Category: Youth

Purpose of the study

The study illustrates the utility of process evaluation methods for improving a new violence prevention program, Youth Empowerment Solutions for Peaceful Communities (YES) (Peace in the Hood, 2010). The program helps young people to plan their community projects.

Research questions

This study aims to deliver relevant illustrations that provide answers to the following questions:

1. how does a systematic process evaluation study improve program activities?
2. How does a process evaluation study guide program enhance youth empowerment?

What can the YES program draw from Empowerment and ecological theories on:

• The multiple levels of the social context and organizations within which youth develop,
• The variety of social and contextual factors that influence community change efforts;
• The role that the physical environment plays in preventing or facilitating community violence?

Population/sample

Participants included youths and adults. In the first year, 66 youth (29seventh graders and 37 eighth graders) were recruited. In the second year, 14 new seventh graders and 49 new eighth-graders were recruited. Another 14 eighth graders remained in the program from year one. In both years, the students’ ages ranged from 12 to 15, and all reported being African American. In the first year, nine neighborhood advocates were recruited by the program staff at community meetings. In year two, three from year one were retained and seven new advocates were added. All advocates were African American. In both years, the youngest advocate was in her thirties and the oldest were in their seventies. After the first year, six out of ten neighborhood advocates participated in interviews. After the second year, nine of the eleven advocates completed interviews.

Methodology of study

The youths identified conditions in their community that contributed to youth violence and communicated their findings to peers and adults. The program provided adult supervision while promoting social norms, being supportive of nonviolence, and community involvement. Finally, it initiated community-level change by improving the physical environment of neighborhoods. The intervention included three components: youth empowerment, adult capacity building, and community development. Youth empowerment connected students with supportive adult staff and neighborhood advocates. Adult capacity building prepared neighborhood advocates to work with and engage youth in community change activities. Community development engaged participants in planning and implementing community change projects. Methods of evaluation process included: Youth Evaluation Questionnaire, Youth Focus Groups, and Interviews with Adult Neighborhood Advocates.

Data analysis

Various strategies used to analyze data included: Tabulation of frequencies and means for the youth questionnaire data, completion of a thematic analysis of written responses to the open-ended questions, and transcribing and coding of audiotapes of the neighborhood advocate interviews.

Results

Youth evaluation questionnaire

In the first year, the ratings for staff and advocates helping the youth to feel empowered and working hard to help youth be successful were observed to be similar. Respondents gave neutral ratings about whether adults imposed their will on the youths. Most comments on the open-ended questions were positive while a third of the comments indicated a need for improvement. When the same question was presented to neighborhood advocates, nearly two-thirds of the comments addressed needed improvements. In the second year, the youth gave higher average ratings of both the program staff and the neighborhood advocates in the areas of helping them feel empowered and to be successful. Little change was observed in the ratings of making the youth comply with imposed rules, though a greater percentage of positive responses on the open-ended question were received.

Focus groups with the youths

The youths appreciated those who helped them solve problems but explained they did not like bossy and strict adults, as some were intimidating. Eight respondents stated adults did not listen or were too critical of their ideas and also felt that some adults imposed very strict rules on them. In the second year, similar responses were received, though there was a decrease in the number of participants that stated adults were too critical of their ideas.

Interviews with neighborhood advocates

Adult interview respondents were generally positive about the program. Most felt that improved relationships between the youth and the adults opened doors for youth in the community. Several indicated that the youth were sometimes hard to work with because of personal problems, immaturity, and a lack of commitment. After the second program year, the neighborhood advocates were largely positive about the program. They however cited that ‘‘bad attitudes’’ of some of the youth and lack of parental support required attention.

Recommendations

After the first program year, the evaluation results obtained from the youths and the neighborhood advocates expressed a need for less of an age difference between adult volunteers and the youth participants and an increase in the youth’s control of the program to give them a sense of ownership. After the second-year program, two advocates recommended additional training for adults working with the youth since they felt the training could foster a greater understanding of the youths’ life circumstances.

Critique

First, not all of the youth who participated in the program took part in the process evaluation. This suggests that researchers may not have obtained a complete picture of the strengths and weaknesses of the program. Second, though it is expected that the study may provide a useful model for future process evaluation studies, the specific findings are not likely to generalize to other contexts or populations.

Implications to the evaluation design project

The study provides a case example of how a process evaluation can be used for program improvement and subsequent evaluation of the changes implemented. It also demonstrates the integration of multiple methods to establish validating data for program development. The study will therefore act as a guide in the development of the evaluation design project. Evaluation findings also stimulate discussion and reflection among staff. Producing and discussing evaluation reports helps the program staff reflect on the bigger picture. The experience presents strategies vital for staff development and continuous learning, during goal accomplishments.

Evaluation variables: According to data by NEOCANDA, there were 2090 serious violent crimes per 100,000people within Woodland Hills as compared to the city of Cleveland which had 1,604 serious violent crimes per 100,000 people. To lower these crime rates youth engagement with a focus on culture is required.

Aim of the project: To lower the violent crime levels in the Woodland Hills community by promoting positive youth development through culturally influenced activities.

Proposed design: Use of Rites of Passage Program designed to help guide adolescents away from potential poor choices during teenage years and assist in the transition into adulthood.

Measures:

• Lower the level of violent crimes performed by middle school and high school-aged youth.
• Strengthen afterschool programming.
• Provide a safe haven from violent situations.
• Increase neighborhood safety in Woodland Hills at the community level, through culturally-based development and youth engagement activities by 2013.
• Increase youth’s ability to understand and accept differences in the Woodland Hills community.
• Provide opportunities for youth to successfully transition to adulthood.

Sources of data:

Academic

• Cleveland Municipal School District
• Local middle school and high school administrators and counselors
• CWRU—Mandel School of Applied Social Sciences (MSASS)

Business/Local business

• Media, Public TV, and radio outlets
• Flyers and promotional materials for programming

Governmental

• Cleveland Board of Education
• Cleveland Municipal School District (CMSD)
• Cleveland Police Department (CPD)
• Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority (CMHA)
• Correctional facilities (particularly juvenile institutions)
• Local councilmen, representatives, and congressmen

Community- and Faith-Based Organizations

• Peace in the Hood/Coalition for a Better Life
• Louis Stokes Consortium on Youth

Target Population:

• Greater Cleveland community members
• Woodland Hills community members
• Middle school and high school students
• Parents

Data collection:

Resources

• Stakeholders
• Funding from NGOs
• Bank loans
• Individual contributions
• Funding dollars

Methods of data collection

• Questionnaires
• Personal interviews
• Conduct surveys
• Community forums
• Nominal and Focus Groups

Data analysis: Charts, Tables. Evaluate the modes of occurrence.

Reporting: Scatter graphs, bar charts, histograms.

The evaluation plan shall be based on the Precede-Proceed model. Phase one to five comprises the precede description while phases six to nine entail the procedure description.

Phase 1: Social diagnosis

According to data by NEOCANDA, there were 2090 serious violent crimes per 100,000 people within Woodland Hills as compared to the city of Cleveland which had 1,604 serious violent crimes per 100,000 people. To lower these crime rates, youth engagement with a focus on culture is required. A study conducted in a Hartford school in 2003 claimed youths who underwent the rites of passage training outperformed their peers academically (Bernstein, 2010). Woodland Hills therefore could highly benefit from the implementation of this program to Increase neighborhood safety in Woodland Hills at the community level, through culturally-based development and youth engagement activities, by 2013 and lower the level of violent crimes performed by middle school and high school-aged youth. This is possible since the Community Guide identifies “violent and aggressive behavior in childhood” as the principal risk factor for youth violence (Hahn et al., 2007). The rites of passage program will, however, require the intervention of public health practitioners to ensure hygienic administration, hence subsequently eliminating the possibility of infections among the young teenagers being inducted into adulthood. Methods for this diagnosis will include; Surveys, Interviews, Focus groups, and Community Forums.

Phase 2: Epidemiological diagnosis

This involves the establishment of statistics to establish the incidences and occurrences of undesirable changes in environment and target population behavior that lead to the prevalence of infections associated with program implementation. Data will include; mortality, level of prevalence, and incidences.

Phase 3: Behavioral and environmental diagnosis

The target population involves among others young and mid-level high students whose behavior is unpredictable and unstable due to immaturity and parental neglect. This behavior must be closely analyzed and linked to the overall goals of the program to help the program planners understand what to prioritize when offering educational guidance to the target population. Environmental diagnosis is also carried out in this phase and linked to the health problems in question. Once the environmental factors are diagnosed, measures to address the situation are put in place to curb the prevalence of the problem.

Phase 4: Educational diagnosis

This diagnosis involves the determination of causes of behavior analyzed in phase two and the factors affecting the behavior modifications. The factors may include enablers, predisposing factors, and reinforcing factors. the planners then develop appropriate strategies to administer learning outcomes that will help address behaviors critical to the health issue.

