Even in some of the prosperous nations of the world where its citizens enjoy a high standard of living, it is difficult to find people that are generally pleased with the way their politicians governed their nation. This is attributed to the complexity of the problems that political leaders have to deal with as well as the inevitable consequences of trying to manage diverse groups of people with different beliefs, interests and ideas on how to run things.
But there is another reason for the differences in opinion when it comes to governance and state presence; it can be understood through the ideologies that people use to interpret the world around them. Three of the most basic ideologies are: conservatism, socialism and liberalism. In the case of Canada its political leaders and its citizens hope to have a middle-ground and not to sway to extremes.
Conservatism is a strong belief in the capability of the individual. Those who adhere to this ideology believe that the individual is the driving force of social progress (Johnson, p.72). Although others would generally agree to this idea, conservatism is distinguished even further on the basis of how a conservative tend to view the role of the state in his or her life.
In this way of thinking the individual does not only have the right to be free this political ideology also stresses the principle that “every individual should be free to ‘ride to the top of life’; to acquire wealth, prestige, and personal power; and to make use of these acquisitions as he or she deems fit” (Johnson, p.72). At first glance this may seem to be a selfish view of life. Furthermore, it is a highly competitive way to live.
Much is given on individual liberties but when it comes to governance conservatism creates two major implications. First of all there is a disdain for big governments or more specifically the power of the government to interfere in the lives of the citizens.
This leads to the second implication which was summarized by political scientists in the following statement: “nothing can be guaranteed in life and that all individuals are also free to fail, to stumble to the bottom, to find poverty and insignificance if they fail to make the best of the opportunities presented to them” (Johnson, p.72). In other words those who had fallen on hard times should not expect any assistance from the government.
Socialism on the other hand is the belief that society and not the individual should be the center of human interaction (Johnson, p.79). This does not mean that socialists do not value liberty and human rights but in the context of the community. Everyone must work together to attain the common good.
There must also be an equal distribution of wealth and power. It also means that society must allow a central government to coordinate and regulate everything. This means greater role for the state to make an impact in the lives of people. However, this can also mean an over-reliance for government help.
In the case of Canada, the citizens are fortunate to have leaders who were able to steer the nation towards the middle-ground. It is labeled as modern liberalism. According to one commentary modern liberalism is the striving to blend the best of both worlds of conservatism and socialism.
The main goal of liberals is to create a “coherent, balanced, pragmatic, yet principled understanding of socio-economic life and the purpose of government” (Johnson, p.90). When conservatism and socialism were blended together to form modern liberalism it greatly benefited Canada. The positive transformation was evident after the Second World War.
Post World War II Canada
David Johnson made a good point when he questioned the lack of enthusiasm with regards to the discussion of Canadian politics when in fact Canadians enjoy a high standard of living compared to the rest of the world.
The said author even expounded on this statement by asserting that, “While we may have more in common with Americans than we usually like to admit, it is generally true that few of use actually desire to live in the United States or believe that the overall living standard in that country is superior to ours” (Johnson, p.28). There is a basis for this conclusion.
Canadians take pride in their health care system – it is a system that is publicly administered and funded (Johnson, p.28). This ensures that all Canadians can have access to top-quality health care regardless if the individual can actually pay for the said medical services.
There are only a few nations in the world that can boast of the same service from the government. Even Canada’s neighbor in the South is currently embroiled in a polarizing debate regarding their health care system. Many Americans are extremely frustrated and dissatisfied with the kind of medical assistance they are receiving from the government. This is especially true for the poor citizens of that country.
Healthcare is just the beginning, many Canadians take for granted the fact that their children have access to an effective and efficient education system that allows for primary and secondary education. All of these are financed by the provincial and federal government (Johnson, p.28).
There is more that Canadians can be proud of when it comes to quality education available for Canadian citizens. Consider for instance that a college student that meets the requirements of admission can immediately gain access to a life-enhancing education “with the majority of its costs borne by the state” (Johnson, p.28). There are only a few nations in the world that can make the same claim.
The icing on the cake when it comes to the government funded service is none other than the Canadian welfare system wherein the state contributes to the financial security of its senior citizens. For the working people on the other hand the government has a federal employment insurance programs that takes care of them in the event that they are unemployed.
At the same time the government has established a system wherein that does not only assure of income support but also the creation of job-related initiatives to help the unemployed get back to work.
