Non-consensual intimate image distribution is typical in the modern life of young people all around the world. Most of the time, such actions are performed as an act of anger or revenge. However, even though this is not new, people often do not know how to react to this blackmail. That is the reason why the topic of an article called Young People Just Resolve It in Their Own Group is relevant and needs to be discussed. This paper aims to analyze the article and study the strengths and weaknesses of the work. Young people need respect and no condemnation to feel safe to talk about their problems.
Over the last decade, the problem of non-consensual sexually explicit images has become even more frequent. Often named “revenge porn,” this type of harassment leaves a significant mark on the victims’ reputation, career, and mental and psychological state. Even though such behavior has become criminally convicted recently in many countries, young people continue to have trouble seeking help in such situations. The main reasons for these difficulties are the criminalization of the offender, often the victims’ classmates or other people from the close circle, and the fear of overreaction or being blamed by adults.
The study claims that “they may still avoid seeking help from an adult due to a perceived lack of non-judgemental and helpful supports” (Dodge et al., 2022, p. 313). It is also mentioned that one of the most vital things for supporting young victims without judgment is to respect them as sexual beings that should not be blamed for any sexual acts. The consensual image-sharing taboo forms the truism about sex being a danger. This statement is relevant and should not be disputed.
Teenagers that experienced non-consensual sexually explicit images being published or sent need to feel no pressure and judgment to be able to share their issues with adults. It is declared that sex-positive approaches among adults help teenagers to liberate and become more open about their sexual acts of any kind. This is crucial for young people’s openness at the right moments instead of trying to solve their problems independently.
However, one of the weaknesses of this article’s text is the difference between people and the need for a unique approach. Another suggestion the study offers is educational design in collaboration with young people. This statement is absolute because most of the time, no one knows what is better for youth except for themselves. Many experts declare that “non-criminal alternatives should be made available to allow for expedient, individualized, victim-centered, and restorative responses” (Dodge et al., 2022, p. 315). However, this statement is debatable because every person should be equal before the law and receive deserved treatment. Disobedience to the law and human rights is a severe mistake that needs to be punished for society to stay just.
To conclude, it is crucial for young people to be accepted to be able to trust and be open to adults. Many teenagers were left alone with their sexual issues because they feared rejection and condemnation from adults. Different kinds of support should be provided to help young people to receive assistance. The main aspects that help to open teenagers to dialogue are sexual openness, accepting them as sexual beings, and uncompromising support. Such actions provide favorable conditions for their development as individuals and do not allow them to be emotionally or psychologically hurt by their peers.
1. Mary Buchotlz (2001) dedicated the article to the marked language in multiracial youth culture. In the article, the author bases on anthropological and linguistic research on youth subcultures. The author follows the idea that nerds have an ambiguous racial position. They resist current trends, reject the norm of coolness, and signal their distance from other representatives of American youth.
Also, Bucholtz shows the tendency: ideologically, nerds separate themselves from African and European American students. The coexistence of standard and superstandard English among the multiracial American youth is characterized by the presence of certain phonology, grammar, lexis and slang that make youth subcultures different.
2. The central problem of the article is racial markedness of the American youth subcultures. Bucholtz is focused on whiteness of nerds, their distance from African and European American culture, and explains their peculiarity within the context of standard and nonstandard English.
3. The article raises topical questions concerning youth subcultures and peculiarities of their language. As the phenomenon of racial markedness is peculiar to American youth language, the role of Bucholtz’s article grows.
4. Moreover, the author’s ideas and findings presented in the research, widen scholarly literature, and provide people with anthropological understanding of a language among students.
5. Bucholtz states that unmarked position of whiteness in the United States is conditioned by American history and culture. As the phenomenon of markedness roots in linguistic theory, the author’s problem is based on racial and cultural ideologies. The anthropological view on modern American youth gives an opportunity to believe that interracial distinctions dictate certain tendencies among students.
For example, “hillbillies”, being “degraded form of whiteness” are separated from “the middle-class white norm” (Bucholtz 2001:85). However, the nerds represent the other style of racially marked whiteness. The author considers them as “intellectual overachievers and social underachievers”; for this reason, they seem separated from “trendier youth” (Bucholtz 2001:85).
In the same time, the author notes that racial and ethnic diversity of American students causes racial unmarkedness among European students who practice African youth elements in dance, music, sports, etc. however, the nerds stay apart from the phenomenon of coolness that is so peculiar for African and European American students.
The basic practice for them is “a particular emphasis on language as a resource for the production of an intelligent and nonconformist identity” (Bucholtz 2001:87). The author stresses on the language used by different student groups.
According to Butcholtz, there are standard and nonstandard, or superstandard English language among the youth. The author underlines: “superstandard English contrasts linguistically with Standard English in its greater use of “supercorrecf” linguistic variables: lexical formality, carefully articulated phonological forms, and prescriptively standard grammar” (Bucholtz 2001:88).
The observations show that the nerds tend to use too normal English, avoiding slang; for this reason, they are referred to “hyperwhite” group, in contrast to their black and white counterparts (Bucholtz 2001:96).
6. The research method of the author is based on personal observations. Bucholtz’s observations of multiracial American students (in Bay City High School) gave an opportunity to see students’ language subculture, their binary nature, and define the nerds as a hyperwhite group.
7. The main strength of the article lies in the proved tendency among American nerds to linguistically separate themselves from the others, based on the observations. However, there is the main weakness, as well. As the author observed the students only in one American school, his hypothesis about nerds’ tendency may be inadequate in relation to the American students from other schools.
8. Verbal language presupposes the usage of phonology, grammar, lexis and other linguistic elements of language (Miller et al. 2010). The nerds’ verbal language is different from that of their peers. Their language lacks slang; many slang terms sound unfamiliar to them. However, they can provide literal definitions of synonyms. The observations of the author show that the nerds do not use the expression “kick back”; they use” to relax” instead of it (Bucholtz 2001:90).
As the observation was made in multiracial school, it is necessary to stress that according to linguistic anthropology, culture and society and a person’s social position determine language” (Miller et al. 2010:326). Thus, the researcher reveals that African, Asian and European American students have their own preferences in language. For example, the word “blood” is uttered by a white and a black student in a different way (Bucholtz 2001:90).
According to most anthropologists, culture and language are interdependent phenomena, and determine one another (Miller et al. 2010). In Bucholtz’s article, one may see the diversity of language among student subcultures, conditioned by the variety of their races and ethnic groups. The crucial point of the article is the following: the racial marked whiteness of nerds among American youth is explained by usage of superstandard English and their social distance from their counterparts.
