Category: Youth

One of the most enduring and universal social debates is the ultimate effectiveness of incarceration, particularly given the implied failure of recidivism. Reported recidivism rates have been unsatisfactorily high: for instance, 49% of young people 10 to 17 years old subjected only to first-tier penalties (action plans, reparation orders, etc.) in the UK in 2001 (Hertfordshire County Council, 2003); in the U.S., a rather dated 15-state sample survey carried out by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (2007) revealed that among 272,111 persons released from prisons in 1994, no less than two-thirds (67.5%) were apprehended again for a felony or serious misdemeanor by 1997, 46.9% were reconvicted, and 25.4% resentenced to prison for a new crime; analysis of the 2003 Survey of Youth in Residential Placement (SYRP) reveals a similar (albeit self-admitted) prior offense rate of 62% for all juvenile offenders arrested that year; and 27 states reported 12-month juvenile recidivism rates of from 25% to 55% of those released from state incarceration, the wide variation owing more to different judicial systems than relative success in reintegration programs (Snyder and Sickmund, 2006).

Many institutions and civic organizations have embarked on a variety of programs to drastically reduce recidivism rates. There is, for instance, “restorative justice” which aims to rehabilitate juvenile offenders arrested for minor crimes with a combination of counseling, warning and shaming the offender into taking responsibility, confronting his victim and offering at least an apology (Braithwaite and Mugford, 1994).

In some cases, the offender is obliged to work so as to be able to pay damages. The risks attending the immediate return of such offenders to the community is counted acceptable against the drawbacks of incarceration with hardened criminals. In some cases, the offender must also work and earn money to pay for the damages caused to the victim. The process attempts to create a dialogue between the two and this has resulted in increased satisfaction for the victim, the offender ostensibly feels accountable for his actions and there is also lesser recidivism.

Among the other social sciences, economics weighs in with value and utility theory in contending that youth crime declines in rough proportion to both present and future wage rates. Lochner (2008) offers empirical proof that better wages increase the opportunity cost of committing crime – in terms of the time spent planning, finding a victim and eluding arrest – while higher future earnings raise the opportunity costs of going to jail. Since education raises future income, incarcerated youth who take advantage of educational facilities should be less prone to revert to crime when released. At the same time, youth in correctional facilities lack direction from parents, legal guardians and other mentors. They must have within themselves the modicum of intelligence to discern economic opportunity and the perseverance to stay with an educational program till graduation.

Common to almost every rehabilitation effort is the goal of reintegrating released convicts into a productive, self-sufficient role in society either by providing educational opportunities and skills training while incarcerated or paving the way for re-admission into the school system. There are many stumbling blocks to this, however.

Chief among such hindrances is variable success in resuming progress through the educational system and hence, the dire need for support in furthering education. In the UK experience, for example, convicts who get off lightly (either pre-Court police reprimand or “first tier” handling) easily return to schooling whereas less than half of those who have been in custody manage to do so on their own.

A second major challenge is what might be deemed a failure of will on the part of those detained to take advantage of educational and training opportunity. A case in point is the situation at Manson Youth Institution, Connecticut’s only prison for youth aged 14 to 21. The inmate population comprises all security or risk levels (1-5) and all mental health levels (1-5). Many inmates are gang members (Bloods, Crypts, MS-13, Latin Kings and so on).

Inmates receive the best possible care, including such entitlements as free 24 hour medical, dental, mental health treatment, DirecTV and cookies with milk before bed time! Mandatory education is in force but once they turn 18, inmates need only participate voluntarily. Even if they have not yet obtained a GED, most choose to stay in the cell blocks despite having signed up to learn a trade, high school or college courses; instead, they opt to while away their time playing cards or basketball, attending only when the mood strikes them.

Thus far, there has been no evidence that mandatory attendance has any adverse effects. Controlling for inmate sex, race, age, education level, and IQ, Ryan and McCabe (1994) found from retrospective investigation of 1990-1991 educational records of the South Carolina Department of Juvenile Justice no statistically significant differences in academic achievement under either voluntary or mandatory attendance regimes.

Whatever the proximate causes or compounding factors, ultimately, the failure to complete a high school education or a General Education Degree exacts a high toll on individuals and bears an intolerable social and economic cost later in life. Any intervention that will motivate participation in educational opportunity can only help in reducing recidivism and enhancing the youthful offender’s reintegration into society.

Applicable Theory and Sources

For the nonce, behavioral modification will be the principal theoretical platform. Behavior modification is an entire branch of modern psychology launched by the work of B.F. Skinner in operant conditioning. Essentially, his landmark contribution was to show that both animals and humans can learn desirable behavior and persevere in it in response to antecedents and positive rewards. For its part, aversive stimuli is terminated before the desired act but never as a consequence of resistance to “learning” the desirable behavior.

The chief sources for the literature search prior to designing the intervention will likely be the databases for PsychINFO Abstracts and applicable professional journals revolving on prison education.

Proposed Dissertation Topic and Statement of Research Problem

As already disclosed in the title of this paper, the researcher proposes to investigate behavior modification as an intervention that could significantly raise participation rates in prison education programs. This constitutes a pragmatic response to a problem of inmate apathy about education and skills training at Manson Youth Institution.

Introduction

In the past recent years, there has been a remarkable marginalization of many young people and their subsequent communities in many parts of the world; leading to the disintegration of different social institutions in many countries. As a result of this, there have been remarkable youth crimes and mass actions conducted by these marginalized communities advocating for their recognition in society. This conflict mainly between the police and these minority youths as Cunneen (2002) explains, has been caused by the unequal distribution of the country’s resources; the pursuit of social networks and the massive youth unemployment which lead to these youths engaging in crime so as to earn a living.

In the pursuit of making ends meet; Cunneen (2002) has observed that these youths end up engaging in various anti-social activities both locally and internationally; as a result of police alienations and such side-lined communities. In fact most of these communities that have been in continuous alienations with the police springs out inadequate economical welfare, to enhance their ability to afford a living and thus due to the lack of the ability to purchase the things they want; they end up taking other people’s property to an extent of even applying force.

This tendency of the young people loitering everywhere in social and public places like town streets, market places and shopping malls among others; in the search of social connections have been observed in many parts of the world as Wash (2008) has observed. The extents to which these youths engage in crimes searching for economic and social welfare vary greatly from one region to another, depending on the national context.

More so, as Wash argues (2008) it has been observed for years there exists a diversity of youths from various cultural backgrounds and sub-cultural forms; as well as gangs of young people which lead to the long-term existence of these conflicts between the state and such marginalized groups. Most importantly the concentration of poor people in various places of the countries in the world has played a big role in allowing for the formation of such youth groups; as a move to fight for the rights of the poor people in such countries who seem to be neglected by the government.

Case Study of Marginalized youths in Australia

In the entire Australian community, Aboriginal people are considered to be the most side-lined people who are portrayed to be the most culturally suffering community among the Australians. Though no precise data has been gathered to show national gangsters in Australia; the emerging youth groups are coming together forming small gangs which seem to threaten the state. As Blagg (2005) argues the suffering undergone by these people in Australia is far rooted in colonialism in the country back in the year 1797. More so, other academicians like Walsh (2008) further expound on this marginalization of Aboriginal people, especially the youths, which has resulted in their alienation from the Australian police. In fact, there is a general spread of information concerning gangs formation among the minority youths in Sydney, which has led to the entire public awareness of an alarming youth gang formation in Australia. Following various youth violence and regular announcements by politicians on ‘threatening youth rise’ as well the high possession of weapons by these Arboginal youths as Walsh (2008) asserts.

Particularly, youth alienations with the police in Australia have been an outstanding issue that has negatively impacted the Australian administrative system for a long time. More precisely, the historical impacts of Arboginal youth’s marginalization by the government as Cuneen (2001) puts it remains the key factor that these youths in Australia have been constantly in bad relationships with the police in the country. As it has also been observed, despite the existing myths and traditions concerning these youth gangs in Australia currently, three intercession issues stand out definitely.

Firstly, the notion that these youth gangs exist is posing a great danger to the community in Sydney; leading to generations of actions in many parts of the city like the formation of policies geared to nation-building in the country as Blagg (2008) argues. The government seems to ignore such actions by these young gangs and for a long time, the little children in Arboginal community have grown knowing that the police were people’s enemies in which this notion leads to the development of strong hatred towards the police by young people as Cueneen (2002) puts it.

More so, many analysts in both economical and social conditions in the Arboginal community have for long been poor; which has intrinsically led to a potential increment in the gang-related behaviors as it has been observed of late. In this perspective, therefore, as Walsh (2008) asserts, action is required from the government so as to curb this young gang group’s growth, which threatens the peace of the country leading to a higher degree of racialization.

Racial discrimination among Australian society as explained by Blagg (2008) was initiated by the colonialists in the country back in the year 1787 has adversely affected the state of peace between the Australian police and the Arboginal youths. gangs in most parts of Sydney has been observed with the minority youths from Arboginal ethnic group; being the main subjects which in the long run is feared that would lead to mass actions by these youths. In this respect, therefore, both political and social issues need to be considered through the involvement of the police and the general community in gang-related behaviors so as to curb any national calamity that seems to be growing in the grassroots threatening the smooth-running of state affairs.