Phase 5: Administrative and policy diagnosis

The program initiators should assess the organization and address issues that may affect the development of the program. Resources and budget allocations should be analyzed in this phase. Policy diagnosis involves comparisons of organizational goals and objectives with those of the program. Program initiators should ensure compatibility of administrative and program goals and objectives to facilitate successful implementation of the program.

Phase 6: Program implementation

The program is implemented following the strategies agreed upon by the facilitators, closely linking the goals and objectives of the program with those of the organization to ensure program effectiveness

Phase 7: Process evaluation

Process evaluation involves the assessment of the methodology used for program implementation. It should be based on the priorities of the program with the most significant being evaluated first.

Phase 8: Impact evaluation

Impact Evaluation entails the determination of program effectiveness and efficiency based upon available predisposing factors, reinforcing factors, and the enablers that affect program development.

Phase 9: Outcome evaluation

This involves the determination of the overall success of the project about the achievement of goals and objectives set and results attained (CDCP, 2009). The purpose of this evaluation, therefore, is to measure the success of the project implementation while aiming at gauging the project’s effectiveness to its main objective and the reasons for which it was implemented. The evaluation plan of the study program however has its main focus on process evaluation and outcome evaluation.

Evaluation Questions

The evaluation will be seeking to answer questions such as: Is the methodology used to implement the project realistic and attainable? The researchers should be able to measure the probability of the project’s success against the established framework. For instance, the Coalition Community Project was measured against the following approaches; World Health Organization (World Report on Violence and Health) a conceptual framework for violence prevention, a model also used by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention to identify risk factors at various levels which contribute to violence. United Nations report, the violence prevention approach utilized by public health professionals, which seeks to modify risk factors at various levels for addressing youth violence in particular (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2009) and Khalid Samad’s “Peace in the Hood” approach which used “cultural and social awareness to promote self-esteem” (NEOCANDO, 2009, p. 23). This information could be availed by organization managers, from websites, or individuals with access to such kind of information.

What challenges are to be encountered and how could they be approached to enhance project effectiveness? The program controllers need to understand and evaluate the problems that may hinder program effectiveness so that they can come up with the most appropriate method of program development. These problems could be social, behavioral, or environmental. The Coalition Community Project initiators chose the three theories of the trans-theoretical model and the social cognitive model as the basis for program development. This information could be acquired through observation of change of behavior of participants in question, organizations, and involved professionals. Methods for collecting the information include; Surveys, Interviews, Focus groups, and Community forums.

Has the program achieved the goals and objectives for which it was implemented? A study conducted by Miller et al. (1993) estimated $10 billion in potential health-related costs from physical injury to violent crimes. The major goal of the Coalition Community Project was to reduce the level of violent crimes performed by middle school and high school-aged youth, providing a safe haven from violent situations and increasing neighborhood safety in Woodland Hills at the community level, through culturally-based development and youth engagement activities, by 2013. The evaluation seeks to determine whether these goals have been accomplished. This information could be acquired from program planners, participants, and the target population. Method of data collection includes; Interviews, Focus groups, Observation by the evaluator, and Community forums.

Design

Comparisons groups are more effective since results could be measured against the ideal expectations of the program initiators. The Coalition Community Guide task designed a model which proposed that “school-based and other related violence prevention efforts influence the development of students’ social skills, attitudes towards violence, and environmental norms. These effects contribute to an overall decrease in violence and subsequent physical and psychological injury (Hahn et al., 2007). Data should be collected at a reasonable time. What is reasonable is determined by the duration the project is bound to take (Coalition Community Project was bound to take one year), the convenience of the stakeholders, and the type of information required. Process evaluation data shall be collected at the beginning of the program set up while outcome evaluation data will be collected towards the end of the program when actual outcomes are realized.

Data will be collected retrospectively since outcomes are already established at the beginning of the study and evaluation is a relative measure of actual outcomes against the predetermined outcomes. Since the ideal outcomes have been established and the methodology of study I available, the data required will entail the program development and recorded actual outcomes achieved at the end of the program. Focus Groups and Interview designs could be used for evaluation. However, a case-control design will be the most appropriate for the evaluation of this program since its purpose is to determine the actual outcome against the predicted outcome. Potential threats to both internal and external validity include; bias in selection, Bias in data recall, and the inability of the design to tell about the prevalence or incidence of violence.

Measures

Data needed for evaluation will be acquired from program stakeholders. The methods for data collection will involve conducting surveys on program development and personal interviews to get relevant information on the position of the program in achieving set objectives. Data required to answer evaluation questions will include; information on the position of the program in achieving goals, financial constraints and prospects during program implementation, methodology used to develop the program, and the level of commitment of individual stakeholders in achieving program goals. Alternative sources of data include acquiring desired information from; external planners, professional consultants involved in the program, and the target population. Instruments of data collection will include; observation schedules, interview schedules, questionnaires, and institution schedules. Anticipated challenges entail a lack of cooperation from stakeholders, withholding of information by the program initiators, and presentation of false or irrelevant data.

Process evaluation will be conducted in the first month of the program year since it is within this period that the Coalition Community Guide task formulates the program development procedure and disseminates information regarding the program to program participants. Outcome evaluation shall be carried out towards the end of the program year since the effectiveness and success of the program would be determined best when comparisons are made between actual outcome realized and ideal outcomes set.

Analysis

Qualitative analysis will be used for the evaluation process since there is a need to understand each of the participants individually (Coolican, 1999). Data collection methods include; observations, case studies, and interviews. Information collected will be interpreted using viable techniques in order to obtain valuable data. For each data collection method, the following techniques will be used: (a) Interviews; There are various skills that researchers need in order to obtain valuable data (Coolican, 1994). The researcher needs to fully understand the interviewee, develop effective listening skills and approach them with a non-judgmental attitude. (b) Observations; Data obtained from observational studies can only be interpreted through speculations of the purpose of behavior depicted by the participants. The evaluator, therefore, needs to be very keen in order to observe every change of behavior. (c) Case studies; the findings of the case studies shall be measured against more controlled conditions to avoid generalizations of the information from single individuals.

Dissemination of information

The best technique for presenting data is the use of a scatter graph since the study involves the evaluation of the relationship between the prevalence of violence, crime, and behavior displayed by young scholars (Barnister et al., 1994). A scale of crime and violence witnessed shall be on the horizontal axis and a scale of the amount of aggressive behavior noted in young scholars on the vertical axis. A dot for each participant indicating where they fall on the two dimensions is then indicated. If there is no relationship between the participants’ aggressive behavior, violence, and crime, then dots are distributed randomly within the scatter graph. If there is a positive relationship among the variables, then dots tend to move from the bottom left of the graph to the top right. If a negative relationship is indicated, then dots will tend to move from the top left of the scatter graph to the bottom right. Evaluation results will be presented to relevant stakeholders in form of published manuals or post mails at the end of the program year when all processes of program development and outcomes have been evaluated.

References

Banister, E., Burman, I., Parker, M. & Tindall, C. (1994). Qualitative methods in psychology: A research guide. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2009). The social- ecological model: A framework for prevention. Web.

Coolican, H. (1999). Research methods and statistics in psychology (3rd Ed.). London: Hodder & Stoughton.

Hahn, R., Fuqua-Whitley, D., Wethington, H., Lowy, J., Crosby, A., Fullilove, M. & Dahlberg, L. (2007). Effectiveness of universal school-based programs to prevent violent and aggressive behavior: A systematic review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33 (2S), S114–29.

Miller, T. R., Cohen, M. A. & Rossman, S. B. (1993). Victim costs of violent crime and resulting injuries. Health Affairs, 12 (4), 186-197. Web.

NEOCANDO. (2009). Social and economic data: woodland hills (44104). Web.

Peace in the Hood. (2010). Effectiveness of universal school-based programs. Web.

Introduction

Violence is attributed to be a serious public menace in America. Over the years it has known no boundaries as it has affected the different classes in the society. From the infants to the elderly, none is spared by the wave of violence. The rise in the violent incidents is evident from the ever rising death tolls in America. Despite the fact that majority of the people in America escape the death traps of violence, they may end up living the rest of their lives with emotional as well as permanent scars. Not only does violence reduces the productivity levels within a nation, it is also attributed to disruption of social services as well as reduction in property value. Youth and sexual violence are some of the categories incorporated in the general topic of violence (Violence Prevention, 2011, par 1).

Youth and sexual Violence

In America, various acts of violence have been on the downward trend among the adults and on an upward trend among the youth and adolescents, especially in school’s environs. The violence among the youth ranges from vandalism to physical assault and homicide. The best way of tackling the youth violence is by tackling it prior to its inception among the youths. Strategies like parent and family based programs, mentoring, Social-development strategies and changes to the physical as well as social environment of the youths, are to be incorporated. Not only do these strategies help in solving the menace at hand, it also prepares the nation for other public health problems (Understanding youth violence, 2010, p. 2).

