and evaluates the findings presented in two research papers that address the excretion in desert rodents. The study by Huang et al. (2001) elaborates on the previously observed inconsistencies in terms of aquaporin-4 water channel presence in rodents. As per their preliminary findings these channels were found in mices renal proximal tubes but in the same organs of rats. Thus, the authors conducted an empirical study that sought to investigate the role of aquaporin-4 as a major contributor to the urinary concentrating mechanism in mammals (Huang et al., 2001, p. 795). The research by Gallardo et al. (2005) was tailored to discuss the intersection of rodents excretion functions with their survivability potential in deserts. Accordingly, the main contribution of their empirical study was to illustrate further the physiological adaptation of rodents to the life in extreme conditions. More specifically, the emphasis was on the retention and conservation of water, which is the resource that exhibits the most serious shortage in such natural habitats.

In terms of the research rationale, both papers rely on scientific facts that provide avenues for subsequent discussions. Previously, Huang et al. (2001) observed the absence of aquaporin-4 water channels in the kidneys of rats, as compared to mice. These findings prompted the authors to investigate the role of this membrane protein in the excretion processes of rodent organisms. Furthermore, Huang et al, (2001) noticed that aquaporin-4 was localized not only to principal cells of the collecting duct but also to basolateral membranes in the S3 segment of the proximal tubule (p. 794). This observation prompted them to suggest that there might be a correlation between the localization of aquaporin-4 and urine concentration in rodents. More specifically, aquaporin-4 was not detected in the kidneys of desert rats, implying that it does not have a strong influence on the urine concentration in mammals.

Simultaneously, the second study approaches the matter from the perspective of water conservation as a survival mechanism for desert-based mammals. As shown in Figure 1, Gallardo et al. (2005) theorize that the seasonal availability of water resources in desert interacts with the functions of rodents kidneys. Their research is equally related to the role of aquaporins in water transportation and preservation within rats excretion systems. Gallardo et al. (2005) state that the absence of aquaporins-1, -2, and -3, is associated with major urine-concentrating defects, whereas the lack of aquaporin-4 only results in mild effects. Thus, their study is based on a logical assumption that the state of water balance primarily modifies the distribution of aquaporin-2 and aquaporin-3.

Importance of Living Conditions

Both studies were completed within an empirical framework with variations in terms of data collection. Huang et al. (2001) worked with the internal organs of the desert kangaroo rats, namely their kidneys, stomachs, and livers. For the purposes of the study, the organs were removed in the laboratory and dissected into several slices. Next, the pieces were subjected to a series of biochemical tests, including immunocytochemistry and in situ hybridization, to observe the presence of specific proteins in the tissue. On the contrary, Gallardo et al. (2005) completed their procedures on live rats that were trapped in the field. The core of their methodology revolved around the comparison of two datasets, one being obtained in the natural habitats of the leaf-eared mice and the other  in the laboratory. Only after that, the test mice were killed and had their kidneys removed for the immunolocalization of aquaporins. Both methodologies reflected the purposes of their respective studies, but the second one also included the measurement of urine concentration in living rodents, which contributed to the practical validity of the research. The chosen methodologies contribute to a better understanding of the living conditions for rodents.

Balance Between Physiological Mechanisms for Survival and the Environment

Ultimately, both procedures returned tangible results that provide new knowledge in regard to the aquaporins in rodents excretion systems. Huang et al. (2001) observed the characteristic staining of aquaporin-1 and aquaporin-2 antibodies in the examined kidneys of rodents. A similar outcome was attained in the case of aquaporin-3, whereas aquaporin-4 staining was not observed in the kidneys of the subjects as show in Figure 2. The highest rate of AQP4 was, in fact, registered in the stomach of the species. These findings suggest that the expression of aquaporin-4 RNA is suppressed in the kidneys of kangaroo rat species. The results obtained by Gallardo et al. (2005) showed urine concentration variations depending on the availability of water resources with higher numbers in dry periods. Next, as per the findings of the immunolocalization, dehydration led to a trifold increase of AQP2 presence in test subjects. At the same time, the state of water balance did not have an observable effect on the distribution of AQP4 within the rodents organism.

