Category: World War 2

Critical Review

Understanding contemporary political and processes is impossible without learning their historical background; that is why sociology, history and political sciences are considered strongly connected with each other. Numerous researchers are carried out on the border of these disciplines. African-American study is one of the examples that illustrate this statement: this field of study requires one have significant background in history of Africa and the USA to understand contemporary processes that take place in the African-American community and in the World.

In this sense, the book by Naomi Chazan et al (1999) is a treasure for a student eager to succeed in getting familiarized with the issues of African-American studies, as well as for any other reader interested in this field. Chazan et al demonstrate an effective approach to delivering knowledge in African-American studies: the book offers a historical observation of political and social processes in Africa from the moment of the first movement of white settlements to the modern time. The authors make the effort to analyze and compare thus demonstrating common tendencies that took place throughout the continent. Particular attention is paid to the new era, the era of independence: the authors state that the contemporary political process in Africa is saturated and interesting; the problems of African countries are diverse but at the same time similar (3).

History of South Africa is a set of struggles and conflicts which have left their imprint on today’s independent state. The chapter 13 titled The Possibilities and Limits of Transforming State and Society helps a reader to understand the mentioned “possibilities” and “limits” from historical perspective. The aim of the chapter is studying causes, the course and consequences of struggles that took place in South Africa during 18th-20th century.

The focus of the chapter is political history of South Africa from the moment of coming of the first white settlers to the political processes that took place during the period of independence. However, political issues are not discussed in the isolation from those social: the authors allude to the social processes that accompanied actions of dominating powers. This approach is very effective, as the connection between these two fields in the real life is unquestionable.

The book addresses a broader range of issues than “what happened when”: the authors offer their answer on “why it happened”. This helps a student understand that every historical event has its underlying reason based on people’s interests and intents. Particularly, Chazan et al provide the observation of forces that tore South Africa apart for centuries; material and labor resources became the core of the struggle. We may see that whatever “newcomers” we talk about, each of the groups had its own interests that actually did not coincide with those of the native population and South Africa’s ecology. Contradiction of interests was the main ground for conflicts that, in turn, brought new suffering to the land. The authors emphasize that whatever sides took part in the defense of their interests – British versus Boer, the NP versus ANC – this perpetual struggle was saturated with the issues of racial superiority and inferiority.

The material of the chapter includes the emergence of the Boer community, coming of English-speaking whites, and the struggle between these two communities. The struggle for resources is inseparable from the struggle for the power. The book tells about the National Party’s aims and actions and describes the political competition between the British and the Afrikaners. Simultaneously, we observe the struggle of the black citizens for their equality and rights: this struggle becomes especially intense in 1970s. Then, we see how in accordance with the changes on the international scene the situation within South Africa also changes and observe the country’s first steps on its independent way.

The authors’ style of narration is close to that of a history textbook: Chazan et al do not focus on their own evaluation and commentary on history of South Africa; their own perception of the material is rather expressed in the way the information is organized and delivered. Providing the retrospective glance on the events in South Africa, Chazan et al illustrate their statements with statistics and authentic quotations that support them. The style is quite concise, and little attention is paid to the role of personality in history; a reader studying South Africa may continue research familiarizing with books that provide more personified version of the country’s history, such as, for example, Tom Lodge’s (2003) where Nelson Mandella is called “political saint in a new democracy” (1).

For a reader who is interested to advance his/her knowledge in history of South Africa, the study can be expanded by including cultural perspective into the focus. Politics, society and culture are connected and influence each other, and each stage of the country’s history marked by significant changes also brought significant changes to the cultural life of the community. Particularly, it is possible to recommend the book by Ala A. Abdi (2002) that offers us a historical view on culture in South Africa. For example, it would be rather interesting to combine the material on Afrikaners’ nationalism offered by Chazan et al with Abdi’s view on how it influenced culture and education in South Africa; both books also touch upon the contemporary multicultural society that exists and develops in South Africa.

Who Are Boers?

Boer: Dutch or Afrikaner, Dutch-speaking settlers of South Africa (Cape Colony).

1860s-1880s: Diamonds and Gold. The New Round of Exploitation

Discovery of diamonds and gold created new opportunities for colonists’ wealth. “The exploitation of South Africa’s minerals was equaled only by the exploitation of labor” (Chazan et al 469).

• Extraction and production of minerals
• More labor needed
• More control needed

1913 Act: Winning over Land

93 per cent of South Africa’s land “for white purchase only” (Chazan et al 469).