Furthermore, there is the provincial worker’s compensation system that takes care of employees who were injured while doing their jobs. They can expect to receive compensation for income lost as well as injuries sustained (Johnson, p.28). Canadian citizens who fell on hard times, cannot get a job and do not have a network of support that can help them get back on their feet should be relieved that they can receive basic food, clothing, and shelter so that they would never have to die from hunger and suffer the fate of homeless people.
Hugging the Middle
It is important to stay in the middle. The Canadian government and its citizens cannot afford to swing to both extremes. If the government swings towards conservatism then the poor are left to fend for themselves. However, if it swings towards an extreme form of socialism then people are not held responsible for their actions and would demand more assistance from the government without doing their share to become a productive citizen.
Yet even if politicians and their constituents would love to be in the middle, it is clear that in the past decades the government has played a bigger role in Canada. In addition, one can argue that the policies and steps taken by the government seem to lean towards socialism. Consider for instance gun control, human rights legislation, multiculturalism policy, environmental regulation, health and safety regulation, regional equalization, and support for Canadian arts and culture.
These policies and activities point towards the idea that the government is using its resources and its influence to try to bring all citizens towards a better life instead of simply watching on the sidelines and wait for them to develop the means to increase wealth and standard of living.
The government does not turn a blind eye when people suffer and in fact the government has taken steps to ensure that most of the people are living comfortable lives.
According to another commentary “the state presence is substantial in this country because, in the past, most Canadians have been supportive of a significant development and growth of the state to meet certain needs and wants through the political and governmental process” (Johnson, p.29).
Nevertheless, the heightened participation of the government in Canadian society is something that is not considered to be praiseworthy for many Canadians.
There are those who are not yet satisfied with the improvements made in post World War II Canada. According to political analysts, “The irony here is that, while many Canadians value a wide range of the specific policies and programs provided by Canadian governments and hold high expectations of what the state should be doing to protect and promote the quality of life for themselves and others, these same citizens are critical of … the actual institutions of the state from which they receive these services” (Johnson, p.29).
This however, is a clear indication that Canada is not going towards conservatism or socialism but firmly planted in the middle.
In the 21st Century
The issue regarding political ideologies was brought to the fore recently because the Conservatives have won a majority for the first time in 23 years (Coyne, p.1). There are even political scientists who are concerned that the liberal party could no longer mount a decent challenge against the onslaught of conservatism (Whitaker, p.1). It is therefore understandable why people are questioning as to the direction that the country is heading to.
The fear that Canada is going to shift towards conservatism is unsubstantiated. The argument seems to be based on one thing only and that is on the result of the recent triumph of the Conservatives in Parliament. But if one utilizes the usual method to gauge what type of political ideology is being used to run the nation and develop policies in the process then it will reveal that Canada is still in the middle-ground not shifting towards conservatism or socialism.
This can be seen in evaluating what has been done in recent years. This does not require a great deal of work because it is easy to see that the government continues to be the central power in Canadian society. The government continues to play a vital role in the economy and security of this nation. The average Canadian citizen wakes up to the realization that the state has provided basic services that is expensive to maintain and yet the services continue up to this day because the government is still doing its responsibilities.
The health care and education system is still in place and with a generous contribution from the government to ensure that all people are safe, secure and can be assured of assistance if needed. An overview of Canada’s budget for 2011 is also a major confirmation that this country is not yet controlled by elitists and powerful individuals that may see their advantage to prevent the government from establishing regulations for banking and finance.
Going back to the overview of the 2011 budget one can see that the government still plays a dominant role. Consider for instance that there is a proposed low-tax plan to ensure growth. This means that the Canadian government is taking a more pro-active role in reviving the economy. There are also steps made to support job creation (Government of Canada, p.1).
If the political climate has shifted to conservatism then the government would not spend precious resources to help struggling citizens to get back on their feet. On the contrary the Canadian government is busy spending money to enhance the guaranteed income supplement (Government of Canada, p.1). In addition the government continues to invest heavily in innovation, education and training so that Canadians have the necessary skills needed to compete in the marketplace.
Conclusion
The overwhelming success of the conservatives in Parliament was a cause for concern for those who believe that the Canadian government must continue to stay in the middle and to bring the best of both worlds and sustain a liberal form of government. The reason for doing so is that there is overwhelming evidence that Canadians are better off if the government continues to provide basic services and actively investing in things that help the average Canadian enjoy a high standard of living.