The paper addresses the issues affecting the youth of today with specific reference to unemployment and health.
World political leaders and policymakers are largely to blame for neglecting the youth
Youth Unemployment
The problem affecting many youths worldwide
Causes: Economic downturn and advancement in technology discussed
Results: Crime, delinquency, drugs, vandalism, resistance to authority, etc.
Solutions: Provision of financial relief to unemployed in the form of Unemployment Insurance System/ Entrepreneurial programs in schools discussed
Health
Bad health policies and political establishments to blame
Problems: Poor hygiene, bad habits, persistent behavioral risks, poor sanitation, new and emerging diseases, etc.
Problem compounded by: Financial hardship, unemployment, sanctions, embargos, unequal distribution of wealth, etc.
Solutions: Increase capacity for the youth to acquire quality healthcare, including health education/ Health policies and preventative measures aimed at addressing health problems.
Worldwide, the youth as an age group can be singled out as being under siege due to a myriad of social, health, and economic problems that continue to affect them. So many things seem to have gone wrong for this age group that they are no longer sure of what tomorrow will bring. Of regret is that most of these problems that have continued to face the youth are not particularly restricted to any one ethnic, racial, or religious group. Issues of drug abuse, sexuality, poverty, crime, lack of identity, violence, lack of self-confidence and low self-esteem, unemployment and many more are the norm rather than the exception within this age group (UN, 2003). This shows that something must have gone wrong within the whole social system. This paper, therefore, aims at addressing some of the issues affecting the youth of today, with specific reference to youth unemployment and health.
No one could possibly ever deny that the contemporary world has been a hard world for the youth due to the fact that many world leaders do not give the youth problems the attention they deserve. All that the youth get from political leaders, especially on the African and South American continents is empty rhetoric about youth programs and policies that never come out of the delivery bed. As such, the problem of youth unemployment has gone over the roof the world over. This problem has further been worsened by the economic downturn being experienced the world over (Caton, 2006). Modern advancements in technology have also made particular jobs and skills outdated. The youth has borne the brunt of these experiences since they have, without warning, happened during their time.
But are the world political leaders and policymakers missing a point? Yes, indeed they are. It is not unusual to hear about the world political leaders saying that crime levels have gone up; delinquency levels have upped; revolt against established systems have escalated; and many more accusations and counter-accusations. What they fail to realize is that the youth, just like any other age group, has got their own needs and aspirations (Caton, 2006). Consequently, prolonged unemployment facing them directly translates into financial crisis, frustration, and hopelessness. According to Caton, it is a sad reality that many youths are not adequately mature to cope with such devastating conditions. So, the easiest way out of the quagmire is to result in crime, delinquency, drug abuse, vandalism, open revolt against adult authority, revolt against established systems, etc.
Of concern is that political leaders know the above rules of the game. But they either lack the will to act and save this generation or they just like to bury their heads in the sand wishing that the problem of youth unemployment will go away on its own. But this will not happen anytime soon. Solutions might be found, one of them being the provision of financial relief to the youth to shield them from the hardships of unemployment (Caton, 2006). Those in formal employment should be made to contribute to a compulsory unemployment insurance system and the proceeds shared among the unemployed youth.
Another solution would be to introduce programs that help students to acquire crucial business skills in schools. Such programs could assist the youth to garner entrepreneurial skills that help them learn their own business once they are out of school instead of waiting for formal employment (Nderingo, 2006). This is an action-oriented approach that our political leaders and other policymakers must adapt if they expect the burden of youth unemployment to ease.
Another issue affecting the youth of today is that of health. It should be noted that the youth are the future of the world since almost half of the world’s population are under the age of 20 (UN, 2003). Guaranteeing their health, therefore, becomes an issue of paramount importance. Available evidence points to the direction that healthy youth are well equipped to contribute to the development of their communities, and that of their nations. But this seems not to be the case presently – thanks to our bad health policies and neglect of the youth by political establishments.
Today, youths are more than ever being faced with health problems such as poor hygiene, engaging in unproductive habits, persistent behavioral risks, lack of, or poor basic sanitation amenities, and new and emerging illnesses such as HIV/AIDS (UN, 2003). All blame shifts to governments and policymakers since the state of Programme implementation and research in the field of youth health is sparsely adequate. Most youth, especially in developing nations, bears the burden of poor health due to the effects of injuries caused by war and occupation. The problem of health is often compounded by financial hardship, lack of gainful employment, sanctions and embargoes, poverty, or unequally distributed wealth, among others.
It is indeed true that worldwide interest in the health of youth has been characterized by many expressions of commitment to the youth’s healthy personality, spirituality, and social, mental, and physical wellbeing (UN, 2003). But just like the case of unemployment, these expressions remain nothing more than bare rhetoric. But the policymakers need to do more, especially in increasing the capacity for the youth of today to acquire quality healthcare including health education. The youth are worst affected by new and emerging diseases yet they are deprived of crucial health information that could assist them to make informed health decisions.
Governments and policymakers around the world must also come up with health policies and preventative measures aimed at addressing the health problems facing the youth of today. Issues such as poor sanitation can easily be dealt with by concerned stakeholders if concerted efforts are made to eliminate the problem, especially in slum areas where much unemployed youth reside. That way, the youth of today will regain their pride and be able to reconstruct their lives from the ruins of modern society.
References
Caton, S. Problems affecting Young People Today. 2006. Web.
Nderingo, C. Youth Unemployment Crisis has Workable Solutions. 2006. Web.
This paper seeks to carryout critical analysis of an article, “A Friend Who Understands fully’: Notes on Humanizing Research in A Multiethnic Youth Community” by Django Paris. The article examines how to humanize research in the context of youth and multiethnic communities.
According to Paris (2011), humanizing research involves methodological approach that employs the dialogic process in raising consciousness and building effective relationships between researchers and participants based on dignity and care (p.137).
Humanization of research is not only ethical but also enhances the validity of the research. Since, humanization of research in schools and multiethnic communities is effective in enhancing validity of research, this essay summarizes and critically analyses the research article.
Summary
The article starts by stating that, the relationship between teachers and students seems to be oppressive and imposing; thus, it hinders the process of conducting effective research and affects the validity of findings. In the context of schools and multiethnic communities, elements of oppression and marginalization are barriers that hinder effective research process.