African citizens have to concentrate on small territories.

Boer War: Struggling for Wealth

British military intervention.

Struggle between the British and the Boer for the resources.

Changes in “Alignment of Forces”

Afrikaners’ status is inferior to English-speaking whites.

Necessity to “upgrade their own status.

Pinning hopes on National Party.

National Party: Aims

1948: Party won the plurality of seats.

Aims (Chazan et al 471):

• Advancement of segregation in the society.
• Maintenance of “white political supremacy” and all their privileges.
• Gaining parity of Afrikaners with the white English-speaking community in the fields of politics and economy.

National Party: Serving to the Interests of White Minority

Establishment of totalitarian police aimed at control and restrictions over the black population.

Segregation is aggravated by legislation.

5.8 million prosecutions in one decade.

The security of white South Africans came to rest on the insecurity of black South Africans (Chazan et al 471).

NP and Changes in the Society

Afrikaners: from agriculture to “white-collar” work 1970s: 90 per cent of state top executive and managerial positions are taken by Afrikaners (Chazan et al 472).

Afrikaners’ banks flourishing: increase of capital by 500 per cent (ibid.).

Support of Afrikaners’ business.

African National Congress and Communist Ideas

“We, people of South Africa, declare for all our country and the world to know: That South Africa belongs to all who live in it, black and white…” (Chazan et al 472).

Ideas of equality and equal rights spread.

NP: Suppression of Communism Act. Resistance to Communist ideas, arrests of ANC officials.

Bantustans: Segregation Is Aggravated

Bantustans: special territories of South Africa’s lands (about 13 per cent) are selected for forcing black citizens to live on.

Bantustans are presented as “independent sovereign homelands” (Chazan 473).

1970s: Black Rebellion

Growing unrest, activization of black movement.

Black citizens organize strikes and demonstrations.

The state reacts with severe restrictions and force. Hundreds of black people die during the demonstrations.

1983: Separate Chambers for “Coloureds”

1983: the for-whites-only referendum is held. Blacks and Asians are given opportunity to create separate chambers as representative bodies in the parliament, though not included into the parliament itself.

The new scheme caused unrest and boycotts among blacks and Asians.

1980s: “There Could no Longer Be a White Government”

The late 1980s: changes in the world, collapse of the USSR and communist regimes in European countries.

The Afrikaners’ superiority becomes impossible. “There could no longer be a white government and the head of government did not necessarily have to be white” (Chazan et al 476).

Early 1990s: End of Segregation. Paradox

South Africa state and NP are fractured; despite existing opposition, the negotiation between blacks and whites takes place.

Despite the negotiation begins, paradoxically, the society suffers from political violence.

CODESA and End of Apartheid

To settle the constitutional conflict and to advance negotiations between NP and ANC, CODESA is organized.

Despite the conflicts have not finished, several breakthroughs have been made.

1992-1993: Finding Compromise

The compromise between NP and ANC begins to take shape.

1993: public agreement is demonstrated.

April 1992-93 Elections: Conflict Again

The elections are accompanied with struggles and boycotts. ANC wins with 62.6 per cent.

1990s: Changes in the Society

The significant gap between rich and poor still exists.

Living standard begins to improve.

Economy grows, but unemployment is still high.

Attention is drawn towards human rights violation.

Today

South Africa has substantial prerequisites for building democracy and strong economy.

Works Cited

Abdi, Ali A. Culture, Education, and Development in South Africa: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey, 2002. Print.

Chazan, Naomi, et al. Politics and Society in Contemporary Africa. 3rd ed. USA: Lynne Rienner Publishers.

Lodge, Tom. Politics in South Africa: From Mandela to Mbeki. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003. Print.

Introduction

Second European War began when Germany invaded Poland in 1939 and divided countries into Allied and Axis powers. The Eastern front fought against the Western front, demonstrating various air and land campaigns. In this paper, special attention will be paid to seven remarkable operations:

1. Battle of Britain.
2. North Africa.
3. Operation Barbarossa.
4. Sicily.
5. Stalingrad.
6. D-Day.
7. Battle of the Bulge.

Battle of Britain

When the French army left Britain exposed to the Nazis, it was important to begin new protective tactics. A new Prime Minister Winston Churchill motivated people and used new ideas not to lose leading positions. The radar to detect incoming German attacks was used by the commander Hugh Dowding as the eyes and ears of the RAF. Keith Park was one of the brightest representatives of the British RAF with good tactical and leading skills. He personalized Hurricane, while other soldiers used Spitfires in the battle. Hitler wanted to assault Britain frontally, but Göring recommended using air attacks alone demonstrating the power of light bombers and fighters of the Luftwaffe (Barley 2004). The regular bombing of London reduced the resources of the Nazis and destroyed many local buildings. Still, the British held out, and Germany lost the battle.