The shift towards conservatism would mean a significant decrease in spending and less participation of the government when it comes to financing and development of programs that could help those who are struggling form the effects of an economic downturn.
However, there is no substantial proof that the political system has indeed shifted towards the right. Canada continues to benefit from a strong state presence. There seems to be indication that the status quo is about to change.
The recent report regarding the national budget confirms that the government is willing to continue to spend to sustain an enviable health care and education system. Nevertheless, one has to agree that the success of the conservatives in recent years is suggestive that someday they would make their move and change core policies of government but that time has not yet come.
Kurt Vonnegut is famous American writer whose brilliant works on the themes of the World War II made him famous throughout the whole country along with the whole world for his inimitable use of irony, overtones, ethics and methods of attack. In the following paper, the two literature pieces by him will be analyzed: “Wailing Shall Be in All Streets” and “Slaughterhouse-Five”. Generally, these works appear to be rather similar in their overtones, the use of irony and overtones; however, “Wailing Shall Be in All Streets” seems to be more powerful especially taking into consideration the use of such literature methods as the use of irony, addressing different core motifs and relating ethical issues.
Comparison Wailing Shall Be in All Streets and Slaughterhouse-Five
The two literature pieces under consideration in the following paper can be acclaimed as a strong attack to the motives of those participating in the World War II along with the use of powerful irony. In “Wailing Shall Be in All Streets” we read: “World War II was fought for near-Holy motives. But I stand convinced that the band of justice in which we dealt, wholesale bombings of civilian populations, was blasphemous” (Vonnegut 44). Here the reader may put one’s attention to the overall tone of the phrase. This phrase is very strong and full of spirited ideas concerning the critique of the actions of those who began that disastrous war leading to so much pain, sorrow and destruction. Similar tones are explored in “Slaughterhouse-Five”. In this story the author resorts to the use of analogues implications, concealed addresses, strong word expressions, etc.
In addition, the passage is related to the ideas expressed in “Slaughterhouse-Five” by means of the use of similar ironical addresses and overtones. In “Wailing Shall Be in All Streets” the author resorts to the use of such strong expressions as “near-Holy motives” and “wholesale bombings”. These expressions are very similar to what the reader may explore in “Slaughterhouse-Five”. Such expressions as these strike the mind of any reader by their irony and oxymoron nature. It is very interesting to see that Vonnegut addresses the motives of those who originated the war with a synthesized adjective “near-Holy”. Such strange combination suggests that the author does not believe into the loftiness of the purposes of those who wanted to slaughter just the same people as they, and this is not actually important in this case how such motives might be explained. Further, Vonnegut combines such contrasted things as wholesale and bombing. Such oxymoron is one of the main literature means which can be acclaimed as Kurt Vonnegut’s “visiting card”. Similar combinations can be many times seen in “Slaughterhouse-Five” as well. It is simply mind-blowing how such expressions help the author to express his irony and severe critics about the actions of fascists who originated the war.
Conclusion
Concluding on all the information related above, it should be stated that the two literature pieces by Kurt Vonnegut which are under exploration in this paper can be acclaimed as thought-provoking works on the themes of the World War II. In particular, these stories radiate inimitable irony which seems to criticize the motives of those participating in this war, their conduct and values. In addition, both of the works under consideration apply similar logic when attacking this bad motivation behind the people who started this war.
Works Cited
Vonnegut, Kurt. Armageddon in Retrospect, United States: Putnam Adult, 2008, Print.
The work of Susan Griffin is unique, and it may not be easily to classify it in the existing genres of literature. When one goes through her work for the first time, it is easy to assume that it is a novel, a story about her past. However, it becomes clear as one continues to read her work that this is not just a simple novel meant to entertain her audience using fiction. The details she provides about various events and the manner in which she chooses her words clearly points out that this is not a work of fiction. She narrates about her past experiences and how she related to people around her in a way that makes one believe that the work could even be an autobiography. However, references to historical facts that do not directly affect her eliminate the possibility that this could be an autobiography. It is also possible to consider her work as a historical facts meant for historians. However, the manner in which it is presented is very different from conventional works of history.
Our Secret is a research work that delves into various events that took place prior, during, and after the Second World War. The manner in which she gathers her materials, how she reads, and the way she writes shows that she is interested in collecting facts and reporting them as appropriately as possible. Graff and Birkenstein (2007) say, “The very act of keeping a journal, I sensed, would help me into this life that would now be my own” (236). This statement reveals the fact that she is on a mission to gather facts, and the best way of doing this is to keep a journal. This statement further clears any doubt that one may have about her work being based on fiction. She is focused on gathering historical and other social facts that affects the society around her and the world at large.