The presented findings suggest that aquaporins play a role of paramount importance in maintaining the water balance of desert-based rodent species. Both research groups discussed the ideas of urine concentration dependency on these proteins and their particular varieties. In the case of Huang et al. (2001) a suggestion was made that AQP4 is not as vital for this phenomenon, as implied by the results of their research. This standpoint was further confirmed by Gallardo et al. (2005), who elaborated on the previously available knowledge. From these outcomes, it becomes evident the urine concentration levels of rodents are subject to variations depending on the water balance. Thus, these alterations reflect the animals survival mechanisms in the desert environment. In other words, the excretion system plays a major self-regulatory role that helps rodents overcome the consequence of scarce water supplies. While aquaporins are integral to this mechanism, AQP4, in particular, does not correlate with it.

Future Experiments

In light of the studies analyzed, it is possible to outline the directions of further research. First of all, the findings of both experiments align in terms of the AQP4s role in the excretion system-based water regulation. However, both studies focused on the specific desert-based species. It appears that the expansion of the scope to encompasses a broader variety of rodent species will contribute to the formation of concrete theories in regard to the subject matter. Furthermore, the tendencies in question may be different for the climate zones other than deserts. Different environments pose varying challenges for the water balance of the species, meaning that AQP4 may take a more important role in a new setting.

Using the results offered by the authors of the two articles, there are several critical expectations and hopes. First, future experiments should help highlight the functional role of AQP4 in rodents kidneys if enough access to water resources is and is not provided. Second, certain attention must be paid to seasonal regimes, including warm and dry conditions. Finally, it is expected that water-sparing mechanisms could demonstrate various outcomes regarding the ability to cope with water balance maintenance under different conditions. All these findings will be helpful in understanding the worth of flexible renal mechanisms of rodents in xeric and semi-xeric regions. In both projects, the conclusions are justified with the results and suggest that AQP4 renal expression may be regulated at several levels if there is a balance between the environment and the chosen physiological mechanisms.

References

Huang, Y., Tracy, R., Walsberg, G. E., Makkinje, A., Fang, P., Brown, D., & Van Hoek, A. N. (2001). Absence of aquaporin-4 water channels from kidneys of the desert rodent Dipodomys merriami merriami. Communications of the AC American Journal of Physiology  Renal Physiology, 280, 103108.

Gallardo, P. A., Cortes, A., & Bozinovic F. (2005). Phenotypic flexibility at the molecular and organismal level allows desertdwelling rodents to cope with seasonal water availability. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology: Ecological and Evolutionary Approaches, 78(2), 145152. Web.

Korine, C., Vatnick, I., van Tets, I. G., & Pinshow, B. (2003). New observations on urine contents in water-deprived Negev Desert rodents. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 81(5), 941945. Web.

The grey squirrel is a mammal that is native to the United States and some provinces of Canada. Due to its grey fur, the squirrel frequently occurs in city environments since the color increases the species survival rate in urban conditions. As a consequence, these animals and their behavior are of great interest to researchers. Fieldwork observations might help understand their behavioral patterns better and measure the intelligence and cognition of the grey squirrel, which live in close proximity to humans. Interacting with other species and modifying their behavioral patterns, these animals adjust and survive successfully.

First of all, the behavior of grey squirrels can be considered as highly vigilance with regard to cues of safety. Lilly et al. (2019) show in their research that grey squirrels adapt adequately to the environment to protect themselves from predators. More particularly, researchers pay their attention to the interaction of these animals with birds: they respond to bird chatter, perceiving it as an indicator of the lack of danger.