Battle of Britain: Impact

The Battle of Britain was one of the turning points in WWII because of several reasons. The battle proved air superiority of the RAF over the German Luftwaffe. The technological progress in Britain was properly used by its commanders to predict the Nazis’ attacks (Barley 2004). Communication during the battles was an effective tool to control the events and predict mistakes. Within the frames of the battle, Britain demonstrated good technological and strategic concepts to be implemented during the way. The possibility to predict Nazi’s attacks and not to land on their territory made the British able to prove their superiority. The defeat in the battle was the first Hitler’s mistake that challenged the Luftwaffe and recognized its technological weaknesses.

North Africa

The North African campaign was one of the longest operations on the lands of Egypt, Libya, Morocco, and Algeria characterized by colonial interests. The goal of Germany and Italy was to exclude the Allies from the Mediterranean (Paxton and Hessler 2012). Mussolini and Graziani invaded Egypt and established the line in Sidi Barrani that was soon destroyed by the British troops led by Wavell. To support Italy, Hitler sent Erwin Rommel to reinforce the situation in Libya. Cooperation among Britain (Montgomery, Alexander, and Auchinleck) and the US (Eisenhower and Clark) strengthened the position of the Allies. No evident technological advances were observed during that campaign. Both parties had a number of tanks and fast planes for attacks. The batteries of the Axis and anti-tank guns with hydroplanes of the Allies made them equal with the only difference – the Allies had better human resources.

North Africa: Impact

The North African campaigns played an important role because of certain geographical and political benefits. The major benefit was the possibility to have the Suez Canal for the Allies’ purposes. Despite the intentions of the Nazi and Italian troops to gain control over the Eastern front, they were pulled away from that territory, providing the Allies with a possibility to invade Italy and use Africa as their allies as well. New political changes motivated the African population and made them choose their definite positions in the war. Finally, the participation of the United States in the war was officially initiated, bringing positive results in WWII.

Operation Barbarossa

On June, 22, 1941, the German troops under the command of Adolf Hitler took the first steps to invade the Soviet Union. The plan was developed by Hitler along with Walther von Brauchitsch to hit the USSR from three major sides: north to reach Leningrad, center to conquer Moscow, and south to control Ukraine. Joseph Stalin was not prepared for the war, and Marshall Georgi Zhukov underlined that Stalin expected to lose the battle (Paxton and Hessler 2012). Both parties used tanks and airplanes in the battle, but Russian weather was the strongest weapon against the Nazis who were not prepared for such cold weather.

Operation Barbarossa: Impact

The code name “Operation Barbarossa” was known as the first attempt of Germany to invade the Soviet Union. Hitler and his supporters sent more than 3 million people to attack the USSR from the three different locations, making the Eastern front unprotected (Barley 2004). As soon as the Soviet Union officially joined WWII, it demonstrated its strengths and human resources to resist German troops. Hitler did not receive a fast invasion of the land for living and resourcing, but the bloodiest fight with millions of losses from both sides.

Sicily

Operation on Sicily (Husky) included the participation of five countries: Britain, the US, and Canada on the one side and Germany with Italy on the opposite side. It was characterized by several naval and air attacks where the Allies tried to defeat the Nazi, destroying its only ally, Italy (Paxton and Hessler 2012). Technological advances were observed from both sides: the support of the US military forces and the achievements of German scientists were used. Instead of inventing new airplanes, tanks, and warships, upgrades of old vehicles were promoted to strengthen the participants. The DUKW offered by the US was a successful tool to transport new vehicles in a short period.

Sicily: Impact

The possibility to remove the German troops from the land of Sicily made Italy re-evaluate its positions in the war. Germany lost its partner, and the Allies began pushing the Nazis back to their initial positions (Paxton and Hessler 2012). It was hard for Hitler to accept the defeat, but the offered technological advances helped to save the majority of vehicles. The use of DUKW offered by the US helped to change the location of tanks and aircraft. New perspectives were opened, and the Allies got a chance to defeat the Axis soon.