In a conventional research work, authors always try to avoid putting themselves into the middle of their research. Being part of the findings always jeopardizes the validity and reliability of the research because it may not be possible to avoid biasness. However, she plunges herself right in the middle of her work. Graff and Birkenstein (2007) say, “I have been to Berlin and Munich on this search, and I have walked over the gravel at Dachau” (236). This statement demonstrates that she is part of the report, something that is not common in most of the research works. In this statement, she is directly speaking to her readers about the process of collecting her data. The prose she uses in her work makes it very unique as a piece of research.
The author uses rhetorical strategies to bring out a sense of humor and deepen the understanding of her work. Graff and Birkenstein (2007) say, “The ordinary is of course never ordinary” (237). In many cases, readers may get lost along the way when reading such long prose, especially if it is boring. However, she eliminates this boredom by using ordinary words in extraordinary way. In the statement above, one would gain interest in reading the work further to determine how the ordinary can never be ordinary. The question that the reader would be seeking answers to is how something ordinary can fail to be ordinary. It is strange to refer to something ordinary as extraordinary. This is a philosophical reasoning that is seen through her entire work.
She tries to challenge commonly held beliefs in very simple and clever ways. However, she avoids betraying the feeling that she is actually a philosopher and a historian who is keen on evoking deeper reasoning among its readers. The connections in her writing indicates that although she is not ready to come out strongly and challenge some of the commonly held beliefs, she thinks that her reader deserves to be empowered with the relevant information so that they can arrive at informed conclusions.
In her work, just like in other conventional research works, she uses secondary sources of information to back her own findings. Graff and Birkenstein (2007) say, “The nightmare images of the German child-rearing practices that one discovers in this book…” (238). She is referring to a book she finds relevant to her work. However, she uses her usual unique approach of reporting to bring out the facts in the book. She allows her personal feeling to influence her writing when she uses the word ‘nightmare’. It is a fact that images which one may consider a nightmare may be very normal in the eyes of another person. However, she takes it very personal and uses the term she feels in the most appropriate in describing the image. Inasmuch as this approach gives her work a sense of uniqueness, it now becomes clear that she cannot avoid biasness in her work. Using such strong emotional words demonstrates that she assertive in her work other than being objective as is always the case in conventional researches.
References
Graff, G., & Birkenstein, C. (2007). “They say/I say”: The moves that matter in persuasive writing. New York: W.W. Norton.
Those people, who want to improve own lives and achieve success in present and future, have to pay much attention to such issue like their history and be able to learn on the mistakes, made by other people from the past.
The German nation is considered to be one of the most remarkable ones due to its abilities to stir up rebellions and wars in order to demonstrate their desire to power and recognition.
Within short periods of time, this nation achieved unbelievable success and enthralled many people; however, German people did not have much time to enjoy their victories and hold their positions.
My passion to history and the role of the German nation and Hitler in particular makes me pay attention to the book by Pr. John Mosier The Blitzkrieg Myth: How Hitler and the Allies Misread The Strategic Realities of World War II and get an opportunity to learn more about the strategies, used by the Germans, and clear up what promoted their failure.
The title of this book promises to discover the reasons of why Hitler did not succeed with the chosen tactics and what strategic realities of World War II were.
The main topic of the book under discussion is the analysis of the strategy, known as Blitzkrieg or Breakthrough, as Pr. Mosier called it, its errors, and the outcomes, which led to German loss of the war. John Mosier tells about the peculiarities of armoured warfare and the strategies, connected to air bombing.
The peculiar feature of this author is his readiness to face with the sources, he may both agree and disagree with. In order to present a clear picture of German participation in the war and the reasons, which provoked these people to fight and kill, it is necessary to concentrate on various sources and perspectives and find out strengths and weaknesses of the chosen positions.
The idea of the Blitzkrieg myth was connected to the innovations in tank and airplane technologies. These innovations should cause considerable changes and rapid breakthroughs that would be able to demoralize the enemy within several days.
Mosier gives the reader a chance to rethink the events of World War II and to evaluate Hitler’s attitude to the military doctrine. He, as no one else, believed in success of that breakthrough and used it for two times, in France and in Belgium. However, those two times were feeble attempts to gain victory.