Lilly et al. (2019) compared the behavior of squirrels when birds chirp and when there was no chatter but playback recording of a red-tailed hawk. Hence, they have found that, in the second case, squirrels more frequently looked up and demonstrated vigilance behavior, whereas, after the chatter, they showed a lower level of alertness. In other words, it suggests that they use information included in bird chatter as a signal of safety. Given that, it can be claimed that grey squirrels adjust their behavior and the level of alarm in accordance with species, which shares the same carnivores. Thus, such interspecies interaction as a measure of safety might prove the high rate of intelligence of the grey squirrels.

Concerning grey squirrels behavior in terms of evolution and learning, they show a high degree of readiness to change preferred behavior and a willingness to switch to other methods of resolving problems. With regard to learned behavior, Chow et al. (2019) found that grey squirrels can inhabit innate and learned behavior when it becomes unproductive and search for alternative solutions. When an animal finds a successful method for solving a problem, it learns and applies it as a cognitively economical method for solving similar problems. However, animals need some adjustment mechanisms in order to change these behavioral patterns if they are not effective anymore.

These behavioral adjustments reflect animals cognitive flexibility essential for problem-solving success (Chow et al., 2019). In other words, the researchers outlined two indicators of problem-solving flexibility. They found that all squirrels successfully dealt with the altered problem, which could not be solved through the previous methods, on the first trial. Moreover, animals showed solving durations comparable to their last experience of using their preferred solution (Chow et al., 2019). Thus, it can be claimed that, due to their inhibitory control, grey squirrels do not necessarily emit innate or learned behavior if it is not effective; as a consequence, they adapt successfully to changing environment.

Furthermore, there is no relation between brain lateralization and grey squirrels learning success. Leaver et al. (2020) examined the connection between lateralization and cognitive performance in Sciurus carolinensis. The researchers used the measurement of left or right paw preference as a behavioral assay of cerebral lateralization, while the squirrels learning speed was a cognitive efficiency assay. They discovered a negative relationship between the strength of paw preference and performance on the learning task (Leaver et al., 2020). Hence, it can be said that grey squirrels are strongly reliant on spatial memory, which is essential for food caches, and might profit from the bilateral redundancy presented by a more symmetrical brain.

Regarding the possible implications of the observations and research articles for measuring animal intelligence and cognition, the presented articles provide relevant information. According to the researches, it is possible to estimate the intelligence level of grey squirrels as high enough. The need to adapt to the urban environment forces them to interact with other species, in particular birds, to defend against common enemies. The ability to perceive signs of other species shows a considerable degree of organization and brainpower. Furthermore, the significant flexibility of the learning processes and the symmetrical brain, revealed in the presented studies, makes it possible to assess the high-level consciousness of grey squirrels.

The studies that are surveying the behavior of squirrels in the course of conducted experiments have discovered not only special behavioral patterns but also confirmation of superior intelligence and consciousness.

To conclude, the fieldwork observations showed a high rate of animal intelligence and cognitive flexibility. Living in urban environments, grey squirrels adapt successfully to quickly changing circumstances due to their willingness to modify behavioral patterns to be more effective, interspecies interactions, and their cognitive efficiency. Grey squirrels demonstrate the ability to protect themselves against predators due to bird signals perception and change their performance if the previous one became less productive. Moreover, the presented observations of grey squirrels behavior might be implemented for estimating animal intelligence and cognition.

References

Chow, P. K. Y., Lea, S. E. G., de Ibarra, N. H., & Théo, R. (2019). Inhibitory control and memory in the search process for a modified problem in grey squirrels, Sciurus carolinensis. Animal Cognition, 22(5), 645-655. Web.

Leaver, L. A, Ford, S., Miller, C.W, Yeo, M.K., & Fawcett, T. W. (2020). Learning is negatively associated with strength of left/right paw preference in wild grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis). Learning & Behavior, 48(1), 96-103. Web.

Lilly, M. V., Lucore, E. C., & Tarvin, K. A. (2019). Eavesdropping grey squirrels infer safety from bird chatter. PLoS One, 14(9), 1-15. Web.

Introduction

To a large extent, common chimps as well as bonobos tend to display characteristics that are similar to those witnessed in human beings. Despite the fact that the two primates are very much alike, it is assumed that there more similarities between bonobos and human beings. Arguably, bonobos and common chimps exhibit behavioral characteristics that are generally quite similar.