Stalingrad

To get access to the USSR oil fields and resources, Hitler ordered Paulus to take Stalingrad. It was a decisive battle for both the Society Union and Germany. The Luftwaffe used its aircraft to bomb the city, and Stalin ordered to protect the city at all possible costs even if the army was not prepared (Glantz 2008). After being 90% captured by the Nazis, the Soviet army took a chance to defeat Paulus and remover other German forces from Stalingrad.

Stalingrad: Impact

The significance of the Stalingrad battle lies in the possibility to demonstrate that a number of losses should not de-motivate soldiers but make them act. Being one of the bloodiest single battles in history, Stalingrad turned out to be a serious lesson for the Soviet Union and its enemies. Almost the whole city was in the hands of the Nazis, and Hitler was the author of the campaign. Stalin did not allow to defeat but use all possible costs not to allow the Nazis taking the city (Glantz 2008). Stalingrad was protected, and it was a high price for Germany to pay in the war. The Axis was never able to recover fully.

D-Day

On June 6, 1944, about 150,000 American, British, and Canadian soldiers landed several beaches of the Normandy region to liberate France from Germany. Generals Eisenhower and Montgomery, as well as lieutenant Bradley, developed the plan to invade the land from five different points, using their new technologies like DD tanks and tide-prediction machines. False signals were used to confuse the enemy and made 450,000 vehicles and 4 million tons of suppliers to work that day (Paxton and Hessler 2012). Although in some parts German powers like jagged edges and rocket launchers were effectively used to stop the Allies, their defeat was hard to avoid. Within one day, all five landings were successfully complete.

D-Day: Impact

By the end of the D-Day, more than 130,000 soldiers landed France and provoked the beginning of the end of the war. Germany was not ready to fight at several fronts simultaneously, and the Allies could capture the French port and invaded the land (Paxton and Hessler 2012). It was the beginning of the German retreatment when false tactics of the US, Britain, and Canada combined technologies and logic to win the battle.

Battle of the Bulge

The battle of the Bulge, also known as the Battle of the Ardennes was the last attempt of Hitler to strengthen the Western front and find new allies in the war against the Soviet Union on the east. The German aggression mood was firstly recognized in the middle of the summer in 1944 (Liedtke 2008). The plan included an attack in Belgium forests to find out new suppliers and negotiate a peace treaty. Bad weather prevented the Allies from using their superiority in the air, and attention was paid to tank-related technologies, including anti-tank vehicles (Paxton and Hessler 2012). Montgomery organized an attack and pushed the Germans back, making them unable to take a new step in the battle.

Battle of the Bulge: Impact

One should say that the Battle of the Bulge was unnecessary because the situation was already clear. Still, it was the last attempt for the Germans and Hitler, in particular, to change the war outcome. Economic changes were obvious either for Germany or other participants in the struggle (Robinson 1945). However, the level of damage was impressive: the Western front was under the Allies’ control, all the resources were lost, and not motivation could be found. The end of the Third Reich was the question of time.

References

Barley, M. P. 2004. “Contributing to its Own Defeat: The Luftwaffe and the Battle of Britain”. Defense Studies 4 (3): 387-411.

Glantz, David M. 2008. “The Struggle for Stalingrad City: Opposing Orders of Battle, Combat Orders and Reports, and Operational Maps Part 1: The Fights for Stalingrad’s Suburbs, Center City, and Factory Villages. 3 September – 13 October 1942.” Journal of Slavic Military Studies 12: 146-238. Web.

Liedtke, Gregory. 2008. “Furor Teutonicus: German Offensives and Counter-Attacks on the Eastern Front, August 1943 to March 1945.” Journal of Slavic Military Studies 21: 563-587. Web.

Paxton, Robert O., and Julie Hessler. 2012. Europe in the Twentieth Century. 5th ed. Boston: Wadsworth.

Robinson, Nehemiah. 1945. “Problems of European Reconstruction.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 60 (1): 1-55. Web.

The Nazi regime is notorious for its atrocities and crimes, as well as its effective propaganda that made the deadliest war possible. One of the techniques used by the Nazis to persuade German people and shape their worldview was the use of such media as radio (Welch, 2017). Radio was a relatively new technological advance, and many people were fascinated with such novelties. Moreover, Goebbels, who was the Minister of Propaganda in Nazi Germany, made a lot of effort to make radio a common device in the country. The manufacturers were motivated to introduce a cheap device, while producers and consumers were heavily subsidized to ensure the availability of this transmitter of ideas. By 1939, approximately 70% of Germans had a radio in their households (Welch, 2017). Importantly, the radios manufactured in Germany could not receive the foreign broadcast. Thus, German people found themselves in the informational vacuum where they were exposed to propaganda and had no access to other sources of information.