John Mosier is one of the most fascinating American current academics, who prefer to deal with history, films, and English. Such preferences of this author demonstrate his variety of tastes and abilities to analyze the case from different perspectives.
Mr. Mosier got his Ph.D. in Tulane University in 1968 and presented a splendid dissertation that discovered the topic of historiography. Nowadays, he worked at the University of New Orleans and has access to numerous historical sources. His skills in editing and writing also promise that this book is written in clear and comprehensible English.
This person is not afraid of challenges and changes; his desire to investigate our history, use own points of view, and share them with the reader make him one of the most powerful writers about history and warfare.
It is not necessary to accept his standpoints and use his book as the only reliable source. The Blitzkrieg Myth is one of those secondary sources, which allow to study German strategies and to evaluate their mistakes to improve personal actions.
John Mosier’s background in military and history provides him with a good chance to study World War II, German strategies and mistakes, and the environment that affected war’s development.
This is why his personal approach to the subject, described in the book, lies in the idea to demonstrate own ideas and understanding of the situation concerning the place of the German nation in the war.
“To understand what happened in this war, one must begin with an explanation that embraces the facts as they are known to exist, not as several generations of analysts have wished them to be” (Mosier 2003, 2-3).
This approach to forget about past investigations and use own conjectures is not frequent in history and literature, this is why it should cause respect and attention of the reader.
His teaching abilities and interests in history support him and promote the development of one of the most captivating and provoking pieces of work about history and German war.
After the book by John Mosier is analysed, it turns out to be very hard to define one sentence as a strong thesis of his ideas. From the very beginning, the author admits that this work differs considerably from many other historian writings and provokes its reader to think and present own suggestions as for the events of the World War Second.
“The purpose here is not a reevaluation of their careers but to suggest how our perceptions have been so decisively shaped by the blind acceptance of the breakthrough theory of military operations” (Mosier 2003, 11).
These words introduce the reader a new way to perceive information and may serve as a good and strong thesis of the whole work. The Blitzkrieg Myth has many sides and controversies, and it is better to present several sources for the reader’s analysis and allow him/her study the material and come to certain conclusions independently.
In spite of the fact that such shortages as support of one of the most disliked generals like Montgomery and attention to Western front only can weaken the book, Mosier’s notations and ideas that were not inherent to other writers strengthen it and show the reader another way to comprehend past events.
In order to support own ideas and thoughts, John Mosier uses different kinds of evidence. First of all, Mosier adds extensive notes to each chapter and leave some comments on them. He presents both types of notes: which he could agree with, and which he could argue.
All these notes are arranged properly and help to comprehend the essence of each chapter. Secondly, the author makes considerable use of numbers in order to clear up the situation and analyse the outcomes of the Blitzkrieg. The reader faces no difficulty to comprehend the material and the notes, which support author’s point of view.
Even if the reader cannot comprehend why the author chooses this or that idea as the major one in the chapter, the notes and the numbers prove that the author’s choice is great indeed and the reader has to re-evaluate his/her position and analyze the author’s one.
Reading this book is probably one of the most fascinating events in my current education. Many books present rather different ideas as for the evaluation of the war actions and Hitler attitude to the events.
However, Mosier’s The Blitzkrieg Myth presents an absolutely different position and provokes the reader to think and re-organize background knowledge about this topic.
John Mosier shows how wrong our attitude to German military doctrine can be: he tells that the Germans did not plan to use armoured spearheads in order to frighten the Allied but did prefer the broad-front strategy that implied numerous attacks to different places simultaneously.
The idea that numerous casualties prevented German success in the chosen strategy was a new one, and I got a wonderful chance to study this issue from a new perspective and a new approach.
In general, the theme of history becomes more interesting and more educative if a person makes an opportunity to evaluate the events from own perspective. Even if the chosen way contradicts the already established facts and numbers, it is not the reason to drop it.
John Mosier proves that a new approach concerning German military doctrine, the Blitzkrieg Myth, and Hitler errors is worthy of attention. The approach, taken in the book, and the material, we learnt about the Blitzkrieg Myth from other textbooks and lectures, differ considerably.
Mosier admits that it is not obligatory to regard Hitler as pure negative character as well as it is not necessary to search for some points to support Hitler’s actions.
In order to study history and comprehend the essence of blitzkrieg, it is better to evaluate, analyse, and use own points of view to clear up what cause German failure and why the Blitzkrieg Myth remains to be a myth.