Generally, the big question is how to deal with this fast-growing youth gang’s formation; but not merely on the formation of anti-gang groups in which is the category, the police fall into.

Strategies for solving youth gang development in Sydney

The strategies devised should be clearly scrutinized by looking at both the harmful and beneficial sides, so as not to lead to further problems in the process of solving this gang problem in Australia. It has further been evaluated that the formation of youth anti-gang programs in Australia has not been effective enough to curb this gang development among youths, nor the enacting of laws against youth gangs has been found to work. Meanwhile, as Cuneen (2002) argues the government has put various strategies in action have been imposed to minimize the formations of these youth groups in Arboginal community which continuously threaten the country’s state of peace.

First, the introduction of community collaborations with the police has been observed to minimize the tension that has been building over time between these youths and the police. This is best explained by Hagg (2008) where he asserts that there would be low risks of the Arboginal youths interfering with the Australian state of peace if the government collaborated with this community. In this strategy, the youths would be made aware of the negative effects of the formations of gangs and sharing of information; how to unite as a community would be made as the communities collaborate.

Secondly, Bragg (2005) deduced that activities that can help to prevent crimes should be developed so as to engage youths in various constructive activities, reducing their chances of uniting to engage in crimes. Generally, the modification of the environments, as well as opportunities among these youths, would lead to a significant solution to calamities that could have resulted from the unity of these youths in committing crimes. Potential opportunities to engage these youths in productive activities should also be enhanced; so as to ensure the youths don’t stay idle and engage themselves in crimes.

Further, as Collins (2000) asserts the Australian police should use suppression tactics to discourage the Arboginal youths from engaging in the formation of gangs, which in the long run may lead to the engagement of these youths in crimes. Street and market places idling among youths should also be discouraged through the use of laws and regulations in Sydney city. Collin’s (2000) argument was further reinforced by Cunneen (2002) when he argued on the proactive and massive involvement of the police to discourage such behaviors among the Arboginal youths by sweeping them out of Sydney streets.

Lastly, in some other circumstances, it would also be of great importance to involve coercive measures to curb the groups of youths forming gangs that have been got red-handed. In this strategy, as it was put by Bragg (2008), the high visibility police patrols would be involved in stopping and searching for alleged crew members in the pursuit of arresting them afterward. Regular curfews in the suspected areas should also be enforced where ordinances would be restricted at the suspected areas during specific times.

Parties involved in negotiating approach for the towards solving youth marginalization

A negotiating approach towards solving the development of the youth gangs and anti-social groups involves more of talking and discussing matters; than the enacting of laws and regulations. More specifically, a deeper conversation on how the conflict between the minority and majority youths would be conducted to examine the causes of such conflict, and the ultimate solutions capable of saving the situation.

First, various community leaders should conduct various seminars and public talks with the youths in which various solutions to many problems experienced by the youths like unemployment would be brought into awareness as proposed by Collins (2000). More so, Blagg (2008) proposed that community leaders including the church leaders, regions administrators and development group leaders among others should ensure a consensus between the police and the youths; so as to prevent any chances of gang development among the youths. In this respect, for instance, the Australian government has constantly involved the various community leaders to talk to the youths, so as to ensure that they don’t involve themselves further in the formation of gang groups.

More so, Chan (2000) comments that government officers should be actively involved in negotiating with the youths on matters concerning youth development. This process is meant to determine the needs of such youths so as to engage themselves in more productive ways; through the creation of the necessary resources capable of making the youths busy so as not to idle and engage themselves in various crimes. This will be meant to explore and address the issues of national identity belonging to young people.

Lastly, according to Bragg (2008), the minority Arboginal youths in Australia should organize regular meetings with youths from minority regions; so as to establish a common understanding of life and come up with the right strategies to be involved in solving the problems faced by the youths within marginalized areas. This would help very much to a great extent; as these youths will establish some kind of unity among themselves leading to low chances of youths from marginalized groups forming gangs

Conclusion

Generally, as it has been observed in many parts of the world; various strategies have been brought into action towards the reduction of youth crimes and deviances so as not to interfere with national and international peace. According to overseas program implementation on criminology, the importance of the evaluation of youth groups was addressed and various interventions were made; so as to ensure a successful minimization of youth crimes as a result of marginalization.

Reference list

Blagg, H. 2008. Crime, Aboriginality and the Decolonisation of Justice. Annandale: Hawkins Press.

Blagg, H. and Wilkie, M. 1995. Young people and police powers, Sydney: Australian Youth Foundation.

Chan, C. & Cunneen, C. 2000. Evaluation of the implementation of the New South Wales Police Service Aboriginal strategic plan. Sydney: Institute of Criminology Publications.

Collins, J., Noble, G., Poynting, S. & Tabar, P. 2000. Kebabs, Kids, Cops & Crime: youth, ethnicity & crime. Sydney: Pluto Press.

Cunneen, C. & White, R. 2002. Juvenile Justice: youth and crime in Australia. Melbourne: Oxford University Press

Cuneen, C. 2001. Conflict, politics and crime: Aboriginal communities and the Police, Sydney: Allen and Unwin Publishers.

Poyting, S., Nobe, G., Tabar, P. and Collins, J. 2004. Bin Laden in the suburbs, Sydney: Federation Press.

Walsh, T. 2008. Policing disadvantage: Giving voice to those affected by the Politics of law and disorder, Alternative Law Journal, 33(3): 160-164. New York: Harvard Press.

Weatherburn, D. 2006. Riots, policing and social disadvantage: Learning from the Riots in Macquarie Fields and Redfern: Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 18(1):20-31. Annandale: Hawkins Press.

White, R. and Alder, C. 1994. The police and young people in Australia, Sydney: Allen and Unwin.

The Authors’ Argument

The book “Youth Gangs in American Society” by Sharon Tracy, Randall Shelden, and William Brown argues that gangs have become critical part of the society. Different criminological theories “offer powerful insights into the origin, development, nature, operations, and solutions to these gangs” (Shelden, Tracy, & Brown, 2003, p. 23).

Governments should use broad-based strategies in order to find long-lasting solutions to the challenges associated with these American gangs. The book explains why the economic implications of these gangs are undeniable. Scholars and researchers can use different theories in order to understand the origin of these groups. A good example is the social disorganization theory. This understanding can produce new social policies and criminal justice practices in order to deal with this problem.

Information Presented by the Authors to Support their Arguments

According the authors, gangs have “become ubiquitous in the United States” (Shelden et al., 2003, p. 19). The authors also identify some of the major issues and factors encouraging the youth to join different gangs. According to Howell (2011, p. 48), “inequality, poverty, and injustice have contributed a lot to the American gang culture”. Gangs have engaged in different malpractices in different parts of the world (Shelden et al., 2003).

The authors believe strongly that such gangs reflect the American community. The economic impacts of these American gangs are also undeniable. The authors have used various theories to describe the issues associated with different gangs. Scholars can use different theories such as the social disorganization theory to understand the origin and nature of these gangs. This theory explains why notorious gangs have become common in every American city. The “economic inequality between the poor and the well-born explains why different gangs operate differently” (Shelden et al., 2003, p. 64).

The book explores “the use of unremittingly tough policies in order to deal with crime and youth gangs” (Shelden et al., 2003, p. 72). The book also examines how soft approaches can address this problem. The agreeable fact is that gangs have become a critical part of the mainstream culture. Failure to “identify a permanent solution to this problem will burden the country’s criminal justice system” (Shelden et al., 2003, p. 87). These gangs produce a lot of suffering and despair in the country.

Is the Above Information Convincing?

The above discussions are convincing because they analyze the history of social inequality in the United States. For instance, discrimination, injustice, and racism have remained common in the country for many decades. Such malpractices have remained a critical part of the American society (Howell, 2011).

The authors have used powerful theories in order to present their arguments. The authors have used accurate historical arguments in order to analyze the origin, development, and position of such gangs in America. The “evidence-based ideas presented in the book encourage more people to deal with youth gangs in the country” (Shelden et al., 2003, p. 72).

Comparison with Other Criminal Justice Books

I have read several books in order to understand the issue of criminal justice. This text offers new ideas that can encourage more people to analyze the history of different American gangs. The book also offers meaningful criminological theories that can deal with the above problem. For instance, the book “Gangs: A Guide to Understanding Street Gangs” also examines the issues associated with different youth gangs (Valdez, 2009). Many books examine how various strategies can deal with crime, child delinquency, and insecurity. This book becomes a relevant source of information.

Flow of the Book

The authors of the book have used a formal writing style. This approach encourages more individuals to read the book. The authors have selected the right words in order to deliver the best information to the reader. For instance, the book uses words such as “African Americans” instead of “Blacks”. The paragraphs and sentences flow in a professional manner. The organization of the book is also acknowledgeable. This fact explains why the book presents the best ideas and discussions to the reader (Shelden et al., 2003).

Style Elements and Clarity

The use of simple and formal words encourages more people to read every part of the book. The authors have used many chapters, figures, charts, diagrams in order to inform the reader about the targeted information. The words and sentences flow in a proper manner. The paragraphs flow smoothly thus delivering the right information to the reader. For instance, the authors begin by identifying the nature of different American gangs.

The book also analyzes the origins and impacts of such gangs (Shelden et al., 2003). This transition encourages more people to acquire the required information from the book.