The Nazi regime effectively used the national broadcasting company that created diverse products of propaganda. Major announcements and Hitler’s addresses were broadcasted very often. Listeners learned about the latest news and the overall situation in the world. They were told stories (programs with experts, patriotic theatrical radio performances, and so on) about the might and glory of Germany and the paltriness and insidiousness of other countries, especially Great Britain and France. Radio presenters also created an image of a strong and victorious German army with brave soldiers, while other countries’ armies were described as weak and ill-prepared. The spread of radio and the content broadcasted shaped the way German people saw the world around them. Many people were deceived, so it is possible to say that the use of radio and the focus on the glory of Germany was an effective propaganda technique.

Reference

Welch, D. (2017). World War II propaganda: Analyzing the art of persuasion during wartime. ABC-CLIO.

The use of nuclear weapons on Hiroshima and Nagasaki was justified as a form of injustice as it aimed at bringing about more rapid success and preventing the execution and deaths of more Americans. However, it was inhuman and immoral to use nuclear weapons, given the prior knowledge that it would kill innocent civilians and destroy most urban social environments. After the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in August, all the Japanese military was destroyed.

More destruction of urban environments and further blockades would have led to surrender in August or September without applying excessive forces and invasion, such as the use of nuclear weapons in the form of atomic bombs. The second atomic bomb on Nagasaki was unnecessary, just like the first one, although the Americans were looking for a different design and approach to deal with their enemies in World War II. There was also a significant difference between nuclear weapons in the form of atomic bombs and conventional bombing (Mawdsley, 2020). This was evident in the Hamburg or Tokyo conventional bombing compared to the adverse effects of the Hiroshima nuclear bombing.

The Hiroshima bombing was a moral violation and was condemned by the firebombing campaign. The firebombing campaign was against the use of atomic weapons in the form of nuclear bombs as it was aimed at urban centers and completely discriminatory. In recent times, the use of nuclear weapons poses extensive threats to the citizens and the environment. Besides, their use may never match the standards of a safe and sustainable energy source. The environmental and human threats caused by nuclear weapons include environmental degradation from uranium excavation, health risks, and accidents brought about by nuclear power. Therefore, it was unnecessary to use nuclear weapons in World War II due to their devastating effects on humans and the environment considering there were other effective methods.

Reference

Mawdsley, E. (2020). World War II: A new history (2^nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Researchers and students can easily trace most of the information on World War II on the Internet. With a variety of websites available to offer the knowledge, most students and researchers have found themselves relying on the Internet regarding the events during the war. However, while the Internet provides profound details on what happened at battle build-up, most historians have been associated with skepticism when using non-academic online sources like History and Britannica. When the mentioned websites are utilized in data search, exploration is done to justify the reliability of the information to determine whether researchers should use non-academic sources in study.

The article used for illustration on World War II on the website History is titled, Adolf Hitler. The authors are the website’s editors and their article first appeared on the website on October 29, 2009, as the original copy, later updated on August 30, 2019. The article on the second website, Britannica, has the title World War II Facts, Summary, History, Dates, Combatants: 1939-1945 with alternate names for World War II given as WWII and Second World War. The editors first added the article to the website on August 23, 1998. The report has undergone subsequent edits, with the final copy being contributed to by John Graham Royde-Smith and Dr. Thomas Alexander Hughes on September 27, 2021. Thomas A. Hughes serves as an associate professor at the Advanced Air and Space Studies School in Alabama. John Graham Royde-Smith serves as an associate editor, history at Encyclopedia Britannica in London. Researchers can use the information on the authors at Britannica to determine the reliability of the information provided on the website. However, History offers no hint to its article’s contributors, and thus, reliability becomes questionable.

Looking at the brief overview of the information provided on Adolf Hitler, History’s table of contents gives eighteen subtitles that illustrate who Hitler was. The titles used in the article constitute early life, military career of Adolf Hitler, Nazi Party, beer hall putsch, ‘Mein Kampf, Aryan Race, the Schutzstaffel (SS), Eva Braun, the Third Reich, Reichstag Fire, Hitler’s Foreign Policy. The other seven titles are Night of the long knives, Persecution of Jews, Outbreak of World War II, Blitzkrieg, Concentration Camps, End of World War II, How did Hitler Die, and Sources. The article at Britannica has several titles and contains an Introduction, Axis Initiative and Allied Reaction, The Outbreak of War, Forces and Resources of the European Combatants, 1939, and Technology of War, 1918-39. Further, it gives an account of The war in Europe, 1939-41, the Campaign in Poland, the Baltic states and the Russo-Finnish War, 1939-40. The last titles in the article talks about The Far East.