Hence, the article suggests that humanization of methodological approach is the remedy of dispelling fears associated with oppression and marginalization. Paris (2011) asserts that, process of observation and interview during research should engage participants and researchers in a humanizing manner (p.138).
Humanization of methodological process enhances relationships between researchers and participants, thus promote effective interaction that is robust for research. Therefore, humanizing process of research is imperative in an educational environment where oppression and marginalization exist.
To delineate the meaning of humanizing research, the article delves into dialogic contours of relationships and fieldwork moves in the context of youth and multiethnic environment. These relationships form the methodological process that humanize research and ultimately enhances the validity of its findings.
As a basis of research, the author explains own experiences as a way of supporting his views on the essence of humanization of research in multiethnic background where many ethical issues hinder effective research process.
The author conducted a year research at South Vista High, whereby, he examined the progress of eight students in terms of language and literacy, while theorizing how multiethnic environment of schooling may influence their education and career.
According to Paris (2011), occasional interaction with students led to unprecedented understanding that changed my own perception of cultural, social and linguistic worlds (p.138). Central to experiences is the extent to which students closely interacted with him because Rahul, one of the students marveled the author when he emailed him a freestyle lyric, which depicted a lot about the nature of relationships they had.
The article shows that Rahul’s lyric highlighted the essence of relationships in research, for he freely expressed his thoughts to the teacher without any reservation. Paris (2011) states that, “Rahul wrote to me a freestyle lyric because he had developed trust,” thus ‘a friend who understands fully’ what he means for he perceived that they have a common experience of life (p.139).
Rahul was so open to his teacher and researcher, Django Paris, because he had told them about his racial and ethnic identity and his life experiences, which enhanced interaction and relationships. Such experience triggered Django Paris to understand the importance of humanizing research in multiethnic and schooling environment because it is prone to oppression and marginalization.
Through own experiences of humanizing research, Django Paris examined humanization through fieldwork. The article focuses on ways of enhancing participant observation and interviewing as an imperative methodological process of conducting ethnographic research that describes relationships in the context of culture, language and society.
Paris (2011) asserts that, a dialogic process in an effective way of building reciprocal relationships that can humanize research methodology and enhance the validity of its findings (p. 140). Relationships are central in research because; they humanize research process and enhance researchers and participants to interact effectively, as they share issues in a genuine dialogue that is free of oppression and marginalization.
Since schools and law enforcement agents has been constantly monitoring the youth, students have been under serious suspicion in that they could not interact with strangers, thus a barrier to effective research. However, field interaction provided the basis of building trustworthy relationships that made them open up and participate actively in the research process.
To improve humanization of the research, the article states that, interview is central in conducting qualitative research that entails social and ethnographic studies. Collection of reliable and valid interview data requires researchers to develop not only rapport, but also create a friendly and interactive environment that encourages sharing of personal experiences.
In a school environment, there is a sense of power difference between teachers and students, which creates oppressive atmosphere that hinders effective interaction. Additional, in multiethnic schools, there is racial and ethnic prejudice that causes marginalization of other students, and thus affects interaction of teachers and students.
Thus, Paris (2011) explains that, for an interview to be effective in gathering relevant information, researchers need to ensure that students or participants share private issues openly, otherwise oppression and marginalization limits effective interviews (p.143).
It means that an interview should consider ethnic differences among students as in the case of South Vista High. Hence, cultural and linguistic difference plays a significant role in determining interaction of researchers and participants.
The article further asserts that understanding of cultural and linguistic aspects of students demands active participation of researchers in a study. Participant observation of ethnographic research requires a researcher to act as an observer, participant and participant-observer at different times since research is a continuum of activities.
For instance, playing football with other students, makes one a participant, while being passive in the classroom makes one an observant. According to Paris (2011), participation in relationships that are relevant to the participants enhances building of genuine relationships that are interactive and inspiring, and thus form a basis of humanization through participation (p.145).
Therefore, participation on the part of researchers is essential in improving humanization of the research process and enhancing validity of information collected.
Critical Analysis of Article
The author of the article argues basing on empirical experiences that he underwent during the process of conducting research. Research process showed that the author is an empiricist who believes in empirical determination of hypotheses.
Hypothesis of the research was that, humanization of methodological process of research is an effective way of enhancing dialogic interaction between researchers and participants in an oppressive and marginalizing environment, that exists in multiethnic schools. Through empirical approach, the author described how he significantly enhanced interaction and validity of research findings through humanization.
Since the whole article is about the author’s experiences with students, he supports empiricism epistemologies that rely on experiences. According to Grix (2002), empiricism is an epistemology that relies on experience as the foundation of knowledge (p.179).
Thus, the outstanding overreliance of the author on personal experiences shows that he is an empiricist. Specifically, the author bases his assertions on reality of experiences observed while interacting with students; thus, he is a realist. Hence, the article perception of humanization of the research process has its basis in empiricism and realism.
The theoretical framework of the article is empiricism, which asserts that knowledge emanates from empirical studies or personal experiences. Based on empiricism framework, the article delved into experiences of the author concerning the essence of humanization in a multiethnic and schooling environment.
Evidently, the whole article deals with experiences of the author throughout the research period by outlining various interactions and relationships that proved to be effective in enhancing validity of the research. The researcher narrates how he interacted effectively with students during the period of research, for he employed humanizing methodologies of research that aided dialogic process of interaction.
Grix (2002) asserts that, common sense and reality form part of experiences in epistemology of empiricism (p.180). Therefore, the article examines the author’s experiences, which show that he employed empirical framework to elucidate his arguments.
Given that empiricism and realism are part of the theoretical framework, the researcher assumed that his experiences are reliable and replicable in multicultural schools. Through empiricism and realism, the author theorized that culture, ethnicity and power influence an effective research process since oppression and marginalization limits interaction and development of relationships.
The research is a qualitative form of research that uses ethnographic approach in determining ways of humanizing research processes. The ethnographic approach entails collection of data in a social environment, in the form of observations and interviews. Through observations and interview, scientists obtain relevant data that enable understanding of social issues that a research seeks to solve.
Since the problem in the research was improving the effectiveness of the research process and validity of its findings, the article supports the view that humanization of research methodology is an effective way of enhancing validity of findings. In ethnographic approach, researchers focus on studying social variables over a long period.