Recommending to this Book to Other Scholars

In conclusion, I am recommending this book to other classes. This book is useful in “criminal justice system, child delinquency, social inequality, insecurity, and American gang culture” (Shelden et al., 2003, p. 98). I will also recommend this text to every person who wants to understand the issue of American gang culture.

Reference List

Howell, J. (2011). Gangs in America’s Communities. New York, NY: Sage Publications.

Shelden, R., Tracy, S., & Brown, W. (2003). Youth Gangs in American Society. Boston, MA: Cengage Brain.

Valdez, A. (2009). Gangs: A Guide to Understanding Street Gangs. San Clemente, CA: Law Tech Publishing.

The theme of changes used to make any society perfect concerns many aspects, among which are: economic stability and growth, morality, social profits. Youth is the layer of society with great potential. It is a ‘propulsive force’ for implementing new approaches and solutions as for enhancement of the current state of affairs in the social and societal framework.

Juvenile delinquency draws to a head using survey lack of adults. The rate of violent crimes committed by young people is perpetually growing and seems to have no way out. Sentence for Violent Youth is a process with complicated factors causing it with some perspectives to get through this wrong path again. That is why it is necessary and important to “balance the criminal justice system’s goals of punishment, rehabilitation, deterrence, and protection of the community.” (McFarlane 2001)

The sentences of judges are fair to accuse of the youngster to embody more responsibility into them. By law and Youth Criminal Justice Act (YCJA), the main sentences for violent youth presuppose in their differentiation, first, the age features. Offenders of 12 years old through 14 do not deserve adult sentences elder ones are determined to be accused as adults. Among the sentences, the following ones are distinguished: counseling, community service, or reimbursing victims for damages and imprisoning for not more than seven years. Training and monitoring as well as providing the youth with the perfect work of social services without provocative actions such as indifference of adults represented, first, my parents at the local level are the alternative methods to prevent violent attitude of juveniles.

The advantages of such sentences mentioned above touch upon the growth of personal responsibility through physical restrictions or punishment implemented in work activities. This helps to make young people realize one more time the value of living in the society and the importance of understanding the asocial drawbacks of the society. Also, it serves as a tool of displaying strength due to the concept of state power and the power of the law which is considered to be entire and of active presence within the society.

The overuse of incarceration is one of the major disadvantages. Another one tends to think that the social works can stimulate the dark side of juveniles’ nature to repeat previous crimes once more.

Youth justice law needs more attention and participation of the government to prevent the rates of juvenile delinquency within the society. First, there should be more stress on the programs involving constant and adequate informing of the youth about the aftermath of crimes. Supposing this will touch youngsters’ consciousness and impressed them using several instances not to commit every step which contradicts the law base of the United States of America. Such prophylaxis cannot but grab youth’s attention on the facts of delinquency as harm for the society.

Thus, the issue of an appropriate sentence for violent youth should concern the extent of deterrence in terms of stabilization of the situation in society. Another point touches upon the facts differentiating the age peculiarities and the character of the committed crime and its degree.

Works cited

McFarlane, Katherine. Submission regarding provisional sentencing of violent youth offenders; New South Wales Sentencing Council, Sydney, 2001.

Youth gangs are a serious issue in modern society, creating several social, economic, legal, and cultural problems. The complexity and resilience of the problem require an equally encompassing response involving multiple stakeholders. The following paper lists the common consequences of joining a gang, suggests the main approaches to addressing the issue, and outlines the laws intended to aid the ordinance.

Young people join gangs for a variety of reasons, including the need for a sense of fellowship or family, search for protection, and establishment of identity, among others. As can be seen, many of these reasons can be fulfilled using other approaches. Thus, it would be reasonable to suggest several alternatives that would help to keep young people from joining a gang. First, it is possible to facilitate support by creating gang prevention school initiatives. This alternative would include workshops for students of 6 to 9 grades. The initiatives are expected to appeal the sense of identity, peer support, and fellowship, thus decreasing the need for joining a gang. Second, it is recommended to develop a summer program. The program is expected to include educational, recreational, and sports activities to cover the needs of youth. Third, after-school groups can be formed to promote social skills among students that experience a deficit of trust and self-esteem.

Fourth, parents may participate in a family support program which would provide them with the necessary skills and knowledge to prevent their children from becoming gang members. Fifth, community-based initiatives may be introduced that would offer the possibility of social interaction while at the same time provide development opportunities. Of the alternatives identified above, an in-school program is the most feasible option. The main reason for this is the flexibility it offers to the stakeholders. The program will provide first-hand data necessary for developing other alternatives and adjusting the existing school practices. Also, schools have access to resources to facilitate further development. Finally, schools usually maintain contact with parents, which would allow for the dissemination of essential information on the matter.

On a legislative level, two laws can be proposed to address the issue of juvenile gangs. The first law is meant to suppress the current criminal activities. Thus, it will target the issues that are currently apparent in the community and are related to the existing gang. The said law may target specific activities, such as thefts, assaults, and drug trafficking by adjusting the criteria and introducing strict punitive measures. In some instances, it is possible to review the status of some violations and change it to a more severe case, such as a felony. The described law is expected to stop current members from committing unlawful acts, thus decreasing the overall crime rate in the short term. The second law is intended to discourage undesirable activities such as graffiti drawing. For instance, it is possible to suggest that the prohibition of selling paint to minors will serve as an effective graffiti prevention measure without disrupting regular activities. Alternatively, it is possible to account for the recurrence of undesirable actions. For example, an act of vandalism may be classified as a felony when repeated several times by the same person. This law is expected to prevent potential members from joining the gang, thus ensuring that the phenomenon will not expand in the long term.

An arrest for crimes committed while being a part of a gang has profound consequences on the lives of the individuals. The most evident outcome is disrupted academic performance. It has been reported that a proportion of students that are unable to graduate from high school is significantly higher among the group that was subject to arrest on charges of gang activity (Burdick-Will, 2016). Another widely reported consequence is substance abuse. The social and psychological implications of undergoing a legal prosecution create a highly stressful environment that, combined with the influence of peers, greatly increases the risk of engaging in abusive behavior. Finally, the negative effect on academic performance combined with several minor factors contributes to undesirable socioeconomic status and puts the individual’s family at risk. The latter consequence is the most important for several reasons. First, it has been determined that the severity of the effect increases as a result of longer membership in a gang (Pyrooz & Sweeten, 2015). Second, its influence can be observed many years after the incident, making it difficult to determine and address. Finally, its impact goes beyond individual considerations and affects family members and, to some degree, communities.

The long-term impacts of joining a gang can be observed on a social, psychological, and physical level. First, similarly to the consequences of arrest, gang members are subject to alcohol and drug abuse. This factor is a major contributor to the state of mental and physical health of the individual since its adverse consequences can be observed throughout one’s life. Also, alcohol and drug abuse have major negative effects on an individual’s ability to interact with peers and, by extension, engaging in relationships. In other words, gang members are less likely to form healthy families. Third, it is necessary to acknowledge that former gang members may lack important social skills and proficiencies that are necessary for normal interactions with peers.

As a result, they will likely experience difficulties in social interactions. Next, it is common for gang members to neglect school activity, which hurts the development of skills necessary for becoming a functional member of society. Finally, as a result of poor academic performance and lack of social skills the impacted individual will experience difficulties in finding and retaining employment, leading to low socioeconomic status (Gass & Laughter, 2015). While all of the identified factors are important, it is possible to suggest that a compromised academic performance has the most impact on an individual’s life, since the delay in development at a young age requires a disproportionate amount of time and resources to address in adulthood. Thus, its effects are both profound (as illustrated by the employment issue above) and difficult to mitigate.

The suggested ordinance is expected to be successful for three reasons. First, a comprehensive gang prevention program requires an assessment that can be facilitated with the support of school staff. The obtained data may later be used to sustain the effort and expand the program to other areas. Second, the school setting is highly favorable for facilitating social activities among students, which will ensure that they are equipped with essential knowledge regarding the risks of joining a gang and familiarized with the possibility of alternatives. Third, it is expected to find support within the community. The public will likely perceive the ordinance as creating new opportunities within the community. Admittedly, some members may also perceive it as ineffective due to the focus on prevention rather than elimination. Nevertheless, responsible communication is expected to eliminate this misconception, ensuring the success of the ordinance.

References

Burdick-Will, J. (2016). Neighborhood violent crime and academic growth in Chicago: Lasting effects of early exposure. Social Forces, 95(1), 133-158.

Gass, K. M., & Laughter, J. C. (2015). “Can I make any difference?” Gang affiliation, the school-to-prison pipeline, and implications for teachers. The Journal of Negro Education, 84(3), 333-347.

Pyrooz, D. C., & Sweeten, G. (2015). Gang membership between ages 5 and 17 years in the United States. Journal of Adolescent Health, 56(4), 414-419.

Human beings have a tendency of operating together in groups, especially for people with similar characteristics. In many parts of the world, the youth identify themselves with those people who are immediately in their vicinity. As a result, many juvenile gangs have sprouted in many parts of the world. A gang can be defined as a group of people especially the youth who have common characteristics, mostly against what is considered as proper behavior in society (Siegel & Weish, 2010). Contrary to ancient gangs, nowadays gangs are more organized and large. Besides, the gangs have resulted to recruiting minors, making them a disaster in the waiting. However, in order to understand what society can do to save juvenile gang members, it is paramount to understand why the youth join these gangs and the key issues associated with juvenile gangs.