Reference List
Mosier, John. 2003. The Blitzkrieg Myth: How Hitler and the Allies Misread The Strategic Realities of World War II. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc.
Because of their being not ready for the shift from a WWII to the post-WWII environment and the change in values, Chinese women were highly susceptible and extremely vulnerable to the lures of the “New Shanghai,” which led the main character of Wang’s novel The Song of Everlasting Sorrow: A novel of Shanghai, Wang Qiyao, to the bitter realization of the fact that in any kind of relationship, be it between the ones in love with each other or between relatives, both parties are doomed to mutual misunderstanding and eventually being used, which means that at the end of the day, every single human being is lonely.
One of the many faces of loneliness, or, to be more exact, the necessity to comply with the false morals of the post-war Chinese society, shows clearly that, by trying to subvert to a new definition of freedom and equality without even questioning its meaning, people were trying to make up for the void inside.
Mentioned at the very beginning of the novel, these false morals, however, do not portray the post-40s Chinese world as something to be shunned or ashamed of; instead, Anyi clarifies delicately that the give misconception stemmed from the clash of the Chinese culture and the European one.
Nevertheless, the air of misunderstanding that contributes to distancing the characters from each other even more is expressed in a very graphic manner: “One exalts Ibsen’s Nora as a spiritual leader for having the courage to leave home while deep down inside idolizing Oriole in The Western Wing, who finds a strong man she can depend on for the rest of her life” (Anyi 15).
Truly, one should not jump to conclusions concerning the mendacity of the post-war society; instead, the given phenomenon can be viewed as the willingness to comply with the progress of the West while trying to retain the traditional Chinese values.
As a result, the Chinese people of the 1940s–1950s were luring themselves into thinking that they can live a better, more exciting and luxurious life according to the elitist standards of the New Shanghai, while not being able to part with the ideas that they had learned at their mother’s knees and have been living their entire life according to.
Trying to follow the fashionable fads and finding that the latter offered them nothing but emptiness and false expectations, the Chinese people felt betrayed and lonely.
Speaking of the characters, neither the lead one, i.e., Wang, nor any of the supporting ones escape the clutches of lonesomeness. The given idea can also be traced in the story of some characters.
For example, the following description of Mr. Cheng pretty much incorporates the history of the Chinese people’s fascination and the following disappointment in the distant 1940s: “In the 1940s photography was still a modern hobby, which naturally made Mr. Cheng a modern youth. […] He was fickle in his interests, always tiring of the old and moving on to the new” (Anyi 78).
The desire to follow the trend instead of relying on the traditional values leaves one roaming in search for another fad, feeling finally devoid of any substance.
Needless to say, the atmosphere of rivalry and cunningness that the Hollywood is shot through does not give many reasons to hope for the characters to get more in tune with each other, either.
By stressing the vulgarity of the Hollywood morals, as well as the shallowness of its actors and actresses, Anyi explains that the glamorous New Shanghai, which was practically trying to recapture the specifics of the Western culture, simultaneously paying zero respect to the traditional Chinese one, made the distance between the Chinese people even greater.
As Anyi put it, “He [Mr. Chang] especially despised Hollywood movies and the women in them, who displayed nothing but feminine shallowness. Those Hollywood actresses were not fit to hold a candle to men playing female roles in Peking operas” (Anyi 108).
Splitting into the traditional rural and the highly modernized urban parts, the Chinese community was becoming more disintegrated, which resulted in people distancing from each other.
It can be argued, though, that Anyi portrays a number of moments in which her characters interact with each other rather successfully; moreover, they seem to be completely in tune with each other and appear to be forming close friendship.
However, at the end of the day, most of these relationships turn out to be based on the needs of one of the characters.
Another argument against the idea of depressing theme filling Anyi’s work is that the author portrays very convincing development of relationships that are typically looked down at and even mentioned with a pinch of irony, e.g., friendship between two women.
However, these relationships often turn out to be based on something as low as gossip: “If the longtang of Shanghai could dream, that dream would be gossip” (Anyi 9).
Finally, it can be argued that the novel portrays not only the relationships in which one of the parties is necessarily the love interest of another one, but also the ones in which a man and a woman form a friendship, which is a rather original solution.
Indeed, whenever seeing a female and a male character spending at least a chapter of a book having a talk, the readers will inevitably think them to be enamored with each other.
To her credit, Anyi breaks this obnoxious cliché by showing that the relationships between Mr. Cheng and Wang can take an unexpected turn and that there might be a strong emotional connection between them: “’If I had a sister… and were able to choose what she was like,’ said Mr. Cheng. ‘I would pick someone just like you’” (Anyi 93).