The research in the article took about a year where the author examined how social, cultural, ethnical and linguistic factors influenced dialogic process of research. Thus, the article presents how the author interacted with students during the period of research and explains how relationship between teachers and students enhanced dialogic process of research that encourages interviews and observations.
Strategies of collecting and interpreting data from an ethnographic study mainly involve interview and participant observation. The author participated actively in conducting the interview and observation among students throughout the year to establish how South Vista High students interact.
The interviews sought to establish how ethnical, social, cultural and linguistic aspects of students influence their interaction with teachers, researchers and even strangers. Moreover, participation observation was another strategy that the article utilized in assessing behaviors of participants.
Participation observation was a dominant strategy because the author actively interacted with students while making observations; thus, the author was both a participant and observer at the same time.
The article falls under chronotope III, which perceives knowledge as a social construct linked to power of relations. Broadly, chronotope III deals with consciousness, skepticism, and praxis. In a social environment, chronotope III holds that dialogic processes enhance individual consciousness and emergence of truth.
Since chronotope III assumes that the truth lies in a person, it views that conscietization is the best way of unmasking reality and enhancing social relationships. With regard to praxis, chronotope III perceives that reciprocal relationships exist between knowledge and theory, hence warrant humanization of research methodology.
According to Kamberelis and Dimitriadis (2005), in qualitative research, chronotopes are historical inquiries that consist of natural experiences of social scientists (p.25). Thus, the author examined own experiences in terms of social, cultural and ethnical factors over a period. The article examines how oppression and marginalization occur in a multicultural environment and affect effective research process.
The article asserts that, observation and interview are considerable methodological approaches of research; however, they are subject to ethnical, cultural, and social prejudices that limit effective interaction of participants. Thus, humanization of social and cultural factors in research enhances relationship between researchers and participants.
The article used and criticized other elements in the literature regarding humanization of research methodology. The article quoted Paulo Freire who asserted that relationship between teachers and the student is oppressive because of power differences. Moreover, the article utilized a number of literature reviews that showed that social and ethnic issues affect relationships between teachers and students.
Thus, the author used literature as the basis of conducting research to establish whether humanization of research methodology enhances its validity. Given that literature review confirms that social and ethnic factors affect the validity of interviews and observations, the author extends the research through humanization.
To study humanization approach, the qualitative research involved personal experiences of the researcher throughout the year while interacting with students of South Vista High. Thus, humanization of research methodology was the objective of the article in enhancing effectiveness and validity of research.
Conclusion
Finally, humanization of research is imperative in enhancing the relationship between researchers and participants. The article has effectively demonstrated that relationships between researchers and participants determine not only ethical nature of the research process but also validity of the information. Relationships between teachers and students can be oppressive, thus limiting effective interaction.
Moreover, multiethnic schools are also prone to ethnic or racial prejudice that causes marginalization of other students. Hence, under aforementioned oppressive and marginalizing environment, research cannot be effective because students have many reservations that significantly affect the validity of the findings.
Therefore, humanization of research methodology process is particularly essential in enhancing dialogic consciousness, building trustworthy relationships, and interactions that are robust for effective research.
References
Grix, J. (2002). Introducing Students to the Generic Terminology of Social Research. Politics, 22(3), 175-186.
Kamberelis, G., & Dimitriadis, G. (2005). On qualitative Inquiry: Approaches to Language and Literacy Research. New York: Teachers College Press.
Paris, D. (2011). A friend who Understand Fully: Notes on humanizing Research In a Multiethnic Youth Community. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 24(2), 137-149.
Youth is both a beautiful and challenging period in a person’s life. Now, living it, I am trying simultaneously to find my purpose and not lose my inner self. When I think about who I am, I answer questions we all have asked ourselves at once or another. What is my passion? What am I interested in? I think creativity is an essential part of my life, my primary motivator, and my source of everyday pleasure. Today I will reflect on this topic using a film camera, my smartphone, and a potted plant to reflect various aspects of my personality.
Each of these items reflects some critical aspect of my personality for me. Firstly, the film camera demonstrates my passion for photography and shooting. Further, my smartphone in this story is a “window to the world.” It is a tool for communicating with the community of creators and sharing my art. Finally, the plant – not cut, but growing – reflects my vision of myself in art as capable of change and not getting hung up on one topic.
I’ll start with the camera, as it is a metaphor for my passion for photography and my working tool. I shoot not only on film but for this performance; I chose it as this technique embodies everything I like in the shooting process – spontaneity and capturing that unique moment. Still, in film shooting, retro photography has charm – no editing, no ability to remake the frame. Instead, you press the shutter – and that’s it; the moment is captured precisely in the form you could catch. I also like the moment of developing the film. My parents gave me this camera; I think they know me and what I want.
I talked about why I like taking pictures, and now, using the example of a smartphone, I’ll tell you how I love to communicate with like-minded people.
I use my smartphone mainly for social networks, where I post my work and get inspired by other people’s art. It’s not enough for me to shoot something and put it in an album; I love interacting with people and finding inspiration in this. Of course, criticism is also present, but I appreciate constructive comments – this allows me to improve my skills. I think a smartphone with access to social networks and a modern photographer is a beautiful tool for work. I can’t imagine myself without access to a community of creators from all over the world.
The previous two items directly reflected my interests, but the flower in the pot is instead a metaphor for my personality.
I don’t like cut bouquets – of course, they can be wonderful, but this story is always about withering, not development. This green sprout may be tiny, but it clings tightly to the soil with its roots and someday will grow into a beautiful plant. I also like that living plants can grow as long as possible until something restricts their growth. I feel the energy of creativity and creation, and I hope never to limit myself because the bolder you dream, the more chances you have to achieve success. Even though I have just put down my roots and grope my way to the sun, this is already an essential step in finding a path in life. I feel like I’m growing every day, just like this flower, and it’s an incredible feeling!
Today I opened my inner world a little to you, using three essential items. First, I told you about my passion for photography using my film camera as an example. Then, I explained why the smartphone plays such an essential role in my creative life. In the end, through the flower metaphor, I explained how I felt during this period.
So, returning to the tricky questions I identified at the very beginning – can I call creativity my main passion and interest at this stage of life? I believe this is true, but like a flower in a pot, I will always allow myself to change and transform but listen only to myself on this challenging path.