Sexual violence is a type of violence that affects mainly the female gender although there are still cases of male sexual violence that have been reported. Sexual violence ranges from sexual harassment to rape incidents. It is approximated that 20-25 % of college women in America have one time or another experienced an attempted or complete rape incident in her collage life (Understanding sexual violence, 2011, p. 1).

Sources and Data information

The data attained is from different institutions that are incorporated in the various sectors of the American society as well as the various surveys that have been conducted. The sources include the public health training network, Association of Public Health Laboratories among others (Other information systems, 2008, p. 1).

Facts of youth and sexual violence

Homicide violence is attributed to be second in causes of death among young people of ages 10 to 24 years. In 2009 a survey conducted indicated that 5.6% of youths carry guns and other weapons to school (Youth violence, 2010, p. 1). On the other hand at least 2.5% of the women have experienced sexual violence in the past 12 months of their lives. In addition to this 30.4 % of perpetrators of sexual violence are intimate partners (Sexual violence, 2008, p. 1)

Relevance of information achieved

The information achieved regarding youth and sexual violence is crucial to the criminal justice professionals as it offers guidance on zeroing in on the potential perpetrators of a crime. For instance, in case of sexual violence the perpetrator of the violence can be zeroed in to a close member of the victim according to the statistics attained.

Conclusion

Violence is a global issue that affects different nations across the world. Violence among the youth and unwanted sexual activities has been on the rise especially in America. However various strategies have been incorporated in a bid to the upward trend of violence.

Reference

Other information systems. (2008). Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Web.

Sexual violence. (2008). Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Web.

Understanding sexual violence. (2011). Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Web.

Understanding youth violence. (2010). Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Web.

Violence Prevention. (2011). Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Web.

Youth violence. (2010). Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Web.

Introduction

Younger people between 18 to 22 years are lonelier than the older generation, who are more than 72. Loneliness contributes to poor health and unhealthy lifestyles such as social media addiction and damaging activities. Health risks associated with loneliness include stress and depression, resulting in heart problems, arthritis, tissue damage, and chronic inflammation (O’Donnell & Rudavsky). Most lonely youths use social media to fill the socializing gap creating more isolation and false social security.

Many teenagers disconnect from society due to traumatizing experiences more than isolating because of one’s personality and preferences. Moreover, older people suffer from loneliness because of a partner or family member’s death. The key to loneliness is having more physical interactions and connecting with family and friends who can help during difficult situations (O’Donnell & Rudavsky). Additionally, exercising, adequate sleep and involving in creative activities such as art and music helps in curbing loneliness.

Discussion

Loneliness among American youth is a major concern as it affects most of the individuals’ social activities, mental health, and the affected persons’ overall well-being. Causes of loneliness include feelings of alienation, minimal physical interactions with others, differences in hobbies and lifestyles, and few people to talk to during challenging experiences. Youngsters tend to feel lonelier than older people because of social media influence which offers temporary and unmeaningful relationships that cause more vulnerability than comfort.

Furthermore, relying on social media for social connection may lead to gaining unhealthy weight by spending most of the time sitting when communicating on computers and mobile phones. Physical wariness among the youth also causes seclusion because of societal perspectives, hence, public avoidance. Mental conditions such as depression may result from solitude and account for more deaths and suicides in the young generation today. Society should engage youngsters in inclusive activities such as community events involving different interests to reduce alienation and loneliness.

Personal Views

Loneliness has negative impacts on individual health regardless of age or gender. Most youths live unhealthy lifestyles such as alcoholism and substance abuse due to feeling isolated. Young adults are more prone to loneliness because of the challenges involving transitioning from being a teenager to adulthood in the dynamic world that embraces individualism. As much as social media connections form false security, they can also create a sense of belonging and reduce loneliness given the right networks.

Work Cited

O’Donnell, Jayne, and Shari Rudavsky. “Young Americans Are the Loneliest, surprising study from Cigna Shows.” Usatoday. 2018. Web.

Unemployment

Unemployment in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region is largely a youth phenomenon. Young people aged between 15 and 24 account for at least 40 percent of the unemployed in Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, and Tunisia, and almost 60 percent in Syria and Egypt (Dadush 2018). The average youth unemployment rate in these countries was 27 percent back in 2008, the highest of any region in the world (Dadush 2018). Unemployment in many Middle Eastern countries tends to rise with higher levels of education: in Egypt, Jordan, and Tunisia, college graduate unemployment exceeds 15 percent (Angel-Urdinola, Kuddo and Semlali 2013). A question arises as to why unemployment in these countries is steadily at such a high level.

The situation described above, in particular, is due to demographic factors. Over the past decade, the combined labor force of Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Syria, and Tunisia has grown at an average rate of 2.7 percent per year, that is, faster than in any other region in the world except Africa (Kabbani 2019). Labor force growth is expected to gradually decline in the current decade, but it will remain higher than in most other regions. An additional 10 million people are expected to join the workforce over the next ten years, up from 13½ million in the previous decade (Dadush 2018). In other words, demographic pressure is not expected to ease in the near future.

There is also a significant mismatch between the skills of young people and commercial companies’ requirements. Firms regularly claim the lack of qualifications among job applicants as a constraint on hiring, and unemployment rates are highest among the most educated youth (Assaad 2007). In addition, there is the problem of a bloated public sector that attracts job seekers with higher wages, better job security, and a social package.

The dominant role of the public sector as an employer distorts labor market outcomes and diverts resources from a potentially more dynamic private sector (Said 2012). Public sector recruitment practices tend to raise wage expectations and emphasize diplomas rather than actual experience, which affects educational choices and contributes to the formation of mismatches between available and required qualifications.

The highest unemployment rate is observed not only among young people but in female population. From 2007 to 2017, unemployment among women in the Middle East and North Africa increased by 1.98 p.p. (Dandan and Marques 2017). However, female unemployment is partly due to cultural reasons – the woman’s residence in the parental home before marriage, social restrictions on working hours for both unmarried and married women such as stigmatization of night work, as well as a lower level of education among females.

These unemployment rates cause significant social and economic costs. Coronavirus pandemic further complicated the situation on the labor market, critically reducing the volume of inbound tourism, street trading, and services. This led to fewer existing jobs and a negative trend in the creation of new ones. In addition, persons who experience long-term unemployment in their youth are at increased risk for other types of social pathologies: poor health and nutrition, a tendency to deviant behavior and radicalism. This correlation is supported by statistical data: according to ILO, youth unemployment in the regions from which the main stream of new adherents of radical Islam comes is 28.2% in the Middle East and 30.5% in North Africa (Brookings 2017).

This situation contributes to the attractiveness of ISIS for young people since the inability of some of them to meet their own hopes and the expectations of their relatives pushes them to seek radical opportunities. With this in mind, in developing solutions to youth unemployment, education authorities and governments can do, in particular, the following:

1. Achieve alignment of curricula with the needs of the private sector; for this, public-private partnership mechanisms can be used.
2. Invest in new training programs. The trends of the digital transformation of the economy and the features of the post-industrial labor market in the digital era, in particular, ‘distributed teams’ and remote work should be especially considered.

When developing appropriate policies, it is necessary to take into account the gender factor – in particular, expanding the opportunities for remote employment for women, which will give them the possibilities for professional self-realization without the need to enter into social conflicts. The development of the digital sector should be given the greatest attention, as it provides the broad potential for remote work, which is extremely important for women in MENA regions and, overall, in a lockdown environment. In turn, this implies the creation of large-scale training programs for “digital employees.”

Wage Structure and Inequality

In MENA countries, the gender pay gap is linked to latent discrimination practices deriving from them. Gender-based segregation is a characteristic phenomenon for this region, both enshrined in the legislation and imposed by tradition and social pressure (El-Hamidi and Said 2008). Women presence in higher-paid industries is still quite low in the whole MENA region, especially in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) fields, where they constitute only a small part of the workforce.

However, “women in export-oriented manufacturing, as a rule, earn more than they would have in traditional sectors” (El-Hamidi and Said 2008, 5). It should be noted that in Jordan, inequality is even higher than in Egypt, mostly in the private sector (El-Hamidi and Said 2008, 7). Women are more likely than men to work without written contracts, labor laws, and trade unions, which opens up wide opportunities for unfair employers to discriminate in the area of wages. El-Hamidi and Mona Said (2008, 8) note that the wage difference between men and women ranges from 6 percent in the public sector to 76 in the private sector.

In addition, less employment, informal contracts lower wages, and shorter working hours condemn women to low social guarantees such as insurance payments and pensions. In MENA region, less than 10% of women receive pensions (Makdisi and Sidawi 2014). To date, the largest gender pay gap is found in the Middle East and North Africa region (Nayef and Rakhis 2017). In these countries, only 34% of managers are women, whose income gap with men in 2018 hardly changed over the year (McKinsey&Company 2020). These gaps can be attributed to inherent underestimation of predominantly female work, their skills as professionals, practices of discrimination, and performing large amounts of work without proper payment.