However, the charming atmosphere of mutual trust and the reconciliation between two kindred spirits is shattered by the fact that they will actually never be able to become more than acquaintances.
The last and the most important, in this conversation, one of the characters is far from being as serious as another; unlike Mr. Chang, Wang considers the atmosphere “playful” (Anyi 93) enough not to take Mr. Cheng’s words as something important.
Thus, the given scene is shot through with the idea of loneliness as the only possible escape for the people of the post-WWII era.
Therefore, every single sentence of Anyi’s novel rings with the idea of loneliness as the only option for the Chinese women of the post-WWI China, with its empty luxury and pointless attractions, which stress the distance between people taking part in it even more.
Reminding of the fleetingness of life and the fact that reaching complete understanding between two people is practically impossible, Aniy’s novel offers its readers a bitter reconciliation with their fears.
Works Cited
Aniy, Wang. The Song of Everlasting Sorrow: A Novel of Shanghai. n. d. Web.
Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut is a science fiction novel which depicts the World War II and other events connected to it. George Roy Hill has shot a movie based on this novel which perfectly fits its tone.
Reading a book, we can see in the first part how Mary O’Hare berates Kurt Vonnegut for the intention to write a novel about the war. I can understand Mary O’Hare’s position and state that she is right in her indignation, especially if to take into account the fact that John Wayne or Frank Sinatra could be starring in the movie. To make a detailed description of the expressed opinion and to prove it, we should consider the characteristic features of the heroes and the general perception of novels which are directed at the description of different war events.
Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut
The main argument Mary O’Hare provides in her rejection of the war topic in the novel is that most of such stories idealize war, make it heroic and interesting. Of course, it is impossible to reject the war, to close eyes and imagine that it does not exist at all. War has always been and will always be, still, the written stories that show they seem to promote the idea of leading fights. The main concerns Mary O’Hare experiences are that those who are going to read a war story will believe that war is the way out, that it is the decision that may help solve the conflict which cannot be considered in another way.
If to assume that John Wayne and Frank Sinatra are going to be starring in the movie based on Kurt Vonnegut’s novel, so the anger Mary O’Hare expresses is more understood. John Wayne and Frank Sinatra are two old men who adore war. The depiction of the war events by such heroes may lead that the events are going to be presented as something beautiful, like a miracle. In this case, the war can be considered as the sequence of events that show who are the heroes and how “bad guys” die. But! War is not so great as it may seem. There are a lot of innocent people who die only because others want to have more power than they have.
Berating Kurt Vonnegut, Mary O’Hare understood that the depiction of war as something nice and heroic, war can come one after another. People are subjected to outside influence and if somebody says that war is good, this may lead to devastating events. If to remember the movies John Wayne starring at, it is possible to say that most of them are westerns. What is one of the main ideas in any western? It is a war! Appearing at the screens John Wayne showed that war is a norm, that people in the West live in constant possibility of war and it is a norm for them. If to predict that Kurt Vonnegut could become a hero of Kurt Vonnegut’s novel about war, people would also consider that war is a norm. This is the main concern of Mary O’Hare and the reasons for her worries.
I agree with Mary O’Hare that it is inadmissible to write novels about the wars as they are aimed at the promotion of the weapon conflicts. At the same time, I cannot say that the absence of such novels and movies is exactly what people need. People should know their history, they should be aware of the most essential events even though these events are bloody. The authors of the books and the film directors should just take the correct position, they should show how much grief and sorrow war brings to people.
Conclusion
For example, reading the first part of the novel, I thought that Mary O’Hare was right, that the story about the war is not what Kurt Vonnegut should write, but having watched the movie I have changed my mind. The movie shows the worst side of the war, it depicts death, not a simple one because it is time, but cruel and brutal. The sniped view of the randomized episodes from Billy Pilgrim’s life shows us his childhood, youth, and the period of war when he had to fight along with other soldiers. I want to express one idea which is not central in the novel, but which remains one of the most exciting for me and which explains why people should not afraid to write about wars.
The author of the novel points that human thinking and perception are very narrow, and a person is unable to cover the whole picture as a whole. That is why Mary O’Hare’s concerns are too high. She is sure that people have the same narrow perception as she does and if such war-lovers as John Wayne and Frank Sinatra are shot, they are going to be the reasons for people to consider the war something exciting and interesting. People are unable to see the cruelty and blood behind these personalities.