The youth comprise a significant proportion of every society. Youth can be defined as a group of young people who are in the transitional stage from childhood to adulthood and are considered to be the most energetic. It is a stage during which the young people try to define their identity and prepare them for citizenship and adulthood (Shamsie, 2006). However, it has not been easy to fix the definition of youth in chronological terms. In most countries, the age of the youth is drawn at the time when an individual is treated equally under the law, normally referred to as the age of majority. Many countries place it at age 18 and beyond this age, one is considered an adult. It is therefore important to note that the definition of the term youth depends greatly on the socio-cultural, political, institutional, and economic factors of a given country. The working chronological age for the purposes of this essay is between the ages 15 and 29, which is used mainly by most National Youth Councils. This essay will discuss some problems facing the youth and why this crisis appears to be a major concern for adult society.
There are a number of problems encountered by the youth of today all over the world. Unemployment is one of the major problems facing today’s young generation (Shamsie, 2006). Every young person must be prepared to overcome the challenges of adolescence and adulthood. This means that he or she must engage in progressive experiences and activities which will, in turn, enable him or her to become socially, emotionally, morally, economically, physically, as well as cognitively competent. As one approaches the mid-20s, he or she starts experiencing the transition from schooling to work. Many young people at this age would be expected to secure a job and earn instead of the continued reliance on the parents or guardians. This trend in most instances is hampered by the lack of job opportunities for a large number of young people in society.
Difficulty in securing a place of work implies that the youth can hardly get a stable source of income for personal use and even for the other dependents like the parents or siblings. This is despite the fact that a lot of resources are injected towards educating them. The fact that many young people lack a stable source of income and yet they are the most energetic members of society is ridiculous. A number of youth resort to other alternative ways of survival like theft, forceful robbery, carjacking, and other illegal deals that will enable them to get the money that they desperately need. This is one concern that threatens the fabric of society especially the adult members of the society. The problem is worsened by the fact that there are many young people who are faced with the same problem and hence adding to the magnitude of illegal incidences. In most countries, therefore, the problem of unemployment among the youth has become a major concern of the adult society especially the governments (White, 1999).
Furthermore, unemployment can become the genesis of all other sorts of problems that face the youth. Young people who fail to prosper in society may end up despairing in life and may start smoking, using alcohol, and the use of other drugs. This is common among the youth who leave schooling at an early age and hence can get no meaningful employment. The use of drugs among the youth results in a less productive generation of young people who should otherwise be the building stones for a more stable society. Any adult society, therefore, ought to be concerned about this major problem that faces the youth since they are expected to be the society’s tomorrow.
For the female youth, difficult times at this particular stage may force them to engage in promiscuous activities like sex for pay, and these results in unwanted pregnancies and the contraction of sexually transmitted diseases. The general loss of morality among the young people can plunge the whole generation into enormous problems like increased psychological distress and other mental problems, HIV/AIDS prevalence among the youth, and criminal activities that may ruin a whole generation (White, 1999). These youth problems in many countries appear to be of major concern for adult society.
It is therefore paramount for every society to rise up and address the plight of the young people if it is to prosper to greater heights. This will call for the creation of job opportunities in society and empowering the youth through training on entrepreneurial skills. This will go a long way in ensuring that the society gets proper continuity through its youth.
Reference
Shamsie, S. J. (2006). Youth: Problems and solutions. Lea & Febiger.
White, R. (1999). The Australian youth subcultures: in the Mainstream and on the margins. Australian Clearinghouse for Youth Studies.
Youth empowerment means integrating creativity, energy and power for the young people in order to realize change in the community and the world at large. It can also be defined as change in attitude, structures and cultural ways of young people in order to acquire ability and authority to make decisions that will change their lives as well as those of others. It involves introduction of equity, civil engagement and democracy among the youths in the society (Curtis, 2008).
Youth Empowerment
Positive change in today’s society can be achieved through empowering and engaging the youths in the society. If young people in a given society are not actively involved in important activities in the society they can be destructive and thus negative change in the society.
It is therefore important to empower them by allowing them to participate in the institutions and make decisions that will influence the society positively. This changes the view that young people are problematic to people who can bring about positive change. Youth participatory should be community based and should involve young people in poor and marginalized areas (Flores, 2008).
Youths are the majority of the world’s population. In addition, many of them are found in the developing countries and they live in poverty. Due to economic situation in these countries many of the youths are without jobs and thus cannot earn sustainable livelihood. By providing employment for youths either in formal or informal sector will translate to hunger and poverty free society. This can be achieved by engaging and empowering the youths in the society (Checkoway and, Gutierrez, 2006).
Empowering youth engagement in the society is done by various institutions in the society such as government, international government and non-governmental organizations. They do so through programs managed by youths. They look into the rights of youths as well as providing council and activism (Sherrod, et al., 2007).
Creating a favorable environment that provides an opportunity for youth leadership will enable them to develop skills needed for change in the society as well as providing opportunity to providing their services to others. Youths can also be empowered by offering ideas concerning work and education. In addition, the assets that can develop this process are also important.
Governments in many countries today are on the forefront in ensuring youth empowerment. This is by providing policies and programs that encourage youth participation in the society. Moreover, these policies allow the young people to have one strong voice in which they can air out issues affecting them. The governments can also fund projects that allow youths to actively participate in changing the society. This entails building infrastructures in which youths can practice participation (Vavrus and Fletcher, 2006).
Other institutions such as schools can empower youths by encouraging youth participation in governance of schools. Empowering youth engagement in the society can also be achieved by increasing financial resources hence reducing dependence on others for support. Equality should also be encouraged in education, wages and power. Awareness campaigns, dialogue and seminars are used in encouraging youth participation and engagement in the society (Sazama and Young, 2006).
Conclusion
Youth active participation cannot be ignored if there has to be any positive change in our societies. Institutional activities should therefore be carried out with youths in mind. Relevant information should be provided for development of youth programs. To engage young people, one has to make use of good communication methods. In addition, they must be given power to influence important decisions. This allows participation to be active and creative hence empowering youth’s engagement in the society.
References
Checkoway, B. & Gutierrez, L. (eds) (2006). Youth Participation and Community Change. Routledge.
Curtis, K. (2008) Empowering Youth: How to Encourage Young Leaders to Do Great Things. Search Institute Press.
Flores, S. (2008) Youth Participatory Evaluation: Strategies for Engaging Young People. San Francisco, John Wiley and Sons.
Sazama, J. & Young, K. (2006) 15 Points to Successfully Involving Youth in Decision-Making, Boston: Youth on Board.
Sherrod, R. et al. ( 2007) Handbook of Research on Civic Engagement in Youth. New Jersey, John Wiley and Sons.