In modern conditions, the definition of wages is still the focus of labor economics. In the economic theory of labor, there are three concepts of wages. The first defines it as the price of labor, the second – as a monetary expression of the value of the commodity “labor force.” In terms of the modern theory of labor economics, which is shared by ILO, wages are interpreted as the price of labor services (Bessen 2015). In addition, there is an increase in the socialization of economic theories and the introduction of pragmatism into the theoretical concept.

The modern theory of human capital presents wages as what an employee with a certain level of training would receive, having a zero level of education and as the income from educational investments. The theory of Gary Stanley Becker, an American economist, Nobel Prize laureate (1992), considers all types of earnings structures: interpersonal, interfirm, interregional, determined by the relationship between employment and industry.

The need to analyze compensation on a dynamic, continuously changing basis is emphasized (Bessen 2015). This theory seems to be most applicable to the current situation on the labor market in MENA countries in terms of the gender pay gap since it is largely caused by non-economic factors. It includes traditions and cultural practices, as well as some features of the Islamic economy, with mechanisms of competitive advantages somewhat different from Western.

The pandemic has further exacerbated the existing gender gap issues. Men usually suffer more from unemployment during a recession because they are mainly employed in industries that are closely linked to economic cycles, such as construction or industry. In contrast, women are more employed in industries such as health care and education. However, in the current crisis, other factors influence employment – one of them is the ability to work remotely: for example, a business analyst may well work from home, while a cook or salesperson cannot. The pay gap between men and women exacerbates inequality: women not only lose their jobs faster, but they also get less for it.

Legislative measures are needed in the form of introducing gender quotas. They should be combined with incentive measures in the form of the development and widespread distribution of free trainings for entrepreneurs and senior management of companies.

They should be taught the advantages of organizational diversity and methods of effective diversity management. It should be explained as a source of significant benefits for the organization in the form of enhancing innovation potential, improving social capital, and increasing goodwill, as well as investment attractiveness for foreign investors. In addition, microfinance by active non-governmental organizations plays sound role in the development of the female labor market. Encouraging women’s entrepreneurship within a traditional culture can significantly improve the income situation of women in the MENA region.

References

Alshammari, Nayef, and Monira Al Rakhis. 2017. “Impact of Gender Inequality on Economic Growth in the Arab Region.” Research in Applied Economics 9(2): 18-31.

Angel-Urdinola, Diego F., Arvo Kuddo, and Amina Semlali. 2013. Building Effective Employment Programs for Unemployed Youth in the Middle East and North Africa. World Bank Publications.

Assaad, Ragui. 2007. “Unemployment and Youth Insertion in the Labor Market in Egypt.” The Egyptian Center for Economic Studies Working Paper 118.

Bessen, James. 2015. Learning by Doing: The Real Connection between Innovation, Wages, and Wealth. London: Yale University Press.

Brookings. 2017. “How Do Education and Unemployment Affect Support for Violent Extremism? Evidence from Eight Arab Countries.” Web.

Dadush, Uri. 2018. “Youth Unemployment in the Middle East & North Africa, and the Moroccan case.” OCP Policy Center, PP-18/22.

Dandan, Mwafaq M., and Ana Paula Pereira Marques. 2017. “Education, Employment and Gender Gap in Mena Region.” Asian Economic and Financial Review 7(6): 573-588.

El-Hamidi, Fatma, and Mona Said. 2008. “Have Economic Reform Paid Off? Gender Occupational Inequality in the New Millennium Egypt.” The Egyptian Center for Economic Studies Working Paper 128.

Kabbani, Nader. 2019. “Youth Employment in the Middle East and North Africa: Revisiting and Reframing the Challenge.” Brookings Doha Center, Policy Briefing. Web.

Makdisi, Jea Noha Bayoumi, and Rafif Rida Sidawi. 2014. Arab Feminisms: Gender and Equality in the Middle East. London: I.B. Tauris.

McKinsey&Company. 2020. Women at Work. Web.

Said, Mona. 2012. “Wage Differentials During Economic Reform and Crisis: Evidence from Egypt and Jordan.” Comparative Economic Studies 54: 65-101.

Introduction

Tobacco usage and purchase have shifted to the utilization of substitute products, including e-nicotine. Vaping products are designed to trigger smoking’s sensory experience without combustion. Although the above-mentioned product’s aerosol contains lower concentrations and fewer carcinogens and toxicants than combustible tobacco cigarettes, they have been associated with a specific level (Chao, Hashimoto, and Kondo, 2019, p. 7). Understanding the prevalence of vaping among youths, the factors that trigger the incidence rates, and the health effects linked to vaping is therefore crucial.

Terms of Reference

Purpose

This paper aims to analyze the prevalence of vaping among youths in Ireland, the primary causes of vaping, its health effects, and a recommendation for the appropriate approach to prevent e-cigarette use in Ireland.

Limits of the Report

The report only incorporated the findings derived from primary qualitative and quantitative research.

Methodology

This study adopted the systematic review approach: a comprehensive literature search was conducted to distinguish surveys associated with e-cigarettes, factors related to their use, and their health impacts. Four healthcare-related databases, including PubMed, CINHAL, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library, were searched. A specific set of pertinent search terms were utilized singly or combined during this process. These phrases included vaping, vapes, e-cigarette (s), youths/adolescents/young adults, electronic cigarette (s), electronic nicotine delivery system (s), electronic nicotine device, and health impacts/effects.

The inclusion/exclusion criteria for the articles about this review incorporated several stipulations: 1. They had to be inscribed and printed in English. 2. They must highlight either the impacts or causes of e-cigarettes’ use among youths or both. 3. Be printed or issued in a peer-reviewed journal or government-sponsored website. 4. Be available in the public domain. 5. Be published within 2015 and 2020. The information contained in 10 articles was considered appropriate for this particular analysis.

Findings and Discussion

There has been a considerable increase in the prevalence of vaping among young adults. For instance, a survey by Keogan et al. (2016, p. 6) uncovered the popularity of e-cigarette’ use among Ireland’s youthful populace, with approximately a quarter of the participants reporting its usage. The research further revealed the doubling rate of the above-mentioned device’s use among smokers. The outcomes of the studies described above demonstrate the prevalence of this e-nicotine device’s use among youths.

Adolescents’ perception of the risk of harm or addiction linked to vaping varies significantly. Rusell, Katsampouris, and Mckeganey (2020, p. 714) conducted a survey to assess young adults’ viewpoints concerning the dangers and likelihood of e-cigarette addiction. The findings revealed that many youths believed that e-cigarettes posed minimal health risks compared to traditional cigarettes (Rusell, Katsampouris, and Mckeganey, 2020, p. 717). Participants also held a fallacious belief that vaping is linked with no threats to one’s well-being or the probability of addiction (Rusell, Katsampouris, and Mckeganey, 2020, p. 717).

The research outcomes also demonstrated that young adults who were currently using the above-mentioned product were highly likely to correlate its consumption with low-to-no health-related risks. Furthermore, Rusell, Katsampouris, and Mckeganey (2020, p. 718) revealed that the perceptions of the dangers of tobacco serve as an indicator of an individual’s likelihood to continue or begin using e-cigarettes or other related products. People with inadequate knowledge of vaping’s adverse health effects of vaping are more likely to utilize it.

The significant increase in the prevalence of vaping among this populace segment may be ascribed to its promotional strategies. E-cigarettes’ marketing approach creates the mirage that it is healthier and safer than traditional tobacco cigarettes (Perikleous et al., 2018, p. 3). One’s economic status presents a significantly high odds of utilizing e-nicotine devices. Another survey identified e-cigarette marketing through TV ads and various social media platforms as a mediator in the interconnection between vaping among adolescents and socioeconomic status (SES) (Simon et al., 2018, p. 195). According to this study’s findings, a significant association existed between higher SES and recent substantial exposure to advertisements (Simon et al., 2018, p. 195). This consequently impacted the increased frequency of e-nicotine device use.

Tobacco-related attributes act as crucial factors which trigger e-cigarette consumption. For instance, the findings of the study by Perikleous et al. (2018, p. 5) revealed an interconnection between the recurrent use of tobacco products including water pipes and snus, peers smoking, smoking by a household member, as well as daily smoking and e-cigarette use. Moreover, poor academic performance, school absenteeism, and learning in a disadvantaged institution are also interlinked with the daily and ever-use of e-cigarettes (Kinouani et al., 2019, p. 3). Gender and social influence are also critical predictors of e-nicotine device use.