Young people need society to be close to them every time (Goldson, 2011). Therefore, any breakdown in the family or lack of cohesiveness in the society makes the youth feel neglected. As a result, they will turn to any place where they can get people who listen to them for their psychological satisfaction. Unfortunately, only gangs are ready and available to offer this kind of comfort (Goldson, 2011). On the same note, people from financially unstable backgrounds find it difficult to provide for their children. Consequently, adolescents and young adults are forced to start looking for jobs at tender ages. However, without credentials it is hard to get well paying jobs. Consequently, the youth are compelled to join gangs since they provide easier means of getting money. Furthermore, the problem of drug abuse compels the youth to join various gangs.

It should be noted that gangs have different structures and objectives. Some gangs operate in groups with a primary aim of making profits. The hierarchy of authority in these groups is vertical which in many instances, makes them highly elusive from law enforcing agencies (Chaskin, 2010). On the other hand, there are gangs which have minimal control over individual members and are quick to engage in violent activities. Furthermore, there are gangs which are not organized at all and the driving force for members is the need to belong to a certain group. Contrary to the first two types of gangs, it is very easy for one to get out of this gang (Siegel & Weish, 2010).

Young people join gangs because the society is unable to provide them with a trusting relationship. Therefore, it is very important for every member of the society to show love to the youth from very tender ages; five years if possible. In this regard, cohesion in the society is very crucial to provide the youth with a sense of belonging (Chaskin, 2010). Moreover, parents are advised to take up their roles seriously. Much as the parents have to work to provide for their families, it is important that they find time for their children and guide them. Most importantly, the way other gang members are treated by society after leaving their gangs, highly determines whether in the future many more will be willing to leave or not (Goldson, 2011). If those who have left various gangs are warmly received back to society, shown love and are not discriminated or stigmatized, many more will be willing to assimilate back to society. However, if society becomes cruel to those who want to assimilate back, the youth will be skeptical about their steps to leave the gangs (Chaskin, 2010). Consequently, it is upon the society to ensure that the youth can get what they go to look for in gangs. The issue of juvenile gangs is a reality of life, and the earlier it is addressed the better.

References

Chaskin, R. J. (2010). Youth Gangs and Community Intervention: Research, Practice, and Evidence. New York: Columbia University Press.

Goldson, B. (2011). Youth in crisis?: Gangs, Territoriality and Violence. New York: Taylor & Francis.

Siegel, L. J., & Welsh, B. C. (2010). Juvenile Delinquency: The Core. Stanford: Cengage Learning.

Executive Summary

The use of a Taser during an arrest has been very necessary, especially in cases where the suspect attempts to flee or physically attack the arresting officer. It is a good substitution for the use of gunfire. However, cases have been reported of the misuse of Tasers among law enforcement officers. Several complaints of excessive use of force have been aired in cases where officers discharge Tasers where the circumstances do not warrant the move. The use of Tasers has also resulted in deaths, especially in cases where the victim is epileptic or suffers from heart problems. The use of a Taser involves very high voltages of electric shock. Hence, it can be lethal or cause permanent health problems to vulnerable populations. Since the use of Tasers is unavoidable, there is the need to ensure the most efficient use of Tasers while minimizing the risks of health complications or death. It is also important for the State of Florida to ensure that the officers use Tasers appropriately. They should only discharge them in situations where softer means have failed. It is also important for victims to be informed about the implications of resisting an officer. The most efficient method of ensuring that Tasers are used efficiently is by creating policies that act as an efficient guideline on the proper use, risks, and exceptions to the use of Tasers. This paper analyzes the permissibility of the use of Tasers on youths by Florida’s school resource officers.

Introduction

Situations that pose a threat to people can occur in any place. For insecure institutions such as schools, it is important to maintain the safety of students. Safety in schools may call for the security officers to detain or apprehend individuals. Using a Taser to detain such individuals when they are resistant may be necessary. On the other hand, the misuse of a Taser by an officer involves the violation of an individual’s right. Therefore, policies should be put in place to ensure that Tasers are only used when it is extremely necessary. Several considerations should also be taken to minimize the chances of causing death or health complications. The officer should also be qualified to use a Taser by being given proper training. The officer should also be keen on which part of the body he or she aims the Taser at to prevent damaging sensitive body organs.

Review of Research Policies

According to Worrall (2014), a Taser is a form of an electronic control device (ECD) that is used to subdue suspects by law enforcers. The device produces an electronic shock that triggers spontaneous muscle contractions that leaves the target incapacitated. The electronic shock causes the targeted individual to remain unconscious for about five to ten seconds. Literature shows that the use of Tasers mostly causes minor or no injuries. In fact, manufacturers and proponents of Tasers equate the impact of Tasers to hand control strategies (Walker, 2011). Moreover, it is presumed to be more favorable than other ‘less-than-lethal’ weapons such as pepper spray (Walker, 2011).

However, as the use of Tasers becomes increasingly popular, controversies surrounding its safety are also ubiquitous. Taser International does not list the entire risks that the device poses to the targeted individual. Subsequently, most law enforcers are uninformed of its dangers and/or how to counter such risks. A study by Gaines and Kappeler (2014) reveals that the Taser shock can result in serious injuries such as spine fractures, eye damage, scarring, internal damage of soft tissues, and hernias. In fact, law enforcers have been victims of Taser-induced injuries during training. Moreover, Taser International also accounts that the shock may also cause falls and secondary injuries where the suspect is physically frail (Gaines & Kappeler, 2014).

Le Blanc, Gricourt, Touré, Papin, and Proust (2012) have also shown that when Taser is fired at a time when the heartbeat cycle is susceptible, it can cause ventricular fibrillation, which results in death. Kids and individuals taking psychiatric drugs are more vulnerable to the condition. Moreover, repeated and prolonged Taser shocks also increase the chances of suffering from this condition. In the absence of defibrillators, it can cause fatal cardiac arrest. Unfortunately, most health risks are not substantiated with adequate empirical evidence. However, when they occur, the results are fatal. Therefore, there is the need to evaluate the impact of such health risks on children before authorizing schools resource officials to use Taser devices on youths in the State of Florida.

Records of deaths are accelerated by Taser shocks. Individuals who struggle with diabetes, epilepsies, and cardiac ailments may die because of the shock. Amnesty International (AI) reported that about 334 individuals died between 2001 and 2008 after being Tasered in America. Although AI asserts that victims had other ailments, it is evident that Taser was a contributory factor. Unfortunately, law enforcers are unlikely to understand the health conditions of the suspects at the time of the arrest. Hence, they may use Taser, even where the target has severe medical conditions. Despite the serious risk of Tasering, most of the people who lose their lives at the time of apprehension do not face a looming death threat to the law enforcers. The incidents raise serious issues concerning the use of unreasonable force (Beard, 2015).

Since there is evidence that Tasers can reduce the injuries that occur between law enforcers and suspects, it can be presumed that the risks are largely influenced by how they are deployed. Moreover, in the case of youths in the State of Florida, the use of Tasers may be the most applicable non-lethal technique that law enforcers can use to apprehend teenagers. Other methods such as firearms and pepper spray may only amount to the use of excessive force if school resource officers use them to separate fights or manage other aggressive behaviors in the school. In fact, courts have supported the use of Tasers on youngsters terming it as a reasonable force. In the Jason v City of Lincoln Park, the district court decreed that the law enforcers had used reasonable office when they Tasered a fourteen-year-old boy who was not cooperating with the officers, even after being handcuffed. Furthermore, the courts reiterated that the use of Taser was consistent with the Fourth Amendment that upholds the use of reasonable force. It follows that security officers must ensure that they use Tasers appropriately (Worley & Worley, 2011).

The US Department of Justice asserts that Tasers are increasingly becoming the most common ‘less-than-lethal’ force applied by law enforcers. Despite the proof that hand control methods may significantly reduce injuries experienced when subduing suspects, security officers always opt for Tasers, thus leading to abuse of the device. Observers such as Beard (2015) have noted numerous cases where security officers opted to deploy several and extended shocks where the target was already restrained. Such officers have also used the device on vulnerable individuals such as expectant women. Moreover, passive subjects have also been Tasered, despite being clearly inappropriate (Beard, 2015).

Jurists also note that abuse of Tasers may amount to the use of excessive force, which is a violation of the principles implied in the Fourth Amendment. In Graham v. Connor, the court held that the application of force could only be permitted if it met the standards of the Fourth Amendment (Gaines & Kappeler, 2014). Initially, courts did not underscore the risks associated with Taser devices. Thus, they often sided with law enforcers, even in cases where one would confirm the extreme use of force. Presently, humanitarian agencies, security experts, and medical practitioners have raised concerns, thus making the courts more conversant with the risks. Law enforcers can be reprimanded for abusing the use of Taser since they know the pain or fatalities that ECD can cause. Moreover, measures can also be taken to discipline municipalities that encourage policies that permit security officers to misuse Tasers (Fabian, 2010).