Vavrus, J. & Fletcher, A. (2006) Guide to Social Change Led By and With Young People.
Background: Rural-urban migration and youth in Bhutan
Rural-urban migration is a universal concern across the globe. Just like other nations, Bhutan is experiencing mass movement of people, especially youths from rural to urban areas. The bulk of Bhutan’s population is composed of the youth. Actually, more than half of Bhutan population is aged below 25 years.
Due to the increasing youth population, the government faces a challenge of ensuring equilibrium between contemporary beliefs and modernity. Bhutan is experiencing massive changes in its personnel due to rural-urban migration. In addition, the mass movement of people to urban areas has led to unemployment and poverty in urban centers.
According to the 2012 labor survey, over 0.7% of the rural populace migrated to towns. Further, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization showed that about 33% of Bhutan populace is in deficiency of food safety. The poverty analysis report (2007) exhibited that approximately one-third of the rural populace is poor compared to 2% in the urban areas.
Over the last fifty years, Bhutan has experienced rapid growth of its urban areas due to mass movement of populace from the countryside to urban areas. This trend is a major public concern to the state and the government has experienced a number of obstacles in tackling the challenge of rural-urban migration (Rinzin et al., 2005). A number of factors have been proposed in explaining the trend (Yeung, 2005).
Bhutan’s urban populace augments at a yearly rate of 6.5 percent. The prolonged rural-urban inclination is expected to grow four-fold in the coming twenty years, among which a significant proportion are youth. Studies contend that increased need for education by youth has been a significant factor in influencing the movement of people to towns as well as the growth of urban settlements within Bhutan (Kasarda, 2001).
Rural-urban migration has affected negatively on the development of the rural economy. For instance, a number of youths who migrate to urban centers deprive the rural economy of productive labor that is a significant factor of production leading low agricultural performance and high production costs (Kasarda, 2001).
The movement of youths to towns can also be attributed to Bhutan landscape that ranges from subtropical plains to sub-alpine Himalayan Mountains as well as rugged geographical terrains making farming difficult.
According to the Human Development Report (2009), Bhutan accounts for the highest rate of rural-urban migration in South Asia. The government acknowledged the positive impact of the trend since it alleviated the pressure on agricultural land that only composes approximately 9% of nation’s overall area.
However, with steady increase in rural-urban migration over the last fifty years, diverse views have been devised to address the issue. For instance, mitigation of rural-urban migration involves the investment of explicit initiatives such as linking rural development with tourism as well as encouraging youths to go back to the villages and help in the transformation of the economic landscape through farming.
The National Statistical Bureau Report (2005) showed that majority of youths migrate to urban centers to pursue employment prospects as well as better education. Further, the increased inclination of the youth towards moving to urban areas arises from the challenges that the youth face in rural areas such as poor health facilities, unemployment, poor living standards as well as poor lifestyles (Kasarda, 2001).
However, in moving to cities, youth encounter a number of challenges including discrimination, unwelcoming communities, financial deficiencies, lack of parental guidance and harassment. According to Zurick (2006), sexual exploitation, as well as emotional and psychological trauma, poses serious concerns for the youth.
Factors for rural-urban migration in Bhutan
Education
The need for education by the youth has been identified as a major concern contributing to mass rural-urban migration in Bhutan. Due to an inadequate number of secondary and tertiary institutions in rural areas, a large population of youth move to urban centers to pursue educational needs (Frame, 2005).
In essence, education is significant in the acquisition of skills and training that provide a path for the youth to develop their skills leading to securing of jobs in the industries and factories. In fact, a number of youths in the urban vicinities of Bhutan attend training school offering computer, technology and construction courses, thereby increasing their chances of being employed.
Lack of social amenities and facilities in the village
Yeung (2005) asserts that the pace of rural-urban migration in Bhutan is a serious anxiety for the government, owing to its implication on the socio-economic aspects. Several factors play significant roles in encouraging mass movement of populace to urban centers.
Firstly, developments experienced in infrastructure in terms of hospitals, housing, road connectivity and transportation facilities continue to encourage mass movement of populace from rural to urban areas (Radcliffe, 2006). In fact, the UNDP’s human development report (2009) found Bhutan forms the bulk of annual rate of urban migration in South Asia at above five percent.
Family issues
Family issues have been a major factor contributing to rural-urban migration. For instance, families move to cities due to job transfers. In addition, marriages in cities have influenced urban migration. Moreover, relocation desires by family members to settle in urban areas to escape monotony and poverty has shown an increasing trend over the recent past (Radcliffe, 2006).
Rural poverty
Poverty is a major concern for the general Bhutan population accounting for over thirty percent. Over ninety percent of the population in Bhutan resides in the rural areas.
Further, the country’s topography is mainly composed of mountains and valleys, which constrain the prospects of producing food as well as the generation of cash proceeds. Moreover, the rugged terrain leads to deficiency in accessing good quality land resources and diminishes the prospective irrigation facilities (Radcliffe, 2006).
In addition, the rural populace is faced with scarce external inputs and services together with low farm expertise. Therefore, many people have no option but to move to urban areas to search for better livelihoods. Further, Bhutan is characterized with natural catastrophes, including landslides that increase the cost of goods.
Employment prospects and new experiences
Since the bulk of jobs in the rural vicinities of Bhutan are majorly agricultural-oriented, many youths are moving to the cities in search of white-collar jobs. As such, farming activities in the rural neighborhoods compel the youth and other members of the society to move to urban areas in search for employment prospects (Rinzin et al., 2005).
Moreover, a number of people move to towns to fulfill their spirits of adventure and experiences. Through migrating to the urban locations, the people are presented with diverse prospects of arts, living standards, foods as well as leisure activities.
Increasing population
The high population in the rural areas is a major aspect contributing to rural-urban migration. The large percentage of youth (15-24) in Bhutan accounting for over 22% continues to rise steadily. The implications of the rise in the rural areas include poor provision of education services, poor health amenities and unemployment (Frame, 2005).
The factors put pressure on the youth to move to urban centers to look for better services. Further, the increase in the rural youth population increases the pressure on the need to acquire secondary and tertiary levels of education.
However, the pressure results in deficiency of space as well as teachers prompting many people to move to urban vicinities to gain education services.
Impacts of rural-urban migration in Bhutan
Swelling of urban populace
A larger percentage of Bhutan population resides in the rural vicinities accounting for approximately seventy percent. However, over the recent past, the tempo of urbanization has been alarming.