Vaping products have also been linked to high nicotine levels. This viewpoint is supported by a survey by Evans-Police et al. (2018, p. 458), whose findings revealed that JUUL, a popular e-cigarette brand, contains 59mg/ml or 5% of nicotine. This rate is equivalent to the nicotine amounts contained in approximately twenty traditional cigarettes. Nicotine may cause impairments in executive function and memory as well as cognitive deficits (Jones and Salzman, 2020). Keygen et al. (2016, p. 6) further link e-cigarettes’ use with impulsive deportment modifications and hyperactivity among this populace segment.

Another study revealed the increased probability of alcohol and marijuana use, attempted suicide, and physical fighting among adolescents who vaped (Perikleous et al., 2018, p. 6). These devices also contain varying nicotine levels, improper product labeling, aerosolization differences, and incompatible delivery of nicotine when the device is in use (Green et al., 2020, p. 5). These variations underscore the lack of quality standards in its production process, which pose a significant health concern.

Furthermore, vaping has been associated with an elevated risk of nicotine addiction; it increases a person’s likelihood of utilizing combustible cigarettes. The findings of the study by McKeganey et al. (2019, p. 4) revealed that youths who vape are four times more likely to record the use of conventional cigarettes in their adulthood. Flavoring additives and chemicals contained in e-cigarettes have also been associated with various health issues.

Several laboratory analyses have demonstrated varying carcinogenic content, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, metals, and aldehydes in this product. For instance, vapes consisting of cinnamaldehyde have been linked to the impaired functioning of the mucociliary system within the epithelial cells of the bronchi (McKeganey et al., 2019, p. 4). Currently, there is no governmental legislation in Ireland that ensures the accuracy of e-cigarette labels. These outcomes indicate that vaping causes nicotine addiction and cancer-related health risks.

In conclusion, from the above analysis, it is evident that vaping among young adults in Ireland is an issue of concern. The findings from various studies also highlight adolescents’ minimal knowledge of the health effects of vaping. The surveys included in this review also ascribe the increased incidence of vaping among this populace segment to the current marketing trends. One’s gender, socio-economic status, tobacco-related factors, poor academic performance, school absenteeism, and social influence also act as motivating factors for vaping among adolescents. Researchers also associate e-cigarettes with various health effects, including nicotine addiction.

Recommendations

The following recommendations will help address the vaping epidemic among young adults. First, healthcare practitioners should advocate for the enactment of laws and policies that regulate the promotional approaches adopted by manufacturers, the minimum age for purchasing e-cigarettes, and the appropriate labeling of the vaping products’ contents. Their advocacy should also target this device’s use in smoke-free statutes. Second, healthcare professionals should educate youths about the health effects of vaping. Third, policies and strategies aimed to rehabilitate patients addicted to nicotine as a result of vaping should also be instituted as a health promotional approach. The implementation of relevant regulations and procedures will help minimize vaping prevalence among adolescents.

Reference List

Chao D., Hashimoto, H. and Kondo, N. (2019) ‘Social influence of e-cigarette smoking prevalence on smoking behaviours among high-school teenagers: microsimulation experiments’, PLoS ONE, 14(8), pp. 1–11. Web.

Evans-Polce, R. J. et al. (2018) ‘Reasons for vaping among U.S. 12th graders’, Journal of Adolescent Health, 62(4), pp. 457–462. Web.

Green, M. J. et al. (2020) ‘Socioeconomic patterning of vaping by smoking status among UK adults and youth’, BMC Public Health, 20, pp. 1–11. Web.

Jones, K. and Salzman, G. A. (2020) ‘The vaping epidemic in adolescents’, Missouri Medicine, 117(1), pp. 56–68. Web.

Keogan, S. et al. (2016) ‘A 2015 national survey of e-cigarette use among Irish youth’, European Respiratory Journal, 48(60), pp. 1–11. Web.

Kinouani, S. et al. (2016) ‘Factors and motivations associated with use of e-cigarette among primary care patients in a prospective cohort study: e-TAC study protocol’, BMJ Open, 6(6), pp. 1–6. Web.

McKeganey, N. et al. (2019) ‘Sources of youth access to JUUL vaping products in the United States’, Addictive Behaviors Reports, 10, pp. 1–7. Web.

Perikleous, E. P. et al. (2018) ‘E-Cigarette use among adolescents: an overview of the literature and future perspectives’, Frontiers in Public Health, 6, pp. 1–9. Web.

Russell, C., Katsampouris, E. and Mckeganey, N. (2020) ‘Harm and addiction perceptions of the JUUL e-cigarette among adolescents’, Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 22(5), pp. 713–721. Web.

Simon, P. et al. (2018) ‘Socioeconomic status and adolescent e-cigarette use: the mediating role of e-cigarette advertisement exposure’, Preventive Medicine, 112, pp. 193–198. Web.

Introduction

Evaluation of the performance of an institution, organization or even individuals is a very important exercise that ensures that optimum performance is maintained to achieve the highest and most productive goal. In so doing, there is a myriad of evaluation models which can be used to appraise the performance of any given entity. The key determining factor in the choice of an evaluation model is the type and nature of the parameter to be evaluated. These models can assist the evaluating team to know which methodologies to use when conducting a particular type of evaluation. It is therefore pertinent for any kind of evaluation to choose an appropriate kind of model to use to produce the most reliable results (Power, 1997). This paper explores the evaluation strategy which was used to conduct youth work with vulnerable young people. The outline of the evaluation carried out on this project is candidly discussed and critically examined in relevance to available evaluation theories and principles.

The Outline and Evaluation Models used in “Evaluating Youth Work with Vulnerable Young People” Project

For this evaluation to be deemed workable there is a need to assess its usefulness. This is one of the evaluation criteria models necessary when evaluating projects. Additionally, the evaluation will have to be independent to avoid any chances of bias in reporting. For instance, the project took one and half years before the final report could be produced for interpretation and application purposes. It had been sponsored by the Scottish Office Education and Industry Department. The project mainly aimed at investigating how effectiveness of the various tasks carried out by youth with special interest to the young generation. (Furlong et al, 1997). In carrying out this project, six unique regions were put into consideration. Each study categorically examined young people and how those who provide important services to them are affected by the vulnerability of the young people.

Any evaluation carried out should avoid any kind subjection but rather pursue an objective approach of reporting. This calls for credibility as a desired evaluation model. In order to achieve this, it was imperative to underscore some of the changes which usually influence the tasks carried by the youth. Before carrying out the evaluation, it was noted that the situations surrounding young generation have greatly transformed over the recent past. Not all is the same bearing in mind the dynamic nature of the society. Therefore, whatever model of evaluation chosen, it is supposed to underpin these emerging changes (Mertens, 2005). It was much easier to predict the scope of youth work immediately after the war era, a situation that has completely changed in present times. This implies that most of the models which have been in constant use were duly developed at a time when insignificant transitions had taken place on the youth work. In making the recent models, it is important to note that one area of concern regarding youth work is the level of effectiveness towards the type of work being offered to the youth. One such area of concern is how attractive the given work will bring the young generation closer in addition to meeting the needs of the youth. If a particular work cannot effectively address the needs of all age groups, then it ceases to be vital as far as the end user, who in this case is the youth is concerned.

Moreover, transparency will also harmonize the usefulness and credibility of the research project. The project started off by gathering enough evidence in a transparent manner which could then but put into a standard model for analysis. Both the qualitative and quantitative methods were applied. Young people who stay in both urban and rural areas were included in this evaluation because they were all considered to be vulnerable in one way or the other (Furlong et al, 1997). From the statistics collected, it was found that there was overrepresentation of young people who especially come poor backgrounds with marginal income as compared to those whose wage earning level were promising. In this case, family patterns were analysed in terms of parenting styles. For instance, those who come from single parent households are more at risk of missing out on schooling with most of them being the target of police harassment. About one thousand two hundred respondents were used in the survey. Also incorporated in this research were the small discussion groups which were found to be very vital tools in exploring deeper and underlying details of the youth work. Alongside school outreach programs were the individual respondents who were conducted for immediate feedback. Through these set of questions and immediate feedbacks, the researchers were able to quantitatively evaluate the existing youth work and whether they were helpful to the most disadvantaged groups who were also considered to be vulnerable. Additionally, the potential outcomes of these youth work were also looked at if they could help reduce the level of risk. This kind of evaluation took a diverse approach. However, according to Patton (2002), a good model should be capable of directing researchers on the right procedures to follow. Indeed, this was evident when researchers in this youth work study prepared some special type of questionnaires which could guide them on each and every step they made (Weiss, 1990). Therefore, the use of a set of questions was an important preliminary procedure of coming up with a standard evaluation which would be void of bias even as the data is being picked from the field. Nonetheless, the preparation of questionnaires in the case of interviews to be performed should be done in mind with the nature of the project to be evaluated. Each project may require a unique model to evaluate. In fact, this research study ensured that the youth work and

vulnerability level among young people survey was carried out among the right target group. It was also evident that the manner young people spend their time can be a very important factor in determining how vulnerable they will be. The free time which young people may be having at their disposal is a powerful ingredient in shaping their overall lifestyles. Moreover, this leisure time can be molded by quite a number of factors in consideration. For example, the social backgrounds as well as gender have been found to be powerful influencing factors which affect how leisure time will eventually appear to be (Stecher &Davis, 1998). In order to capture how leisure time among the youth affects their vulnerability to youth work, the study sought to examine quite a number of avenues. Young people who are rarely idle but rather participates in group activities exhibit different properties compared to those who do not spend their leisure time in a quality manner. Against this background, the studies revealed that about fifty per cent of girls and sixty per cent of boys were active participants in some sort of club activities during their free time. This showed that more young people are usually engaged in some kind of activity during their leisure time as compared to the lower percentage that may be idle. However, the study does not clearly elaborate which model was used to come up with these conclusions. It would be imperative to use some of the most current models of evaluating leisure time usage by the youth. Moreover, it is also evident that the less active youth groups especially during the free time are more likely to be vulnerable than those who are fully engaged in some kind of club activities. Taxonomy of different types of evaluation has already been developed and which can sometimes be applied especially to more static parameters which do not easily change with time.