Courts have consistently prohibited the use of deadly force unless there is a severe threat as held in Tennessee v. Garner. Indeed, legal experts assert that repeated Tasering may amount to inappropriate use of deadly force if the suspects do not pose lethal threats. However, in the controversial case of Buckley v. Haddock, the court alluded that it was logical to Taser a subdued suspect three times. Buckley v. Haddock is among the cases that might create confusion among law enforcers. It encourages the misuse of Tasers. Therefore, policymakers need to consider promoting laws that regulate the effective use of Tasers (Sussman, 2012).

The State of Florida is among the few regions in the US that permit and/or have provisions that govern the use of Taser. It allows security officers to use physical force, which includes nonlethal devices such as Tasers where it is practically appropriate. The Florida Statute further points out that the targeted individual must be repelling apprehension actively since the suspect may attempt to escape or threaten to apply force. From a rare view, the Act may appear to be protecting constituents from arbitrary use of Taser together with the risks that it poses. However, the State of Florida lacks a law that prevents law enforcers from Taser passive targets as witnessed in the Buckley case (Fabian, 2010).

Recommendations

Tasers should only be used per the Florida Statute. The statute permits the use of Tasers in case of escalated resistance when the suspect attempts to escape or physically threatens the officer. The use of force by officers should not be condoned unless it is necessary. Tasers should be used only after verbal commands and/or the use of hands. A suspect should understand the implication of resisting an officer before the placement of a Taser (Walker, 2011).

Consideration should also be taken on what part of the body the Taser is placed. To minimize the risk of permanent damage of body organs or even death, officers should have guidelines on where to direct the Taser and where to avoid it. When a Taser is aimed at the front part of the body, it should be directed at the torso, but far from the heart. When directed towards the back, it should be aimed low enough to avoid affecting the heart. Tasers should never be aimed at the groin, neck, head, face, open mouth, eyes, large blood vessels, female breasts, or open wounds (Gaines & Kappeler, 2014).

Taser policies should be clear in defining circumstances under which the use of Tasers is unacceptable. Taser use should be restricted to situations under which the devices are unlikely to cause fatalities or permanent damage. The use of Tasers should be prohibited around highly flammable substances, young children or elderly people, on persons under 80 pounds, compliant persons, already restrained persons, people with known heart conditions, mental health patients, or pregnant women. It should also be avoided in risky surroundings. Policies should also be set to limit the substitution of verbal de-escalation methods with the use of a Taser. Officers should strive to resolve confrontations using other methods first before applying force. Tasers should only be used on forceful resistors (Walker, 2011).

Florida policies on the use of Tasers should also include steps that should be taken to provide medical attention after a Taser discharge. Such policies should indicate the need to offer emergency medical help if a Taser is discharged on a sensitive body part. Officers should also be trained to offer emergency services to prevent deaths following the use of a Taser when the victim seems to develop an extreme reaction. The State of Florida should also develop sanctions against officers who fail to adhere to policies that govern the use of Tasers. Such sanctions should be put in writing to improve their enforceability (Worrall, 2014).

The Taser policy should include the requirement for every officer who fires a Taser to fill out a form outlining the events that preceded and followed the Taser use. The form should subsequently be submitted to the supervisor. The report should be submitted within twenty-four hours. Such a procedure will be effective in preventing frivolous use of Tasers. Such a report will also be used to review the integrity of an officer and/or his need for further training. Disciplinary actions should be taken if the report and consequent investigations reveal that the officer failed to follow the Taser policies (Fabian, 2010; Worrall, 2014).

Conclusion

The use of Tasers has been recommended, as opposed to the use of guns, to quell commotions and resistance during arrests. Tasers have less lethality as compared to guns. Although the use of Tasers has been taken to be a nonlethal alternative to lethal force, they carry exceptional risks. Scores of people have been reported dead after a Taser was discharged on them. This observation means that the use of a Taser is lethal to some extent. Therefore, guidelines have to be put in place to minimize cases of Taser-related deaths. It is important to limit the use of Tasers since they emit a high voltage of electric current that can cause permanent damage to vital body organs. Tasers should only be used on violent resistors and not on compliant or restrained suspects. Children, elderly people, and pregnant women should always be exempted from the use of Tasers because they are more at risk of succumbing to the shock.

Reference List

Beard, M. (2015). Simply Stunning! A Proposed Solution for Regulating the Use of Tasers by Law Enforcement in the Seventh Circuit. Valparaiso University Law Review, 49(3), 907-953.

Fabian, J. (2010). Don’t Tase Me Bro!: A Comprehensive Analysis of the Laws Governing Taser Use By Law Enforcement. Florida Law Review, 62(1), 763-794.

Gaines, L., & Kappeler, V. (2014). Policing in America. Massachusetts, MA: Routledge.

Le Blanc, L., Gricourt, C., Touré, E., Papin, F., Proust, B. (2012). A brain penetration after Taser injury: Controversies regarding Taser gun safety. Forensic Science International, 221(3), 7-11.

Sussman, A. (2012). Shocking the Conscience: What Police Tasers and Weapon Technology Reveal About Excessive Force Law. UCLA Law Review, 59(5), 1342-141.

Walker, J. (2011). Tase Me One More Time: An Analysis of the Ninth Circuit’s Interpretation of The Fourth Amendment, Qualified Immunity, and Tasers In Brooks V. City of Seattle. Brigham Young University Law Review, 2011(1), 227-243.

Worley, V., & Worley, R. (2011). Shocking Policy: Municipal Liability for the Use of Tasers and Stun Guns by the Police. Journal of Police Crisis Negotiations, 11(1), 72-89.

Worrall, J. (2014). Crime Control in America: What Works? New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Education.

Introduction

Immigration as a process refers to the movement of a person from his native place to another place and settling down there for a long period of time. This may have been caused by various reasons. It can be of political, social, occupational, educational, and so on. Generally, the migration process is always connected with war, political emergency, job and so on. In the context of America, emigration can be defined as the movement of people from other regions and countries to the United States. It is seen that such emigration helped for the population growth and it even resulted in the cultural exchange. The economic, social, and political part of the emigration has resulted in controversy on the issues related to the ethnicity, values, economic development, religion, job security, social mobility citizenship, criminal tendencies and finally on the patterns of settlement. The statistics show that the United States contains the majority of migrant population. But the September 11, 2001 incident has significant influence on the public attitudes on migrant population. As a result of this the government has tightened the security measures due to which migrants have to face several problems.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is to explore the identity problems of Asian and Latino Youth living in America. Immigrants to America can be viewed in different phases. The colonial period, the mid-nineteenth century, the beginning of the twentieth century and the post-1965 are the most significant periods. Each phase has brought different national groups, races and ethnic groups. It is the post-1965 that brought the majority of Latin American and Asian population. Studies show that the Latin and Asian countries accounts for the higher population of migrants in united dates.

About the Latinos in United States, majority are from Mexico (66%), Central and South America. Puerto Rican, and Cuba account for about 15%, 9% and 4%, respectively. So we can say that the Latinos are chiefly the migrants from Mexico. So far it concerns the Asian migrants they are basically from countries like Bangladesh, Pakistan, China, Philippines, India, Japan, Korea, Thailand and Vietnam. Latin economies do not provide enough surpluses of jobs. United States offers more jobs than the Native Latin nations. This excludes the Latin people form their towns. The fact is that the part of the family already lives in USA or that most of the young males of the local towns normally immigrate to the north and now is a path to follow by kids. They even think that USA is the greatest place to live.

Migrations occur for many reasons. It could be related to internal problems, economic reasons etc. But it is seen that the Latin families have strong ties with their native places. Regardless of the reasons, after September 11 2001 attacks, all the borders policies in USA became harder. But that haven’t stop the migration. However, it is now more risky and costly. More money is needed for migrants to get to the other side of the border. There are harder were to laws, against migrants and finally the results of these are several sociological, environmental, economical and political consequences.

The most important issues that Latinos are facing are the identity crisis. There is a transculturalization in both ways. First that Latins try to establish their cultures in USA territories, but it is very difficult to them. It is seen that they are loosing their identity. Latinos while going back to native countries don’t practice any more local customs. While being there, they find it difficult to get along with the other cultures. They have huge differences while compared to other groups such as Asians, Europeans etc. It is also a fact that many present generations don’t know anything about their native countries. Some want to know their roots. Gradually they are losing their Latin identity, cultures and customs. To a certain extent it depends on the state where one is living in U.S. Some accept other social groups while some conservative states hate migrants. The exact reasons of Identity crisis happening as a result of migration can be summed up as follows:

Researches have found that individual factors are strong predictors of ethnic identity and this is particularly during early adulthood. Identity development varies as per the culture. For migrants, it is a big challenge for negotiating the traditional domains and also difficult to decide on their perception on identity. Clash with the native values and those in the place of settlement is always an issue to the Latinos. “For Latinos, much of this influence may come in indirect forms such as the implicit teaching of the concepts of familia (deep connection and loyalty to extended family) and respeto (respect of elders).” (Grezbek & Raffaelli, 2004. p.559-575).

To decide on which identity they want to develop is always a matter of confusion and complexity for them. Ethnic identity development, self-esteem, self-concept are all interconnected and they have the challenge to disprove stereotypes and also to maintain a good positive social interactions with others.