According to the Bhutan Nation Urbanization Strategy 2008, the urban populace has significantly increased over the last decade (1994-2005) by over 100%. The increase in the urban population presents twice the growth of the national population experienced in the same decade (Rizal, 2002).
The rapid growth of population in urban areas comes with its disadvantages. For instance, the unprecedented growth strains the exploitation of the urban services leading to propagation of shanties, inadequate medical facilities, and inadequate drinking water.
Further, the increasing urban population, rates of unemployment, environmental problems including and poor sewerage systems are common in the cities of Thimphu and Phuentsholing.
Land dilapidation and pollution
Bhutan continues to face a serious concern of land dilapidation resulting from human activities as well as innate occurrences such as landslides and floods. In fact, the increasing youth population in the urban centers in search of employment prospects in the industries wields pressure on the ecological and the innate resources in the town vicinities.
For instance, there has been escalating encroachment to forestlands as the populace numbers swell in towns leading to internal biophysical and chemical corrosion (Potter et al., 2004). Further, the increasing populace of the youth in the urban neighborhoods contributes to the emergence of new industries. The industries, in turn, release dangerous emissions into the atmosphere, posing dangerous health concerns to the urban society.
Actually, Bhutan cities continue to record an augmenting inclination of respiratory ailments among its urban populace. Further, the escalation of land fragmentation has increased the deficiency of economies of scales among the youth, thereby blighting their prospects of attaining self-reliance.
Increasing health concerns and social crimes among the youth
The prevalence of early marriages, teenage pregnancies as well as sexually transmitted diseases have been on the increase among the youth in urban cities (Kasarda, 2001). Most importantly, increasing trends in HIV/AIDS infection prevalence have been realized over the past among the youth in Bhutan towns.
Further, due to the increase in the dominance of the HIV/AIDS scourge in the international arena and the neighboring states of Bhutan, the predominance of the virus is expected to increase. Moreover, the increasing rates of unemployment in the urban centers has prompted a number of youths to engage in acts of prostitution thereby posing their lives to the danger of acquiring HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases.
Increased cases of substance abuse by the youth in the urban vicinities of Bhutan also contribute to the predominance of the malady.
For example, the statistical yearbook 2007 reported that crime occurrences related to drugs and narcotics tripled within four years jumping from twenty cases in the year two thousand and one to sixty-five cases in the year two thousand and five. Additionally, unsafe abortions have been on the rise among the urban youths leading higher maternal deaths.
Increasing unemployment rates among the youth in urban centers
Unemployment levels have been on the increase within the urban vicinities of Bhutan. In other words, the large number of people from the villages has created pressure on the available job prospects, waste disposal systems, as well as housing (Zurick, 2006). As a result, many people compete for the inadequate number of jobs rendering a higher percentage of the populace unemployed.
Government initiatives to curb rural-urban migration
The royal government of Bhutan has made remarkable steps to counter the menace of rural-urban migration. First, the government recognizes the constrictions that the increasing urban populaces pose to the resource limits in the towns.
To stem out the increasing rate of rural-urban migration, the production-access-market policy has played significant role in improving living standards within the countryside neighborhoods (Rizal, 2002). In essence, the policy tries to get better rural education systems as well as introduction of market-receptive crops.
Additionally, the initiative aims at improving the access to local road networks, thereby enhancing living standards and retention of larger proportion of populace in the rural areas. Improving the education facilities in the local areas prevents many youths from moving to urban centers since education is the major factor contributing to rural-urban migration among the youth.
The policy also attempts to eliminate factors that encourage movement of families into urban areas through promoting the development of urban centers in vicinities with large number of people as well as commercially feasible areas (Frame, 2005). Further, the government has made tremendous steps in expanding and relocating the rural neighborhoods into new local towns, thereby absorbing the large populace moving to towns.
For instance, the development of Khuruthang town, a commercial and education hub is a success of the initiative. In fact, the center has been significant in absorbing migrants from rural vicinities (Frame, 2005).
Bhutan’s national urbanization strategy has also been invaluable in stemming out the increasing number of youths in urban areas. The policy focuses on improving the well-being of poor rural populace as well as maintaining the sustainability of the ecology.
Further, through the construction of roads in different parts of the country, linkages between different areas of Bhutan have been efficient leading to development of new urban centers (Frame, 2005).
The government has increased awareness among the members of the public on the effects of population growth. Actually, the government has disseminated data related to population growth implications to the citizens through publications as well as electronic media channels.
In addition, the government has increased its focus on the provision of accessible education services and reproductive health services to the youth in both urban and rural vicinities preventing mass movements to urban areas (Frame, 2005).
The creation of an enabling environment where the rural populaces have access to financial and investment opportunities has proven invaluable in containing rural-urban migration. In fact, there have been increased systems that have tremendously expanded employment and benefits to the rural fraternity slowing down the rate of rural-urban migration.
The dynamism experienced in the global fraternity has forced the government to provide solutions to the problems affecting youths and keep them posted on the contemporary issues in the society. A large proportion of Bhutan youths abuse drugs such as marijuana and inhalants as well as alcohol.
The porous frontier of India and Bhutan has increased rates of drug trafficking among youths. The government is addressing the concern of drug abuse through the establishment of treatment and rehabilitation centers. For instance, the youth development fund supports several one drop-in centers.
Education is a major aspect influencing the migration of youth to urban centers. The Bhutanese government is tackling this concern through a number of initiatives. For instance, the government is posting more graduates in the rural education facilities. Further, the government also encourages the media coverage on challenges experienced in urban areas to bring out clearly the real picture of turban environment.
The escalating joblessness in urban centers has occasioned a number of youths to engage in petty crimes and prostitution. However, the Bhutan Foundation has played major roles in countering such concerns. The foundation engages the youth through offering scholarships and education prospects, promotion of sports, music and arts as well as employment opportunities.
The royal government of Bhutan also continues to focus on improving vocational education among the youth in the rural areas through expansion of science, information technology as well as crafts (Rinzin et al., 2005). In addition, strengthening of the training institutions’ capacities in the rural population has proven significant in the prevention of further migrations to the urban centers.
Unemployment among the youth has been found to be one of the major factors contributing to rural-urban migration (Rinzin et al., 2005). As such, the government has focused on a number of initiatives to reduce unemployment as a way of curbing rural-urban movement. For instance, the government is diversifying job prospects across the country.