These taxonomy models are differentiated by the type of audience being addressed. For instance, the manner in which an older generation would spend their leisure time is completely different from the way young people would.

When a question was posed to the young people about their thinking on youth work, different responses were put across (Furlong et al, 1997). Most of them had a positive evaluation concerning the work done by youth. One of the most important values which these young people had strong attachment was the social groupings where they could meet and advance friendship and other relationship ties. Nevertheless, there was a general concern over those who belonged to particular clubs against their age groups. They were considered by the youth to be real trouble makers. The relevance of the diverse youth organizations was also underscored by most respondents in this research study. It was found out that most youth highly valued the role played by youth organizations which were very instrumental in creating new opportunities for the youth. Most of the vulnerable young people would acquire necessary skills and competencies through these youth organizations. In addition, the youth organizations were seen as important vehicles which would be used to deliver young people from higher risk of being vulnerable (Patton 2003). The study also concluded that those young people who are more vulnerable are more likely not to participate in youth activities. Besides, those who have had to go through difficulty at one time or the other tend to alleviate themselves from active youth participation. The model used here was that purely concerned with decision making pattern of those young individuals who thought that it was not worthy enough for them to engage in organized youth activities having undergone through the most trying times. The study also brings out the evaluation model which attempts to establish the behavioral pattern of the vulnerable youth who eventually resort to alienate themselves and pursue more of private than public life. Nevertheless, the model is not goal-free because there is a particular element under study that is the youth work and how young people might find themselves vulnerable. This in particular is a good approach due to the fact it keeps the audience informed of the flow of study by continuously updating themselves to the core objectives of the study. Furthermore, at some point in the research study, there comes the need to make pertinent decisions regarding the interpretation of the analysis made from the filed (King et al, 1987). This in particular is an excellent approach contained in the report because it describes and incisively explains to the audience the fine details of the research project.

Goals and objectives alone should not form the basis of any model of evaluation. In some cases, an evaluation can be carried out without any goal in mind. This is an evaluation model which has not been achieved by this research study. The project mainly relied on the set goals which were the only parameters to be discussed. This goal-oriented evaluation might at times be myopic and not thorough enough therefore closing any room for adjustment especially in regard to innovation and venturing into other fields. Additionally, the goal-free evaluation is also exhaustive and tends to approach the subject matter from a diverse perspective or different point of view (Patton, 2003)

In evaluating the youth clubs, it was found out that these clubs do not meet frequently and so the remaining days when such clubs were not in operation, young people tend to hang and possibly idle around. If this was anything to go by, then it would

imply that youth clubs form a very formidable unit to the young people who are particularly vulnerable and have no work to do. Better still, a negligible number of young people admitted of having indulged themselves in illegal activities which could otherwise jeopardize their lives (Pawson &Tilley, 1997). It should be noted that those who confessed of being safe from criminal activities were those who mainly engaged themselves in a myriad of youth activities. It is therefore conclusive to say that young people who did not utilize their leisure time on some positive engaging activity were more likely to enroll themselves in other activities other than those expected to be good. The study used a multivariate analysis so that a deeper analysis of the youth work and indulgence could be established. This was particularly called for bearing in mind that issues surrounding the youthful population are diverse and unless they are quantitatively analysed, it may not be possible to come out with a proper concubinary remark which is equally representative of the situation and reality on the ground. This evaluation model assisted in bringing out all the elements of youth vulnerability especially with respect to those who eventually drop out of schools or engage in drug and substance abuse. Such vices are considered to be gateways towards joining criminal gangs and operating alongside with them. Although attending a youth oriented activity could not completely eliminate the possibility of some young people engaging in crime, a multivariate analysis found out that such activities substantially reduced the exposure time to criminal activities thereby substantially lowering the chances of engaging in criminal activities.

Although this analysis tends to bring out the most details concerning how leisure time affects the vulnerability level of young people, the Eolithic evaluation would have

not only gave a quantitative description of and youth leisure time but also the process through which they grow and eventually resort to acts of crime (Ward & Finkelhor, 2000). Instead of the research only targeting the fulfillment of the set goals, the Eolithic evaluation ensures the process which will eventually deliver the product (Morris et al, 1987). This type of evaluation model can be of great help especially when stepwise progression of the young to either criminal activities or substance abuse is required. This type of evaluation enables a researcher to have an insight of what really exists in the natural environment and then attempts to achieve the desired results from the available means.

This evaluation could take both the formative and summative approach models. in the former case, information is readily made available to those who are mandated to planning and implantation process while the latter attempts to address the general quality of a program being implemented. In evaluating youth work, the data gathered from those who provide pertinent services showed that although there were well structured allocations for the youth, it was not possible to establish the specific amount of work which was available for the young people within a given area. The evaluation

model used found out that there existed a lot of missing links in terms of funding for youth work. In addition, youth work at the local level was not readily available and even for the few cases where some jobs existed; poor coordination marred the intended benefit to the young people (Nutley et al, 2000). Due to a myriad of challenges which were being experienced at the community level, some mitigation measures had been put in place. For instance, educating the community on the relevance of involving the young people on productive work was in place. Nevertheless, some neighborhoods had little or no outreach program at all which were basically meant to reach out for the young people who were most vulnerable in the community. The study took place when there was significant transition taking place in Scotland. Therefore, there must have been some underlying factor which might have affected the outcome of the research study especially in regards to youth work and vulnerability levels. Since the study was goal oriented, it would not have possible to unearth other submerged factors which were equally crucial in the development stages of youth work in Scotland. Therefore, a case whereby an illuminative evaluation model could be used would have given out more coherent picture because such a model is highly customized to meet the needs of a smaller community which is being affected by localized challenges. Since Scotland was undergoing through some form of transition and dynamism, the use of an illuminative evaluation model would have given the best if not realistic outcomes. This model has an advantage of remaining all the other research methods requirements like the statistical packages while at the same time addressing the needs of a micro environment (Herman et al. 1987, and Racino, 1999). In addition, the illuminative model is more subjective in a dressing the subject matter. In other words, it critically presents all the required data in a more inherent style that can be understood and consumed easily by the readership and other interested groups As part of the research study, it was found that it would be necessary to work closely with the youth in order to measure the degree of success in the project. From the research findings, it was evident that involving the youth who were considered to be highly vulnerable and therefore at high risk was relatively cumbersome for the providers (Shadish et al, 1991). There were claims of intolerance and negative attitude from the young people at risk. Contrary to the more productive youth workers, it was much easier to work with them as they showed a lot of appreciation, support and overall sense of happiness in their work. From these field findings, most providers felt that it was better to work with young people whose attitudes were positive and therefore receptive (Rossi et al, 2004). Such category of young people was associated with good habits creating a more comfortable environment for the providers to work in. Even as behavioral patterns among the youth contributed significantly to their resourcefulness, providers found themselves at dilemma since they were unable to devise other evaluation models which would be made use of in the training and service provision to the youth In order to provide the most needed services for the young people, it was important that a viable resource base be established to sustain the program (Clarke, 2001). This element of resource provision was also a subject of research in this project. About one hundred and sixty pounds per year would have sufficed the entire annual budget including sustaining a permanent staff alongside other periodical workers. The evaluation model here was more direct and did not require too much of external references. All the same, the financial data obtained allowed the evaluation to the next level and this in itself is a model on its own.

Conclusion

The youth work research project carried out on the Scottish Inspectorate office satisfied quite a number of evaluation models in bringing out the performance criteria of the youth work and vulnerability of the young people. In the entire study, it was explicit that young people are provided with several opportunities ranging from youth organizations to work vacancies in order to make them productive. A behavioral evaluation model has been used throughout the research study to depict how attitude affected the working relationship between service providers and the youth. For instance, those who come from single parent households are more at risk of missing out on

schooling with most of them being the target of police harassment. About one thousand two hundred respondents were used in the survey.