Latino populations in the United States are geographically much closer than those of other immigrant groups in United States and they have better opportunity to visit their native countries frequently. Still it is a fact that the Latino populations faced exclusion and discrimination for generations. They were not fully integrated into the mainstream society and it stresses the importance of ethnicity and identity. All these result in a unique cultural environment for Latino youth and it makes more clear that the attainment of the ethnic identity is challenging the disparity between the family’s values and those of the majority culture.The ego factor is also involved as they were not much included as the part of the main stream.

The usage Of Hispanic and Latino always add confusion to their identity. American government uses the term Hispanic for recognizing the individuals’ common Spanish origin. The legal system in United States always tries to categorize Spanish-speaking people as Hispanic and imposes a group identity on them. The cultural differences are not in consideration, in this context. Though a common Hispanic identity is imposed on Spanish speaking crowd in the United States, they never share a common identity or common bond. Besides they do not actually share a common ethnicity or ancestry.

“Hispanic or Latino” is the group of people who were the migrants from Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Central and South America and other Spanish countries. They also include migrants who are settled in the US many generations back. The common Hispanic bond notion is more powerfully applied in the United States than that in Latin America. Moreover, the Hispanic / Latino label is created in the USA. This label is also identification for many migrants from Latin America. These Latinos do not have a common and tragic starting point, such as slavery and this is why they are not being imposed a rigid identity. Many migrated to U.S because of the opportunities available here and to realize their aspirations. But they also begin to experience a feeling that they are a minority-group experience. They also often fall victim to the evil of discrimination. Experts opine that when a Latin migrant want to express identity, it is not that the “Hispanic” and “Latino” are the terms to use. When they have other choices, they usually reflect national identities. “The group label was preferred by no more than one-quarter of either the immigrants or the native born. It’s not that they are hostile to the idea of an overarching Latino identity encompassing the whole of the Hispanic population, but that identity is not at the forefront of their thoughts.” (A developing identity Hispanics in the United States: Many different perceptions, 2006).

It is also seen that the Spanish-speaking Latinos hold distinctive views when compared to the native-born English speakers who possess views which are similar to the Native American population and this is even reflects in their attitudes to life also

The expression Latino refers to people who came from the nations of Latin America and the Caribbean. This also includes the countries where Spanish is not spoken. Brazil is a good example in this context. Immigrants born in America who migrated recently from Latin America as well as those whose ancestors immigrated generations ago come under the same expression “Latino”. Here the term Latino is a general reference to all these categories and it does not recognize the diversity of ethnic subgroups like the Hispanic. This further poses a challenge for the identity of Latino Youth as they miss the opportunity to be identified by their native citizenship or country of origin. Even they are not identified by their subgroups.

Latino youths also have to face harsh criminal Justice System in America. Studies indicate that Latino youth, like other youth have to receive harsher treatments than those of native citizens for the same offences. “Disparate treatment of Latino youth manifests itself in numerous ways. In some states, Latino children and youth in the child welfare system are over-represented in out-of-home placements, with percentages in placement as high as 56% in New Mexico, 32% in Connecticut, 31% in California and Texas, and 27% in Arizona (Children’s Bureau, 1998).” (Villarruel et al, n.d). Researches emphasize that the linguistics and the social identity plays a key role in the development of identity. It is found that the negative perceptions of groups and language also effect one’s identity development. “Spanish is an important part of Latino identity, but Latinos’ relationship to the language is paradoxical—Spanish language skills are both a source of ethnic solidarity and of social stigma. As a result, native-born Latinos often try to dissociate themselves from the immigrant sectors of the community.” (Bedolla, 2003).

Problems like overcrowding in the juvenile atmosphere, adult detention centers and prisons are also experienced by the Latino youth. This even affects their education, employment prospects, family life, and general well being.

Latinos find it is very difficult to get acceptance in United States. The reasons are numerous, out of which mixed heritage is of the most significance. Many Latin women married whites and settled in America. Studies say that the instances of divorce are high in Latino – white marriages as they both cannot adjust each other in several aspects. There are studies which show the repeated divorce cases of the Latino women even after they got married with white more than three times. Latino youth usually experience confusion on multicultural identity. It is especially evident when Latino working-class woman marries the white middle-class and the consequence will be the child’s confusion on the existence of working class and his / her own middle class life. It results in racial and economical confusions. We can find the Latino youth who are the products of many divorces, mixed background and repeated changes in regard to schools. The struggle for ethnic identity is more among these groups. The Latino youth normally receives different messages on ethnicity. In teenagers, the ethnic identity struggle will be more intense. The confused identity will be followed by the discrimination of subordination of minority experiences. Physical difference also acts as a barrier for the integration to white. It also becomes evident that the color of skin plays a key role. It is a fact that Germans and Irish people experience easy acceptance into the white culture than the Latino and Puerto Rican groups who find it is more difficult because of skin tone. It is fact that people with white skin receive immediate acceptance in the American community. This racial discrimination put the Latinos not only into the discrimination but also to the legal difficulties also. The fact is that Latino cannot find acceptance in America and they have to struggle to find an identity. “Despite their diversity, Latino groups in the U.S. should rally around their cultural commonalties, such as family, ethnicity, religion, and Spanish language. These could form a core of “Latino identity,” and around this core, Latinos could unite to work toward change in the political process.” (Johnson & Lacy, 1999).

The identity development begins in the early stages of human life and to a large extent it always depends on the perception of self. The role assigned by the self is what is going to be recognized by others and this is influenced by several other factors such as definition of identity, theories etc. In the context of the United States, identity is associated with the issues of race, gender, sexuality and class etc. Race is particularly important for immigrant communities such as Latino Ethnic Identity Development and it becomes visible for a group membership. For immigrant groups, identity development, and assuming an identity is much complex. The language usage is of high importance for minority groups. Other than that the labeled identity on these groups is also associated with that.” Negative perception of Latinos by the majority Latino Ethnic Identity Development, culture has a significant impact on ethnic identity development. That process of ethnic identity development changes and develops, but is always influenced by the context of the surrounding social environment.” (Krinalovich & Lopez, 2006, p.7).

Latinos finds it very difficult to be the actual self in United States where they are living. Their identity has close connection with the present conditions they are experiencing. They experience resistance against a system based on the anti self and against a dominant society and culture which controls them. They experience solitude that permanently lames the individuals. “We are in a Diaspora: we belong nowhere. We cannot go home or be content here, so we make a home within ourselves. And we see the real poison of racism: white people who forgot who they are forced the others to forget who they are. We were made dull; we were not born dull. But we assist the process by playing the role, jugando el papel que el otro requiere de nosotros, that another assigns to us.” (Abalos, 1986, p.46).

However, it can be summarized that the economic security which makes Latinos stay in United States and the cost is identity crisis which have a close impact on their lives and especially on the education and growing up process of young Latinos. Coming to the Asian part of struggling Migrants in America, economic achievement was the motive here too. IT also has its effects in numerous ways. Asians achieved financial Success and to an extent of academic success in America. But this financial and academic success does not bring social success. Many of the Asian parents cannot follow English and American culture. As a result they are unable to relate to and guide their children who are lost in the western world. The parents are more confused on the ideals of self-deprecation and silent obedience. Some Asian students are not very good at academics also. Educational board reports the failure of Asian students to have basic high school degree. It also adds to the increasing rate of school drop outs among Asians.

For Asians, Home is a lonely place as there are no people at home as the parents will be working for 10-14 hour shifts. The Asian parents who are at home will be fighting with each other. They undergo high stress of work even at home and, moreover, they sustain cultural shock. All these factors lead to a higher rate of domestic violence among Asians. Asians experience failure on generation gaps and conflicts, maladjustment issues, cultural and language barriers and finally a lack of proper direction in lives. All these factors lead them to the model minority status which the other majority has placed on them. “Asian kids shatter the myth of the “model minority.” The label stems, for the most part, from the stereotypical academic prowess of Asian students and the financial success of their parents.” (Kim, 2004).

Asians have to face a lot of social issues to lead a good life in America which include problem of race, sexuality, ethnicity and nationality. They also have to face the issues of social inequality. Regarding the issues on sexuality, Asians start practicing Homosexuality. There are controversies regarding homosexuality. Now the important issue is that the new generations are growing in American culture. Shopping seems more important than history or even family. (Women and gender uses, 2008).

Model Minority status itself is a big issue which creates huge tension among the Asian group. As result, the minority groups feel alienated and as if they cannot succeed and majority feel that these minorities are robbing them of their success. “Perhaps greatest danger in the model minority myth lies in the fact that Asians themselves are falling prey to dangers of these stereotypes. More and more, Asians are beginning to view themselves as model minorities and thus take a false sense of pride and security. A New York banker claims himself as “‘[y]our usual Chinese overachieving story’” (Newsweek, Dec. 6, 1982). This pride and security also lead to a sense of contentment with the status quo blinding Asians to any discrimination and problems faced by their own people.” (Yeung, 1994).