The development of coordinated and planned urban expansion systems that are equivalent to the rate of migration has been invaluable (Rinzin et al., 2005). Further, the government has been encouraging regional equality through provision of quality services and employment prospects across the country.
Through the establishment of the rural livelihoods funds, the government has been able to mitigate rural-urban migration by initiating programs that improve rural revenue and livelihoods through agricultural development (Frame, 2005).
In fact, the program has realized massive achievements concerning poverty alleviation through the construction of revenue-generating enterprises in the rural areas such as Lamtang and Pam-Chaibi, among others.
References
Frame, B. 2005. “Bhutan: a review of its approach to sustainable development,” Development Practice, vol.15 no.2, pp.216-221.
Kasarda, JD 2001, “Third world urbanization: dimensions, theories, and determinants,” Annual Review of Sociology, vol.17 no.3, pp.467-501.
Potter, RT, Elliott, BJ & Smith, D 2004, Geographies of development, Pearson /Prentice Hall, Harlow, England.
Radcliffe, S 2006, Culture and development in a globalizing world: geographies, actors, and paradigms, Routledge, London.
Rinzin, A, Chophel, T, Peljor, N & Jambayang, T 2005, “Rural—Urban migration in Bhutan: policy and planning,” Urban Studies, vol.33 no.7, pp.1045-1060.
Rizal, D 2002, “Administrative system in Bhutan: retrospect & prospect,” Asian Affairs, vol.30 no.3, pp.284-295.
Yeung, HWC 2005, “Rethinking relational economic geography,” Transactions, Institute of British Geographers, vol.30 no.1, pp.37-51.
Zurick, D 2006, “Gross national happiness and environmental status in Bhutan,” Geographical Review, vol.96 no.4, pp.657-681.
Mass shootings in schools, gun homicides, non-fatal and fatal street shootings, and other types of gun violence have recently become a highly disturbing and urgent social problem. Its significance is determined by the fact that gun violence strongly affects young people physically and mentally. In the United States, more than 3,000 children and adolescents aged from 0 to 19 years old are shot and killed every year (“The impact of gun violence on children and teens,” 2021). Moreover, approximately 15,000 young people are shot and injured – in other words, 51 young Americans are affected by gun violence every year (“The impact of gun violence on children and teens,” 2021). At the same time, the victims of gun violence are people who witnessed how their family members, friends, or unknown people have been killed by the gun or heard gunshots, as well.
In general, firearms may be regarded as the leading cause of death among young people, and it is a purely American problem not typical for other high-income countries (“The impact of gun violence on children and teens,” 2021). The cases of gun violence that affect children and adolescents include homicides, suicides, street shootings in urban areas, and mass shootings in schools and other education facilities. As a matter of fact, the intersection of gun violence and domestic violence has the biggest impact on youth – almost 60% of young people affected by gun violence every year are affected by homicides (“The impact of gun violence on children and teens,” 2021). Children are killed in the home or witness the death of family members. Another major reason for gun deaths among young people is suicides, the number of which has dramatically increased over the past several decades. In addition, high rates of suicides are also determined by increased access to a weapon for young people, and the combination of a loaded and unlocked gun at home with suicidal ideation may be lethal.
At the same time, gun violence is represented in multiple ways in American schools as well. Students are frequently impacted by intentional and unintentional shootings that cause injury or death, gun homicides, and gun suicides. In addition, Black and Hispanic young people are more affected by gun violence in comparison with White children and adolescents due to racial segregation and deliberate underinvestments in their neighborhoods and communities (“The impact of gun violence on children and teens,” 2021). Nevertheless, gun violence causes highly severe physical and psychological harm for youth regardless of age, race, and family socioeconomic status. Injuries may cause irreparable negative consequences to health, and being a witness to shootings substantially affects mental health. Young people exposed to any type of gun violence experience various negative psychological effects that include posttraumatic stress, desensitization to violence, anger, withdrawal, constant fear, anxiety, and even suicidal ideation. In addition, for students, these short-term and long-term psychological effects may cause a lack of concentration, distraction, and, as a result, poor school performance (Bergen-Cico et al., 2018).
Modern findings suggest classifying young people’s exposure to gun violence as an adverse childhood experience in order to initiate more research for efficient preventative and responsive measures (Rajan et al., 2019). In the present day, almost all suggested and already implemented measures are concentrated around gun sales control. In other words, a weapon should be inaccessible to children, adolescents, domestic abusers, and mentally unstable people to prevent shootings and suicides. Moreover, schools should implement particular thread assessment programs to identify students vulnerable to the risk of violence committing to prevent tragic incidents.
There has been a rise in sexual awareness among the teenagers. The statistical comparison of the current and past generations sharply differs. The mass media is largely to blame for the sexual practices in the youths.
Introduction
Are today’s teens becoming more sexually active and aware at a younger age than previous generations? Currently, teenagers have more information on sexuality while some have sexual experiences at a tender age. Parents and the media have to combine efforts to fight the vice.
Literature review
Chapman, J. (2000). Adolescent sex and mass media: a developmental approach. Miami: Herald.
According to Chapman, the media is to be blame for the sharp rise in adolescent sex. To solve the problem, Chapman recommends the establishment of a body to monitor the contribution of media on sexuality.
Brown, D. (2002). Mass media influences on sexuality. New York: Harper & Row.
Brown also blames the media as the major source of moral decadence. He calls for the restrictions of teenagers from accessing obscene materials from the media.
Ponton, L. (2000). The Sex Lives of Teenagers. New York: Dutton.
Ponton is concerned about the sharp rise in teen pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases. Therefore, she recommends an explicit study to solve the problem.
Analysis
The first two authors of the above books point a blame finger at the media and the parents while the third author recommends for clear study to establish the origin of the problem.
Methodology
Through epidemiological approach, a retrospective study of teenagers (13-18 years). There will be an assessment of media and lifestyle comparing the behavior in the age groups. Results will determine the conclusion and recommendations.
Hypothesis and Conclusion
Sex is rampant among the teenagers. I believe my research will establish the cause of sexual exposure in teenagers and the subsequent ways to solve the problem.
References
Brown, D. (2002). Mass media influences on sexuality. New York: Harper & Row.
Chapman, J. (2000). Adolescent sex and mass media: a developmental approach. Miami: Herald.
Ponton, L. (2000). The Sex Lives of Teenagers. New York: Dutton