References

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Furlong A, Cartmel F, Powney J. and Hall S. (1997). Evaluating Youth Work with

Vulnerable Young People. Glasgow: Scottish Council for Research in Education. Herman J.L et al. (1987). Evaluator’s handbook. California: Sage Publications.

King J.A et al. (1987). How to assess program implementation. California: Sage Publications Inc.

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Patton R. (2003). Managing and Measuring Social Enterprises. California: Sage Publications Inc.

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Power M (1997).The audit society: rituals of verification. New York: Oxford University Press.

Racino A.N (1999). Policy, program evaluation, and research in disability: community support. New York: Haworth Press Inc.

Rossi H.P, Lipsey W.M and Freeman E.H (2004). Evaluation: a systematic approach California: Sage Publications Inc.

Shadish W R et al (1991). Foundations of Program Evaluation. California: Sage Publications Inc.

Stecher B. M and Davis W.A (1998) How to focus an evaluation. California: Sage Publications Inc.

Ward K.S and Finkelhor D. (2000). Program evaluation and family violence research. New York: Haworth Maltreatment & Trauma press.

Weiss C (1990). Evaluation for Decisions’ in Alkin M ed. Debates on Evaluation. California: Sage Publications Inc.

Introductory Background

Topic of Choice and Rationale

In this paper, the research topic focuses on the causes and solutions of radicalization among the youths. This topic has been picked because of the rising cases of terrorism and violence. It has been noted that radicalization is the core driver of terrorism around the world (Alimi, Demetriou & Bosi, 2015). Essentially, youths are ideologically driven against people of opposite beliefs, religions and cultures. As such, they are brainwashed to pursue a violent course without the fear of death. This implies that radicalization is one of the most dangerous weapons as far as terrorism is concerned. As a result, it is very important to understand its causes and develop possible solutions.

Choice of Research Design

In order to conduct effective research, a survey design can help to provide the necessary data. As a result, it has been chosen to make the determinations in regard to the question of what causes radicalization an how it can be combated. Whereas the researchers, administrators and psychologists have continued to understand the vice, it has remained a great challenge. As a result, it becomes important to proceed with collecting new data that can be used to develop better understanding. This implies that research cannot rely on previous research studied only. New data should be collected in order to provide a deeper understanding on radicalization. This paper will therefore describe the survey research design in relations to the topic in question.

Survey Design

Sketch of the Research Design

When conducting a research survey, the researcher must identify a relevant population which has the required information (Ngungu, 2013). In this case, the research focuses on the religious leaders, violence-based counselors and counterterrorism officials. The sample will be selected using the random sampling method to eliminate biasness and increase credibility. The sample is set to involve a total of 134 respondents selected from the three different population segments. In essence, there are some hypothetical findings proposed in relation to the research question.

Hypothetical Findings

Hypothetically, there might be various reasons that cause radicalization around the world. In this regard, the poverty and lack of employment might be top on the list especially in the developing countries. In these countries, most of the youths are unemployed due to the economic instability prevailing in those countries. This makes them soft targets as far as radicalization is concerned. Since most of the radicalized youths are promised to get good payments, they consider the radicalized groups as better options. Second, sectarian divisions remain a crucial cause of radicalization because it exposes the youths to subscribing to the violent organizations. This is promoted by the personal pursuit to revenge against other religions which are perceived as inconsistent. The other hypothetical cause for radicalization is the increasing level of normalized violence around the world. Governments are engaging in capital punishments and persecutions which increase the pursuit to revenge. In addition, discrimination against people from minorities leads to radicalization. Some of the communities who are discriminated and marginalized in the community tend to convert and steer violence. When it comes to the hypothetical solutions, people should steer unity, teach against radicalization and involve everybody in decision making.

Limitations of the Study

Although the survey design has been considered to conduct this research, there are few limitations. One of the most important limitations is based on the fact that it does not have access to the radicalized. The radicalized youths are usually found in very hostile and technically guarded areas. As a result, one cannot find them without high-level assistance. The survey can only rely on those who have been in contact with the rehabilitated individuals.

Areas of Further Research

This research has not exhausted the entire scope when it comes to radicalization. It focuses on the causes and solutions of radicalization. As such, it is important to research on some other issues revolving this vice. Importantly, future research can seek to understand the extent to which religion has steered radicalization. In the popular culture, Islam has been blamed for steering radicalization. A research can be conducted to determine the extent to which religion has caused radicalization.

Use of the Findings to Professionals

The hypothetical findings provided in this research are of critical importance to professionals. First, it shows some of the crucial causes of radicalization. This implies that counterterrorism officials can use them as a point of departure to fight terrorism. In addition, it provides hypothetical solutions which serve as a pointer to offering lasting answers.

Conclusion

It has been indicated that the issue of radicalization has become a critical concern in the world. Youths have been trapped in the quagmire of violence and terrorism due to this vice. As a result, a survey research design is appropriate to collect up-to-date data in regard to the causes and solutions of this vice. Essentially, the paper hypothesizes that the vice is steered by poverty, sectarian division and discrimination. This implies that teaching people concerning the process of radicalization, promoting tolerance, and empowering the youths can reduce the prevalence significantly.

References

Alimi, E., Demetriou, C., & Bosi, L. (2015). Radicalization in Reverse and Non-Radicalization. The Dynamics of Radicalization A Relational and Comparative Perspective, 17(2), 219-268.

Ngungu, M. (2013). Understanding and Applying Research Design. Journal of International Women Studies, 14(3), 322-323.

People in Japan do not want to have contacts for various reasons. For instance, the impact of economic stagnation, the effects of the tsunami, and the radioactive crisis influenced people’s minds. They were collapsed and seemed to lose the essence in love and marriage. Japanese men became less ambitious concerning career, while women preferred to be independent. However, Japanese women face trouble at work, even being married. Employers do not take women on serious vacancies because they consider that females can be pregnant. It is more likely for Japanese women to be fired from their jobs after their firstborn births. Japanese males claim their insufficient wages, which constraint them from dating and marriage. Similarly, young people do not want to have sexual relations because of different reasons, including sexual contempt. This disbalance between people’s interests led to an inability to build strong conventional families. It is worth mentioning that social structures strongly criticize cohabitation and parenthood outside of marriage.

Women, particularly mothers, suffered all effects of natural and economic disasters very severely. As recent studies have shown, the victims of natural collapses tend to be damaged by preterm birth, harsh stress during and after the pregnancy (Suzuki et al., 2016). Concerning children, they have been born with underweight problems or have never been born (Suzuki et al., 2016). This fact certainly affects Japan’s population, and many sources even suspect the Japanese nation in extinction. Women might become extremely vulnerable to external factors, which may provoke an unwillingness to give birth to children. It can be another reason why Japan’s population is decreasing rapidly.

Besides, Japanese people are becoming obsessed with technologies and watching 2D cartoons called anime. As Japan is considered a traditional and law-abiding country, porn movies are strictly banned by the government’s policies. Instead, people created a whole universe of pictured movies, which often demonstrate explicit scenes and behavior. Anime is one of the most explosive media sources, and it still elevates its popularity among Japanese inhabitants. People watch and discuss anime, and it can probably cause a loss of interest in real life. It is feasible to suggest that anime fantasies become a replacement for relationships. Moreover, anime promotes the issue of “hikikomori,” which means a person’s choice to stay isolated and not to participate in different social activities (Kato et al., 2018). It can be the major reason people independently refuse to attempt creating real-life relations, as modern media culture influences them.

Concerning Aristophanes, an Ancient Greek comic playwright, it is feasible to suggest that he was not rebelling against sexuality and naughtiness. On the contrary, translators of his plays tried to conceal explicit contents and non-standard discourse (Robson, 2016). There was an explosion of Aristophanes’ plays popularity during the Victorian Era. However, contemporaries followed the Victorian canon on decency and diligence and had to implement specific censorship policies to their translations and adaptations. His plays were much franker concerning sexual maintenance and manifestation. The playwright claimed that sex is a joy, which brings people together. That is why Aristophanes probably would not appreciate sex refusals.

As for North America, Japan can serve as a good example of why people should establish relationships. Most likely, it concerns all countries of the globe because sexual relations are people’s basic biological need, which prevents nations from extinction. In general, the number of people who do not have relationships is relatively disturbing for Japan. It means a serious decrease in population for the country and threats to political, social, and economic spheres.

References

Kato, T. A., Kanba, S., & Teo, A. R. (2018). Hikikomori: Experience in Japan and international relevance. World Psychiatry, 17(1), 105–106.

Robson, J. (2016). Aristophanes, Gender, and Sexuality. Brill’s Companion to the Reception of Aristophanes, Chapter 3, 44–66. Web.