Like the Latinos, Asians do face harsh criminal treatment. The justice system does not favor them either. Instead this is more severe with Asians. They receive more severe punishments than the other native and migrant counterparts. Racial identity issues are chief concerns for Asians. They have to face assimilation issues as they have problems in learning English and for becoming an American citizen. During this process Asians prefer retaining their traditional Asian culture, norms, and behaviors while still acquiring those of mainstream American society. Here they will be facing issues on discarding the traditional forms of Asian culture and also for the identification with mainstream American society. To add on they also have to face issues on the integration into the formal social, political, economic, and cultural institutions of the host country. It is seen that the racism and discrimination can also have influences on Asian American second generation ethnic identity. “According to the situational/constructionist/ instrumentalist perspective, for an Asian American to have a strong attachment to traditional forms of ethnic identity, it is not enough to just perceive or experience high levels of ethnic competition, prejudice, or discrimination. It is the person’s reaction to these perceptions and experiences that will determine how s/he identifies.” (Assimilation and Ethnic Identity: Multiple factors and multiple outcomes, 2008).

Asian Americans also face the concerns of mixed-race or multiracialism. The issue of identity among this multicultural group is more intense than other Asian Americans. At first these multi cultural Asian American can be described as those who are half Asian and half White. In history they were called as “Amerasians.” They are basically the product of intermarriages. They are more prominent within the Asian American community and within mainstream American society in general. In many conventional Asian American communities, multiracial Asian Americans are not considered as truly “Asian”. A “whitewashed” label is associated with them. Many multiracial Asian Americans still face distrust and even hostility from both their Asian and non-Asian sides. (Multiracial/ Hapa Asian Americans. All mixed up, 2008).

A short analysis

Finally it can be summarized that it is the economic development and growth opportunities available in the US are the basic reason which landed the Asians and Latinos in America. The Latinos encounter identity problems in this culture. Asians also face the issues of identity in America as Latinos. But what makes their life different is the big cultural crisis. Culturally they are being placed in the extreme opposite side where as Latinos feels a sort of cultural resemblances. Language barrier is common among the group. But the issue of educational crisis is more severe among Asians. Loosing the ties with native place and even the family bond system is more severely experienced by Asians. Though the custom of intermarriage was there with Latino group, the Asians are more the victims of negligence and avoidance than the other. Issue of loneliness, Domestic violence, sexual practices etc are more sever with Asians.

Conclusion

Thus, it can be summarized that it is very different feeling to be away from home town. Now generation have passed and a new generation is coming who do not know their roots. Asians and Latinos both are going through this harsh reality. No doubt U.S was and is the land of economic opportunity. But it is at the cost of identity which is accompanied by many other crises.

References

1. A developing identity Hispanics in the United States: Many different perceptions. (2006). Carnegie Reporter. 3(4).
2. Abalos, David. T. (1986). Latinos in the United States: The sacred and the political, 46, Notre, Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.
3. Assimilation and Ethnic Identity: Multiple factors and multiple outcomes. (2008). Asian.Nation: Asian American History, Demographics and Issues. Web.
4. Bedolla. L. G. (2003). The identity paradox Latino language, politics and selective dissociation: Abstract. Ingenta Connect. 1(2).
5. Grezbek, Lenna L. Ontai., & Raffaelli, Marcela. (2004). Individual and social influences on ethnic identity among Latino young adults. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19 (5), 559-575.
6. Johnson, Kevin. R., & Lacy, Elaine. C. (1999). How did you get to be Mexican? A white man’s search for identity. HNET: Humanities and Social Sciences. Web.
7. Kim, Isaac. (2004). Asian youth realize a harsh reality: The image of being a ‘model minority’ masks the struggles of those who fail to fit the mold. Model Minority: A Guide to Asian American Empowerment.
8. Krinalovich, Mara., & Lopez, Miguel. (2006). Latino ethnic identity development, self-esteem & literacy. USF. 7.
9. Multiracial/ Hapa Asian Americans. All mixed up. (2008). Asian.Nation: Asian American History, Demographics and Issues. Web.
10. Villarruel, Fransisco A., et al. (n.d.). Introduction. Building Blocks For Youth.
11. Women and gender uses. (2008). Asian.Nation: Asian American History, Demographics and Issues. Web.
12. Yeung, Malcom. (1994). A brief history of the model minority stereotype. Internalizing the stereotype. Model Minority: A Guide to Asian American Empowerment.

Introduction

Health and wellbeing among youth are important not only for individual happiness but the growth and development of the society and the nation as well (AIHW, 2011). Research and studies note that health and wellbeing of young people results in them becoming responsible citizens of society due to better educational outcomes, healthy lifestyles in adulthood and good parenting styles (Muir et al. 2009).

Health is a very broad term which includes all aspects of an individual’s well being and not just an absence of disease. Eckersley (2008) uses health and wellbeing as exchangeable terms and defines health as the “degree to which people enjoy the living conditions (social, economic, cultural and environmental) that are conducive to total health and wellbeing (physical, mental, social and spiritual)”.

The health and wellbeing of the Australian youth is important to the Australian government not only because the youth of a nation are its future, but also because the Australian population is an ageing one (Ragg, 2007). In a report by the Australian state and territory ministers, Ragg (2007) found that the the percentage of newborn babies in Australia is reducing each year.

With the percentage of older adults on the rise, Australia is no more a country of the young, but a land where the majority of the people belong to the middle age group. As such, it has become doubly important to ensure that the Australian youth are healthy and happy, socially, psychologically and economically.

Researchers have been concerned about the health and wellbeing of young Australian and have conducted several studies to explore the dimensions of health and wellbeing among the young people of Australia (Eckersley 2008; Eckersley et al., 2006; Glover et al., 1998).

In order to bring about positive health changes in the Australian youth community, it is imperative to understand the causes and effects of health and wellbeing from their perspective. This paper contributes to this goal by identifying these perspectives of health and wellbeing among young Australians.

The research explores the way in which the youth of Australia defines the notion of good health and consequent wellbeing, and the effects of this wellbeing on the young people of Australian society. The paper focuses on some important factors which have a negative impact on health and wellbeing of the youth, such as mental health and social networking.

Literature Review

Youth researchers describe wellbeing holistically rather than individually, in terms of their needs, requirements, lifestyle and overall quality of life (White and Wyn, 2007). Youth researchers evaluate youth wellbeing in terms of their physical and mental health, financial prosperity, social inclusion, networking and support, individuality and spirituality (White and Wyn, 2007).

Researchers have pointed out the importance of social processes (for instance homelessness which fails to provide a safe home environment) as influential factors determining the wellbeing of youth (Bourke & Geldens, 2007). In their study, Bourke & Geldens (2007) surveyed the dimensions of wellbeing in young adults.

Data from their research revealed that the youth laid emphasis on factors such as the self, personal goals, living and working environments, physical and mental health and emotions as crucial indicators of wellbeing.

As indicated in the table below the participants have given high rankings to social relationships and friendships. They gave high ratings to relationships with friends, family, community members, and peers as all of these provide them with a secure sense of belonging.

The study reaffirms the importance of the social dimension in young people who lay great emphasis on social acceptance and relationships as being crucial to their sense of wellbeing (Bourke & Geldens, 2007).

A detailed study by Easthope & White (2006) analyzed the impact of social relationships on the health and wellbeing of young people. The researchers interviewed adolescents between the ages of 11 years and 18 years, in rural and urban settings. The results of the qualitative interview of these young individuals revealed that their concepts of health relative to a good diet were clear.

However, behaviors such as sports and health activities were heavily linked with friendships and social relationships. Even bad health behaviors such as smoking and drug abuse were impacted by social relationships with friends. The research provides a comprehensive outlook on the perceptions of health and wellbeing from the adolescent perspective.

Eckersley (2008) states that mental health disorders are the third largest most important contributors to disease. Nearly 50% of the Australian youth are affected by mental health disorders, mainly anxiety and depression (Begg et al., 2007). There has been a steady rise in the Australian populace reported with mental health issues.

Mental disorders have a critical impact on the wellbeing and functioning of individuals due to their disabling effect and have become a serious cause of concern for the Australian youth (Slade et al., 2007). Nearly 45% of the entire Australian population have been diagnosed with some or other mental health problem once in a lifetime; the percentage of the youth with disorders is particularly high.

Research findings of a National Australian Survey to find the state of mental health and wellbeing of Australian residents highlighted some astounding results related to the youth (Slade et al., 2009). The study noted that 22.8% of young men between the ages of 16 and 24 had a mental health issue.

However, only 13.2% took professional help. Results from the study affirmed the high prevalence of mental health problems in Australians, with nearly half of the population meeting the criteria for some or other mental disorder.

Social media plays an important aspect in the lives of the youth today. It is now clear that the young people lay great emphasis on social inclusion as an important factor in health and wellbeing (Bourke & Geldens, 2007; Eckersley 2008; White and Wyn, 2007). Research and studies confirm the harmful effects of media on the youth due to health issues such as obesity, depression and aggression (Strasburger 2010).

Since social relationships and friends play such an important role in the lives of young people, a study which does not take into account the impact of social networking media such as Facebook would be incomplete. In a country where the percentage of the youth is shrinking and mental health disease rates are high, it is important to consider the impact of popular social networking sites like Facebook on the Australian youth.

In an article about the role of social media on health and wellbeing, Charmaine Yabsley (n.d.) points to the negative impact of social media and networking sites such as Facebook. She states that Australia is one of the highest ranking nations with nearly 80% of the population online.

She points to the negative impact of sites like Facebook which are believed to be causing new mental disorders like ‘Facebook depression’ in troubled adolescents. The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2011) confirms the negative effects of social networking sites like Facebook and YouTube which could be misused for online fraud, bullying and pornography.