In spite of the close relationship between common chimps and bonobos, they differ in a number of ways. This paper looks at the similarities and differences that exist between bonobos and common chimps.

Similarities and Differences between Bonobos and Common Chimps

For some people, the differences between bonobos and common chimps are mainly due to their different sizes. In comparison to common chimps, it is presumed that bonobos are generally smaller in size. This notwithstanding, there are many other differences that exist.

At first, the differences between bonobos and common chimps were considered to be very negligible. With distinct body parts such as longer lower limbs and shorter upper limbs, bonobos were initially thought to be small chimpanzees (Boesch, Hohmann and Marchant 4). It is for this reason that bonobos are sometimes referred to as pygmy chimps. As pointed out earlier, there are some obvious differences between bonobos and common chimps.

Bonobos, for example, display different sexual and social behaviors. While bonobos have been described as being excessively sexual, common chimps less active sexually and generally tend to have loose interrelations. It is also alleged that homosexual interactions are quite common among bonobos. Research findings, however, point to the fact that the difference in terms of sexual behavior is not quite magnified between any two species.

Other studies also indicate that female chimps and bonobos may in some cases display similar sexual characteristics (Boesch, Hohmann and Marchant 5). Unlike bonobos, common chimps also tend to have very tight social groupings that are mainly dominated by male chimps. However, both female chimps and bonobos display a high level of cohesiveness in social groupings.

Bonobos and common chimps are also known to have favorite grooming partners. According to Haviland, Walrath, Prins and McBride (87), grooming takes place between two animals that are very closely related to each other. Usually, it involves one of the animals getting rid of parasites from the other. Other than playing a critical role of enhancing cleanness among animals that are close to each other, grooming is also very vital for promoting friendliness, closeness, and reconciliation.

However, common chimp communities tend to differ in the way they go about grooming. In some chimp communities in East Africa, for example, grooming is usually done while the two chimps involved are positioned face to face. The chimps involved use one hand for grooming while the other hand clasps the partners free hand. In other groups there is no hold onto the partners hand. Common chimp communities in East Africa also incorporate leaves in their grooming while this is not the norm in the Western part of Africa.

In common chimps, frequent sexual activities, initiated by either male or female chimps takes place during estrus, the period when the female is considered to be receptive to impregnation. In common chimps, the skin that surrounds female genitals normally swells during estrus. On the contrary, bonobo females generally appear as though they are fertile at all times as a result of their strong desire for sex.

When in estrus, a chimp female reportedly engages in numerous sexual activities which may sometimes be accompanied by several copulations in any given day with different partners. To a large extent, female chimps often mate with males who belong to their own group. Although it is common for dominant males to monopolize females during the estrus period, this can only succeed with full cooperation from female chimps.

In some cases, a female chimp and a male chimp may form a bond meant to only last for the female chimps fertile period. Unlike common chimps, bonobos can indulge in sexual activities at any time. This is to say that their involvement in sex is not linked to the female bonobos fertility. Ostensibly, the constant genital swelling of bonobos conceals the female bonobos ovulation. This is very similar to what happens in human beings. Ovulation is usually concealed in humans by the absence of constant genital swelling.

Arguably, the ability to hide ovulation in bonobos is very important in separating the use of sex for socialization and pleasure from the use of it for reproduction reasons. Apparently, sexuality among bonobos extends beyond the mating process between males and females for the sake of reproduction.

In some instances, one may come across male bonobos mounting each other as a unique way of demonstrating care and concern. Evidently, however, rubbing is very common among female bonobos. As pointed out by Haviland, Walrath, Prins and McBride (88), sexual activities among bonobos are frequent but also very brief when compared to common chimps.

Arguably, it is impossible for an infant chimp to survive in the event that the mother dies before it is four years old. In the same way, a young bonobo who has lost a mother loses reputation in a social group (Haviland et al. 98). According to research findings, a female chimp only reaches maturity after attaining the age of 10. After giving birth to her first offspring, it is presumed that a female chimp will stay for at least five years before bearing another.