Suzuki, K., Yamagata, Z., Kawado, M., & Hashimoto, S. (2016). Effects of the Great East Japan Earthquake on Secondary Sex Ratio and Perinatal Outcomes. Journal of Epidemiology, 26(2), 76–83.

The problem of substance abuse among youth is an acute social issue that is exacerbated if little attention is paid to targeted work to protect this vulnerable category of the population. Moreover, some national initiatives, such as the legalization of cannabis, as happened in Canada in 2018, worsen the situation and hinder the implementation of youth health programs (Haines-Saah et al., 2018). Therefore, identifying ways of preventing substance abuse among young people is a priority for the global health system to avoid severe damage to the younger generation’s mental and physical health. As an adequate intervention strategy with a strong evidence base, I can suggest considering a Canadian project called a Comprehensive School Health approach and approved by the Public Health Agency of Canada (2021). This program may be an effective practice to create an environment in which youth will be distracted from the harmful effects of substances due to different stakeholders’ integrated participation.

The strategy based on substance use prevention includes a number of tasks to follow to ensure the success of the intervention. The Public Health Agency of Canada (2021) states that one of the steps to take is establishing trusting relationships with both peers and adults. In this regard, schools should reach out to communities to obtain the necessary information about those young people who are at risk. Haines-Saah et al. (2018) emphasize the critical role of parents in such a strategy. As the authors argue, most behavioral habits, including harmful ones, are adopted by children and adolescents from their loved ones, which imposes obligations on parents to set an adequate example (Haines-Saah et al., 2018). Any stigmatization and abusive relationships are risk factors, and both in the family and at school, young people should be provided with protection from aggression so that they do not seek relaxation in substance use.

In terms of school involvement, a Comprehensive School Health approach implies organizing extracurricular programs and activities for students to occupy their free time and address specific interests. Special mentoring programs for teachers can be promoted to help them identify students’ deviant behavior timely and provide young people with psychological and emotional support (Public Health Agency of Canada, 2021). Thus, adequate socialization is an effective mechanism to distract the youth from substance use.

A comprehensive intervention program also includes policymakers’ corresponding efforts. Improving the school climate through countering social media bullying, stricter penalties for substance abuse, holding adults who encourage discrimination to account, and some other measures may be important to prevent risks (Public Health Agency of Canada, 2021). Moreover, according to the findings of Haines-Saah et al. (2018), many parents do not feel social support when faced with the problem of children’s substance use. Therefore, involving not only public health but also legislative agencies in solving the issue is seen as an essential step to implementing a Comprehensive School Health approach.

When taking into account the evidence-based nature of such a program, its application may be relevant to different countries, regardless of the level of economic or political development. Targeted social work with children and adolescents is the responsibility of adults, and ignoring the issue of substance use among young people can have severe consequences for future generations. Thus, a Comprehensive School Health strategy is an adequate intervention mechanism in which various stakeholders contribute to their best ability.

References

Haines-Saah, R. J., Mitchell, S., Slemon, A., & Jenkins, E. K. (2018). ‘Parents are the best prevention’? Troubling assumptions in cannabis policy and prevention discourses in the context of legalization in Canada. International Journal of Drug Policy, 68, 132-138. Web.

Public Health Agency of Canada. (2021). Blueprint for action: Preventing substance-related harms among youth through a Comprehensive School Health approach. Web.

Young people have always been characterized by being highly active and committed alternative viewpoints. Industrialization and urbanization made life more comfortable and freed up much time for young people, thus, spawning teenage culture in the beginning of the second half of the twentieth century. This combination, coupled with severe social problems such as poverty, racialization, ageism, and homophobia, led to juvenile delinquency. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the portrayals of unruly youth from three movies and three scholarly articles to find out what exactly motivates their behavior.

Unruly Youth and Adaptation

Although Travis is already twenty-six years old in the film, he nonetheless represents later generations of young people. His disobedience to social norms is due to his moral changes during the Vietnam War and his long absence within the framework of a standard urban society (Taxi Driver). Costas describes similar reasons that contribute to social marginalization in his work, studying the formation of the favela population; however, he puts more emphasis on racialization (Costas 117). In the end, marginalization forces both the protagonist of the film and the residents of favelas to illegal activities, such as violence and participating in drug trafficking.

The motivation for asocial behavior is both resistance and coping. The main driver of such a mental strategy of Travis and the favela residents is an unsuccessful attempt to adapt to social norms that were once natural (Costas 117). Failed social adaptation contributes to the increase of misunderstanding and, consequently, the conflict between urban communities, which results in an open clash, as in Taxi Driver, or in the avoidance of legal behaviors.

Unruly Youth and Self-Expression

The criminality of the youth in The Warriors movie, in turn, is a result of a breaking down of societal control and the anarchy which follows. The powerlessness and passivity of the police led to the formation of many aggressive gangs that fight for the zone of influence and simply express their cruel nature. Parenti studies a similar opinion of US police officers on the cultivation of juvenile delinquency, who explained this process through the prism of the broken windows theory (71). The absence of persons who can ensure the authority of the law and, thereby, support the well-being of the community leads to such Napoleonic goals as the capture of all of New York.

Without a doubt, the reason for this rebellious behavior of young people is the desire for self-expression and self-satisfaction. It is confirmed by the motivation of Luther, the main antagonist of The Warriors, who says that he just likes to act brutal and cruel. Additional evidence of this assumption is also segregation through outward self-identification of members of gangs based on costumes and gender.

Unruly Youth in Oppression

La Haine offers probably the most realistic look at the sources of wayward youth, at least in France. The director emphasizes the whole range of social issues, such as police brutality, racial prejudice, lack of access to education, and poverty, which provoke violent protests among multicultural and multi-ethnic youth from the Paris ghetto (La Haine). Siciliano, who studies La Haine in her work, agrees with the proposed social preconditions, also highlighting cultural fear and the nationalist post-colonialist mindset as their source (212). La Haine achieves an incredible level of documenting through the truthfulness and relevance of highlighted social issues.

Constant pressure from the urban majority and social institutions helps to form the rebellious behavior of both the indigenous people of the Paris ghetto and newly arrived migrants. Such an almost Spartan way of life and thinking often leads to a tragic outcome, as was shown in the climax of the film (La Haine). The accumulating negative moods of the inhabitants of the ghetto break out into riots that cause another wave of police brutality repeating the vicious circle of violence.

Conclusion

This work examined six sources, namely three films and three scientific sources, in order to determine the causes of youth rebellion in the urban environment. The results show that the main predecessors of the unruly mindset and actions are unsuccessful social adaptation, a need for self-expression, and urban oppression. These problems are typical for both developed countries, such as the US and France, and developing countries, such as Brazil.

Works Cited

Berlin: Symphony of a Metropolis. Directed by Walter Ruttmann, performance by Berliners, Fox Film Corporation, 1927.

Cohen, Stanley. Folk Devils and Moral Panics: The Creation of the Mods and Rockers. Psychology Press, 2002.

Costas, Gundo Rial y. “Spaces of Insecurity? The “Favelas” of Rio de Janeiro between Stigmatization and Glorification.” Iberoamericana (2001-), vol. 11, no. 41, 2011, pp. 115-128.

Dimendberg, Edward. Film Noir and the Spaces of Modernity. Harvard University Press, 2004.

Invisible City. Directed by Hubert Davis, performances by young black children, National Film Board of Canada, 2009.

James, Ryan Kristopher. “Keeping the Kids out of Trouble:” Extra-Domestic Labour and Social Reproduction in Toronto’s Regent Park, 1959-2012. PhD dissertation, York University, 2017.

La Haine. Directed by Mathieu Kassovitz, performances by Vincent Cassel, Hubert Koundé, and Saïd Taghmaoui, Canal+, 1995.

Parenti, Christian. Lockdown America: Police and Prisons in the Age of Crisis. Verso, 2000.

Roy, Ananya. “Slumdog Cities: Rethinking Subaltern Urbanism.” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, vol. 35, no. 2, 2011, pp. 223-238.

Siciliano, Amy. La Haine: Framing the Urban Outcasts. Okanagan University College, Department of Geography, 2007, OUC.

Slumdog Millionaire. Directed by Danny Boyle, performances by Dev Patel, Freida Pinto, and Madhur Mittal, Celador Films, 2005.

Smith, Neil. The New Urban Frontier: Gentrification and the Revanchist City. Routledge, 1996.

Taxi Driver. Directed by Martin Scorsese, performances by Robert De Niro, Jodie Foster, and Albert Brooks, Bill/Phillips Productions, 1976.

The Naked City. Directed by Jules Dassin, performances by Barry Fitzgerald, Howard Duff, and Dorothy Hart, Universal Pictures 1948.

The Third Man. Directed by Carol Reed, performances by Joseph Cotton, Alida Valli, and Orson Welles, London Films, 1949.

The Warriors. Directed by Walter Hill, performances by Michael Beck, James Remar, and Dorsey Wright, Paramount Pictures, 1979.