Yabsley (n.d.) asserts that not only does social media negatively affect mental health but also causes serious physical health problems. With reduced physical activity, social media can cause diseases like obesity, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and depression due to an inactive life lacking physical activity.

Discussion

Eckersley (2008) candidly declares that “fundamental social, cultural, economic and environmental changes in Australia and other Western societies are impacting adversely on young people’s health and wellbeing.” Evidence suggests that social and psychological factors play a crucial role in the health and wellbeing of young adults (Bourke & Geldens, 2007; Eckersley, 2008; Slade et al., 2009).

Other studies also indicate that young individuals who face problems in transitioning from adolescence to adulthood could face difficulties in later life as well. Muir et al. (2009), affirm the strong relationship between behaviors during youth and those in later life.

Moreover, the Australian population is an ageing one (Ragg, 2007). With a serious decline in new births, the ration of youth to middle aged adults has drastically reduced. The image below indicates the rates of declining young people in Australia (Ragg, 2007).

Considering that the youth of any country is central to its development and progress, the health and wellbeing of the Australian youth are of prime importance to the Australian government (AIHW, 2011).

It is the government’s job to ensure that the Australian youth gets the best possible conditions for a good start in life through policy initiatives and early intervention methods which will enhance their health and wellbeing and help them become promising future citizens.

Conclusion

The youth of a country plays an important role in determining its future. Health and wellbeing increase the prospects of young people becoming good and responsible citizens of a country.

With the ageing Australian populace, the Australian government bears a huge responsibility of developing programs and policies to ensure its health and wellbeing on all levels, physical, social and psychological. A clear understanding of the causes and effects of health and wellbeing will help in achieving the goal of creating a better society with responsible mature and happy adults.

Reference List

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2011, Young Australians: their health and wellbeing 2011, Cat. No. PHE 140. AIHW, Canberra.

Begg S, Vos T, Barker B, Stevenson C, Stanley L & Lopez A 2007. The burden of disease and injury in Australia, 2003. AIHW, Canberra.

Bourke, L & Geldens, P 2007, ‘What does wellbeing mean? Perspectives of wellbeing among young people and youth workers in rural Victoria ‘, Youth Studies Australia, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 41-49.

Yabsley, C n.d., Social media and its impact on health and wellbeing. Web.

Eckersley, R 2008, Never better – or getting worse? The health and wellbeing of young Australians. Australia 21 Ltd, Canberra.

Eckersley, R, Wierenga, A, & Wyn, J 2006, ‘Success and wellbeing: A preview of the Australia 21 report on young people’s wellbeing’, Youth Studies Australia, vol. 25, no.1, pp.10-18.

Easthope, G & White, R 2006, ‘Health & Wellbeing: How Do Young People See These Concepts?’, Youth Studies Australia, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 42-49.

Glover, S, Burns, J, Butler, H & Patton, G 1998, ‘Social environments and the emotional wellbeing of young people’, Family Matters, vol. 49, pp. 11-16.

Muir, K, Mullan, K, Powell, A, Flaxman, S, Thompson, D & Griffiths, M. 2009. State of Australia’s young people: a report on the social, economic, health and family lives of young people. Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations and the Social Policy Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Canberra.

Ragg M, editor 2007, ‘Caring for our health? A report card on the Australian Government’s performance on health care’. Web.

Slade, T, Johnston, A, Oakley, Browne, M A, Andrews, G, Whiteford, H 2009, ‘2007 National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing: methods and key findings’, Aust N Z J Psychiatry, vol. 43 no. 7, pp. 594-605.

Strasburger, V 2010, ‘Children, adolescents, and the media: seven key issues’, Pediatric Annals vol. 39, no. 9, pp. 556–65.

White, R & Wyn, J. 2004, Youth and society: Exploring the social dynamics of youth experience, Oxford University Press, Melbourne

Introduction

People are an integral part of society, and the conditions, in which they live, influence them substantially. If these conditions are good, they introduce some benefits for people, while worse ones can have the opposite impact. In the second case, people need resilience – an ability to stand against adverse social settings. This ability is the main topic of “A Comparison of Youth Resilience across Seven South African Sites” by Van Breda (2015). The research tests the hypothesis that South African children from different sites can have different levels of resilience. That is why the author has conducted a literature review to understand to what extent this topic has been researched. According to Van Breda (2015), there were only “23 published articles between 1990 and 2008 on the subject” (p. 226). This fact explains the presence of outdated sources in the research. Nevertheless, all sources, both old and new, are credible, which eliminates any bias in the selection of studies. Thus, the primary purpose of writing this paper is to critique the quantitative research on youth resilience.

Summary of Methods

The author utilized particular research methods to achieve the required goals. This research is an example of a non-experimental study, meaning that the main focus is to interpret the findings, rather than to influence or alter them. According to Aggarwal and Ranganathan (2019), the study is descriptive – “one that is designed to describe the distribution of one or more variables” (p. 34). In addition to that, this is quantitative research, denoting that it should be based on a large sample, while validity and reliability are its central values (Newman, 2016). Thus, this information has influenced the further development of the study.

The research design had a significant impact on the sampling method, as well as data collection and analysis. The author utilized a specific approach to provide age, racial, and cultural diversity among the sample. In this manner, “a total of 598 children participated in the study” (Van Breda, 2015, p. 229). To collect data from the participants, the researcher developed the questionnaire of “21 subscales and 117 items” with appropriate questions in each of them (Van Breda, 2015, p. 229). Thus, the participants were to answer these questions to provide the scientist with the necessary information, which is said to be a validated instrument for data collection. According to Van Breda (2015), the results of all the scales were then analyzed according to a 100-point system, where “higher scores indicated higher levels of resilience” (p. 229). Furthermore, specific efforts were made to ensure reliability; the researcher deleted 21 questionnaires that “were less than 80% completed” and two questionnaires that “demonstrated very high levels of impression management” (Van Breda, 2015, p. 229). Thus, it is possible to say that the given study can reckon on credible findings.

Summary of Results

One should note that the research arrived at unexpected results. It was found that both participants from children’s homes and those from schools in poorer neighborhoods were not less resilient compared to children from relatively satisfactory living conditions. These findings are supported by statistical analysis of the questionnaires that came from the sites. For example, the highest mean resilience was identified among participants from a residential care setting for young people, while children from a private school in a middle-class neighborhood showed one of the lowest resilience scores.

The findings above show make the author conclude that any child can be resilient, despite their social peculiarities. This statement seems to be logical and valid, paying attention to the statistical analysis. The reasoning for this is quite simple – the author introduced this conclusion as the evaluation of specific figures, rather than the description of theoretical issues. In this case, it is difficult to deny or dispute precise information. In addition to that, the author pays attention to the practical significance of the results. The scientist proves that all children require assistance to develop their resilience, and representatives of satisfactory living conditions are no exception. Thus, school teachers and social workers should make some efforts to minimize children’s vulnerability.

Ethical Aspects

The given study introduces a particular situation considering its ethical issues. On the one hand, the potential risks were relatively low because the study design did not involve the participants in painful or harmful experiences. On the other hand, any research with children can have some risks. As a result, the researcher decided to address the ethical issues explicitly to protect the participants’ wellbeing and confidentiality. That is why the heads of each site are permitted to cooperate with their pupils. Besides, the children and their parents voluntarily signed a written consent to participate in the research. What is more, Van Breda (2015) stated that “the University of Johannesburg’s Faculty of Humanities Ethics Committee gave ethical approval to the study” (p. 229). Thus, the scientist did his best to avoid any ethical issues.

Evaluation of Study

Based on the information above, the most suitable research design and methods were used to investigate the issue. As has been stated by Aggarwal and Ranganathan (2019), a descriptive study is used to analyze the quantitative distribution of some phenomena. Thus, these research methods and designs seem to meet Van Breda’s intentions ideally since the scientist aims at explaining and interpreting his findings. At the same time, another approach might not be useful in achieving such precise results. The main strengths of the study are represented by the vast and diverse sample size that makes it possible to arrive at statistically based conclusions.

As for limitations, Van Breda did not mention any of them explicitly in the study. It appears that the research has achieved the goals and objectives of a quantitative survey to a full extent. Thus, it is not possible to identify some limitations that were not mentioned by the author since the children of various genders, ages, and social statuses were analyzed. Furthermore, the researcher suggests that his study can be a useful article to make school teachers and social workers deal with children’s resilience in practice. However, no suggestions for future work on the topic were introduced.

Conclusion

The research under critique focuses on children’s resilience in South Africa. An excellent study design and methods were chosen to achieve the required goals. Thus, Van Breda managed to produce credible results thanks to specific attention paid to statistical information. The scientist considered ethically questionable issues and did all his best to avoid them. To conclude, this article is a useful guide for responsible persons to affect the children’s resilience directly. A possible recommendation for a further study can refer to reclassifying the research into a qualitative one to determine what factors influence children’s resilience at a particular site.

References

Aggarwal, R., & Ranganathan, P. (2019). Study designs: Part 2 – descriptive studies. Perspective in Clinical Research, 10(1), 34-36.

Newman, M. (2016). Research methods in psychology. (2^nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education.

Van Breda, A. D. (2015). A comparison of youth resilience across seven South African sites. Child and Family Social Work, 22(1), 226-235.