The other aspect that makes the Britannica article on World War II reliable is credit for every image used. However, while the article on Adolf Hitler has no recognition given to the images used, it can be reliable because it gives credit to other authors whose information was used in the development of the article. By clicking on the respective links on both websites, the reader can easily be directed to diverse types of information, not necessarily information on World War II. World War II is significantly associated with Hitler and his involvement in the war and that is why by searching World War II on the Internet, History gives an account of Hitler’s contribution to the war. Therefore, Britannica’s article World War II Facts, Summary, History, Dates, Combatants: 1939-1945 also gives information on the various events that contributed to the war.

History initiates information on its website by providing an introductory section that gives the background information on who Hitler was. The details that follow build-up towards informing the audience on what Hitler’s role was in the war. In an almost similar arrangement, the article on Britannica starts with an introduction. The remaining section builds up on the events that made the war successful or not, depending on the reader’s perspective.

Reliability can be determined to by the background information of the author(s). In the case of the article World War II at Britannica, the provided information on Royde-Smith and Hughes makes the reader realize the authors know history, the field they have written about. Inyang on the importance of knowing the authors’ background information shows that understanding a writer’s purposes, assumptions, and background emphasizes the details that support their reason for writing. To be knowledgeable in a specific field of study means the author has the credibility required to inform readers better and more persuasively than writers whose background information the reader cannot find. Based on the knowledge established by Inyang, the background information provided about the authors at Britannica makes their information to become more reliable and has more impact on the reader. While the website History accredits information used from other sources, the absence of author background information means researchers will avoid it and rely more on Britannica when researching about WWII.

When conducting research, one of the essential aspects to look for is the author’s institutional affiliation. The Oregon State University shows that researchers willingly list their affiliation with a research institution or university in research (Oregon State University n.p). An article becomes more credible when its authors are affiliated to specific institutions and impacts the reader more unlike when no affiliations are shown in a report. Comparing the article on Britannica and that one on History, the writing on Britannica becomes more credible because the author information is provided, where the two authors are affiliated to has also been shown. The outcome of such an inclusion on the article at Britannica makes it more respected, unlike the one at History. By failing to give details of the authors of the article Adolf Hitler, more research readers will refrain from using the information presented. The audience will find it hard to trace the credibility and reliability of the information hence will not respect the article.

Through author information and affiliation, readers can know more about the institution where the author is based, and when such an association is established, the article gains integrity. With integrity comes responsibility, and it is the mandate of the author to ensure all the rules and regulations are followed. While the regulations may vary, between countries, the authors have to follow them when publishing an article. The absence of the author’s information in History, the lack of background information, and affiliation might not mean there was misconduct leading to the publishing of the article denying its credibility. However, by not sharing this information means very few researchers can relate the work in the studies. The absence further shows that relying on the data while conducting the research might result in the researcher’s paper being unreliable.

Bibliography

History. “Adolf Hitler”. 2019. Web.

Inyang, Ekpe. 2017. Doing Academic Research. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Web.

Oregon State University. “Scholarly Articles: How Can I Tell?”.

2021. Guides Library Oregonstate. Web.

Royde-Smith, J. Graham and Hughes, Thomas A. “World War II.” Encyclopedia Britannica, Web.

One of the aims of victors during the first world war was to create safe democracy. Therefore, fascism developed through democratic constitutions that were restored in many countries after the war. During this wave of evolution, countries developed nationalistic totalitarianism that promised people democracy and defense against communism (Corbett, 2017). Fascism was a form of dictatorship that launched military activities. Militarism resulted in political takeovers from Hitler, making the treaty of Versailles a complete failure.

At the beginning of political conflicts in Europe, the United States maintained that it would not engage in European affairs. Therefore, the United States formulated the Neutrality Act of 1935, forbidding weapons sales to fight nations (Corbett, 2017). The act further provided that the United States could not give loans to conflicting countries in Europe. The United States tried to avoid European entanglements and concentrate on its domestic affairs. However, the United States Congress later formulated the Cash and Carry policy. The policy worked under the terms that the United States could sell arms provided that the buyer could pay in cash and seek their means of transportation.