When it comes to communication, bonobos as well as common chimps communicate emotional states rather than information. Apparently, most of the communication done by bonobos and common chimps takes place through the use of specific gestures which may include acts of kissing and embracing.

Among common chimps, facial expressions are used to relay emotions such as excitement, fear, or distress. In order to express pleasure, common chimps may also make use of other techniques which may include spanking their lips. Visual communication among bonobos usually takes place through trail markers.

According to Kappeler, Peter and Watts (424), the way bonobos behave in the evening is worth considering. Whenever sleeping time approaches, bonobos traveling separately but in the same neighborhood call each other as they move around. Apparently, bonobos normally engage in explorations while in large parties during the day. In the evening, they come together to form even larger parties.

At the beginning of every new day, the large parties created in the evening are split into a number of smaller parties before going to forage. Evening calls are, however, not present among common chimps. Interestingly, the size of parties among chimps reduces as evening approaches. Clearly, there is a very strong motivation among bonobos to build high level cohesions.

Unlike the tendency of female chimps to wander alone or in small parties, it is common for female bonobos to attend parties more frequently than their male counterparts. Arguably, this greatly contributes to the cohesion in the group. According to Kappeler, Peter and Watts (425), there are a number of factors that can lead to the differences between bonobos and common chimps. First in the list is the difference in the density of food patches. Apparently, the density of food patches is higher among bonobos.

Secondly, it is alleged that bonobos generally observe the movement of other bonobos as if to determine which direction they should be moving to. Thirdly, estrus periods among female bonobos are usually prolonged.

Ordinarily, female chimps only resume cyclic estrus after a period of between four to five years in the even that their infants get to survive. In addition, female chimps stop showing signs of estrus as soon as two months after conception takes place. For this reason, it is believed that female chimps are in the estrus for about 5 per cent of their adult life.

On the contrary, female bonobos resume swelling cycles one year after parturition. Consequently, female bonobos demonstrate estrus for close to 27 percent of their adult lives. Among bonobos, there are normally many estrous females that exist within a group to such as extent that high esteemed males can not monopolize all of them. As pointed out earlier, it is generally not easy for an infant chimp to survive when the mother succumbs to death before it reaches four years.

A similar situation may also be witnessed when a young bonobo loses the mother. As pointed out earlier, a young bonobo who loses a mother tends to have a weakened social status in a social group. Research findings indicate that a female chimp can only reach maturity after reaching the age of ten. After giving birth to her first offspring, it is alleged that a female chimp will stay for at least five years before bearing another.

Conclusion

Despite the fact that there are variations in opinion by different scholars regarding similarities and differences that exist between bonobos and common chimps, it is obvious that several similarities and differences exist. The similarities discussed in this paper are a clear indication that the two primates are very close relatives.

Both bonobos and common chimps, for example, exhibit various characteristics that are similar to those that are seen among human beings. This notwithstanding, some authors have argued that the similarities that exist between common chimps and human beings are more pronounced that those witnessed between bonobos and human beings.

The discussion in this paper also indicates that the differences between bonobos and common chimps can be placed in different categories for ease of understanding. There are some differences that are as a result of food densities. Ostensibly foods densities among bonobos are higher than among common chimps.

Differences may also be witnessed with regard to the way bonobos and common chimps move around. Unlike common chimps, bonobos observe the movement of other bonobos while traveling from one place to another. Another difference is with regard to estrus periods. On average, bonobos have longer estrus periods than common chimps.

Works Cited

Boesch, Christophe, Gottfried Hohmann and Linda Marchant. Behavioral Diversity in Chimpanzees and Bonobos. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Print.

Haviland, William, Dana Walrath, Harald Prins and Bunny McBride. Evolution and Prehistory: The Human Challenge. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning, 2013. Print.

Kappeler, Peter and David Watts. Long-Term Field Studies of Primates. New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 2012. Print.