The policy led to a rise in arms production, massive profit generation, and booming business, which helped the economic recovery after the Great Depression of 1929. The United States served as a good supplier of arms across Europe and Asia amid the growing conflicts (Haass, 2018). Through the policy, the United States played an influential role in promoting World War II. However, the United States could not have prevented World War II because it did not have the military capability to neutralize the Axis powers’ aggression. The United States alone was weaker and trying to recover from the Great Depression.

Despite the United States’ neutrality, President Roosevelt worked with Congress to formulate policies that favored the Allies (Messer, 2017). Congress altered the neutrality act to develop the “cash and carry” policy to arm Britain and France. Additionally, Roosevelt shipped one hundred P-40 fighter planes and allowed American volunteers to fly them. Concerns over Britain’s ability to protect itself made Congress formulate the Lend-Lease policy, which allowed the United States to arm any nation that seemed important in its defense (Corbett, 2017). Using atomic weapons to defeat enemies is a setback to democracy since it leads to the loss of innocent civilians who have nothing to do with the war. For example, the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki resulted in about 250,000 civilian deaths.

References

Haass, R. (2018). A world in disarray: American foreign policy and the crisis of the old order. Penguin.

Messer, R. L. (2017). The End of an Alliance: James F. Byrnes, Roosevelt, Truman, and the Origins of the Cold War. UNC Press Books.

Corbett, P. S., Janssen, V., Lund, J. M., Pfannestiel, T. J., Vickery, P. S., & Roberts, O. (2017). US history. OpenStax.

The US is considered a staunch supporter and promoter of democracy. However, some ethnic minorities, including Chinese and Native Americans, had suffered a lot from discrimination and had to fight for equal rights with white Americans. Despite all the oppression, they did not abandon their country during World War II and significantly contributed to the victory making the government and society see the need for collaboration.

The major contribution of Chinese Americans to WWII was their active enlisting in the US army. According to Takaki (2020), their zealous support destroyed Japanese propaganda, which portrayed Chinese Americans as victims, and made China side with the US. Despite the dire conditions many of them lived in and white Americans’ discrimination against them, they used the war as the opportunity to prove themselves as loyal patriots.

As for the Navajo tribe, they also had reasons for being hostile towards white Americans. However, they agreed to fight as allies to protect their country and people. Their main contribution was participation in coded interaction: Americans utilized Navajo’s native language as a base for it (Takaki, 2020). Thus, a minor language, which once was forbidden and was considered inferior, became a valuable instrument of victory.

It amazes me how much Chinese and Navajo Americans had suffered from discrimination, yet they fought together with white Americans for their country when the external enemy appeared. Moreover, the use of Navajo’s native language during the war is truly inspirational, as it turned the US cultural diversity into a weapon. We should not forget about this valuable experience and support minor languages and cultural traditions.

It is frustrating that immigrants or citizens with non-white ancestry had to prove their value before white Americans accepted them as equals. Unfortunately, the emergence of such movements as Black Lives Matter shows that some non-white ethnic groups still face discrimination (Garret, 2018). Therefore, new immigrants often suffer from ethnic intolerance like their predecessors did, as their languages and cultural values are considered inferior, or they do not get the same vocational and educational opportunities.

To sum up, Chinese and Navajo Americans have greatly contributed to protecting their country during WWII and proved their loyalty. Despite discrimination and oppression they had experienced from white Americans, they offered help and demonstrated the power of collaboration. The use of the native Navajo language also showed the significance of cultural diversity. These historical events gave us valuable lessons, which we should not forget.

References

Garrett, C. (2018). The early history of the Black Lives Matter movement, and the implications thereof. Nevada Law Journal, 18(3), 1091-1112. Web.

Takaki, R. (2008). A different mirror: A history of multicultural America (1^st ed.). Back Bay Books.

During World War II, significant improvements occurred in airplanes, demonstrating the link between technology and strategy. Weinberg (1994, 1493) acknowledges that most air forces still utilized biplanes at the start of the war, excluding the Russian U-2, which was used for liaison and partisan support throughout the war, “these were all phased out.” The single-engine, single-wing fighter was developed to represent all air forces. The early German and Japanese speed advantage was surpassed by newer British, American, and Soviet airplanes (Weinberg 1994). The German trial with two-engine fighters was a failure; the American one, on the other hand, was notably effective in the Pacific because of the broader range (Weinberg 1994). Consequently, the most significant modification was expanding the range, particularly of the P-51 ‘Mustang,’ to the point where it could accompany bombers over long distances.

All air forces continued to utilize two-engine bombers, notably to support ground troops. After some problems, the Western Allies proved particularly adept at employing their European planes to strike German military sites with cannons, machine guns, and rockets positioned under the wings (Weinberg 1994). In the Pacific, the Americans employed their two-engine bombers in the same manner and skipped–bombed Japanese ships.

The Red Air Force commenced the war with a vast supply of frequently outmoded or obsolete planes. After losing many planes in the early days of the war, the Soviet Union quickly concentrated production on more current models and built planes with the same capacity as the Germans, even if the crews were frequently inexperienced (Weinberg 1994). Nevertheless, there were no significant technical advancements; the Soviet Union, like all the belligerents, encountered great difficulties in educating a large number of pilots, navigators, and other aircrew personnel. The Western Allies widely utilized balloons to protect towns, military sites, and convoys from low-level aviation strikes.

Reference

Weinberg, Gerald L. 1994. A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II. Cambridge University Press.

The wartime conferences of World War II were genuinely significant in deciding the strategy undertaken by the Allies but also helped shape the world order during and in the aftermath of the world. During World War I, despite countries being in tight-knit alliances, leaders did not actively communicate, and each nation was fighting for its interests and battles. At the Casablanca meeting in January 1943, Churchill and Roosevelt committed to fighting the Axis powers until unconditional surrender. At this point, General Frank Maxwell Andrews was established as the commander of the European theater for Western forces. At the Egypt conference, China was designated as a theater commander with Chiang Kai-shek at the helm. This particular conference led the Joint Chiefs of Staff to later strategize and divide the Pacific theater into three significant areas of operations, allowing for better comprehensive action against the Japanese.

The primary conference, which included the Big 3, joined by Stalin, was in Tehran at the end of 1943. The leaders devised a military strategy to be implemented against Germany and Japan. As the war was slowly wearing down the Axis Powers, this collaboration and strategic planning allowed the allies to develop a means to end the war in their favor. At this conference, it was decided that the US and the UK would open a second front on the Atlantic coast, pressuring Germany from the West, while the USSR committed to opening a second front against Japan (Weinberg 2005, p. 788). This unified action helped to strategically distribute forces and pressure the Axis powers into retreat on all fronts as they lacked the cohesion and support among one another that could be seen among the Allies. Later conferences, such as Yalta in 1945, were focused on strategic elements of ending the war and deciding on the post-war world order in Europe and punishments for the Axis Powers. Despite some disagreements, it allowed the allies to stay on the same page and effectively negotiate the surrender treaty with Germany as a unified front. Therefore, Marshall’s observation was justified in highlighting the significant strategic benefits stemming from these wartime conferences throughout WWII.

Reference

Weinberg, Gerhard L. 2005. A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

D-day is an important historical event that happened on June 6, 1944. During World War II, allied armies suffered significant losses, and D-day, also known as the Normandy landings, or Operation Overlord, resulted in terrible human losses. This invasion became one of the hugest amphibious military actions and demanded profound planning (History.com Editors, 2019). It is essential to examine facts about D-day to understand the scale of its significance in terms of World War II.

The preparations for this military operation were extensive and witty. Several months before D-day, the Allies made German soldiers think that Pas-de-Calais was the main aim, not Normandy (History.com Editors, 2019). Many techniques were used to conduct such a deception, including false weapons. Moreover, the operation was delayed by one day because of poor weather conditions. Indeed, after the meteorologist predicted weather improvement, General Dwight Eisenhower approved the process. He motivated his soldiers with vital speeches, which became legendary. More than five thousand ships and eleven thousand aircraft were mobilized during D-day (History.com Editors, 2019). About 156,000 allied troops conquered the Normandy territories by the end of June 6, 1944. Next week the Allies stormed countryside areas, facing German opposition.

By the end of 1944, Paris was released after the Allies approached the Seine River. German armies left France, which signalized the victory (History.com Editors, 2019). Indeed, the critical fact was a significant mental crash during the Normandy invasion. It prevented Adolf Hitler from creating his Eastern Front against the Soviet armies. The Allies decided to eliminate Nazi Germany; Adolf Hitler committed suicide a week before the decision, on April 30, 1945 (History.com Editors, 2019). D-Day became a significant event that influenced the pace of World War II. Undoubtedly, many people died and suffered severe injuries during the event; however, it became an essential part of history.

Reference

History.com Editors. (2019). D-Day. History.