A country becomes exposed to multiple threats from other nations at times of war. As a result, the government takes any necessary measures that it perceives to be vital in promoting the national security of the nation, including subordination of the constitutional rights of certain individuals for the collective safety of the population.
In the United States, one of the key functions of the government is to provide equal protection for the constitutional rights of all citizens. Issues are therefore, raised during a wartime, with regard to individual liberty and collective security (Daniels 12).
Some questions were raised due to the temporary sacrifice of a particular group of people, the Japanese, with the intention of national survival. The issues raised were a result of the attack by Japanese aircraft against Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941. These questions were associated with two cases brought to the U.S. Supreme Court within the context of World War II: Hirabayashi v. United States and Korematsu v. United States (Okihiro 62).
Background
The American naval forces on Hawaii were devastated by the Japanese attack on pearl harbour. Some of the damage caused by the Japanese included the destruction of five American battleships and three cruisers, as well as the death of over 2,200 and injuries on over 1,100 military personnel. The then president was Franklin D. Roosevelt, who re-assured the public that the US would retaliate against the Japanese, which led to their entry in to the World War II (Robinson 29).
The Japanese moved fast to occupy the territories previously in the hands of the US, and the more than 110,000 people of Japanese ancestry in the west coast raised issues for the president’s cabinet. As a result, general DeWitt wanted to relocate all of them to the interior of the country, where they could be kept from getting in touch with the enemy (Irons 22).
The then U.S. Attorney General Francis Biddle urged caution, since he believed that forcible relocation of the Japanese Americans would violate their due process rights under the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution. However, most of the Presidential advisers emphasized the importance of military necessity and national survival.
As a result, “President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066, providing authority for military commanders to establish special zones from which civilians might be excluded for reasons of national defence, On February 22, 1942” (Robinson 33). The President based his order on the Espionage Act of 1918 and statutes enacted by Congress in 1940 and 1941 to enhance the chief executive’s wartime powers (Robinson 33).
On March 18, President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9102 to establish the War Relocation Authority. This executive agency was empowered to relocate the people identified by military commanders under the provisions of the previously issued Executive Order 9066. More than 110,000 Japanese were commanded to abandon their dwellings in places that the military had identified as sensitive parts of the West Coast. Anti-Japanese frenzy in the United States since the beginning of the century fueled calls for removal (Unk 1).
Intolerance demonstrated in the event
About 45,000 Japanese nationals and 75,000 American citizens of Japanese ancestry were deprived of liberty and property without criminal charges or even a trial, in the period between 1942 and 1946 (Okihiro 64).
Due to their ancestry, all people of Japanese ancestry were expelled from their homes, and confined in inland detention camps; this did not apply to American citizens of German or Italian ancestry, who were on the same side as the Japanese during the war. The events that occurred marked one of the greatest blows to constitutional liberties on the American citizens (Okihiro 65).
Impact of racism on relocation
There had been many previous instances of hostility upon the Japanese and other Asian immigration for many decades before the forceful eviction after the attack at pearl harbour. The attitude of the public was emphasized after the attack, during World War II. The reason why the west coast public was not sympathetic with the Japanese Americans is because the National Guard units from eleven western states were fighting in the Philippines, where they were tortured and starved by their Japanese captors (Daniels 17).
During the war, one of the key attributes in the policy of evacuation and resettlement was to protect the Japanese-Americans from population rage. There were many causes for the evacuation that had little to do with racism.
Peter Irons wrote level-headedly about this in 1983: “To cast this case into outlines of racial prejudice, without reference to the real military dangers which were present, merely confuses the issue. Korematsu was not excluded from the Military Area because of hostility to him or his race…He was excluded because we are at war with the Japanese Empire….” (24).
Economic impact
There are a few Japanese Americans who lost their property during the mass eviction, to unscrupulous people, though the army tried to safeguard the evacuees’ property. For those who had crops, the yields were harvested and sold at favourable prices. The gains were then put in their bank accounts, for their access.
The fury directed at the Japanese Americans started in the nineteenth century, when the first immigrants arrived during the California Gold Rush (Unk 1). The discovery of gold in California led to a scramble for control of the gold mines and ultimately for control of the Territory of California.
About 25 percent of the miners in California during the Gold Rush came from China. The English speaking newcomers who had previously established dominance over the native, Spanish, and Mexican Californians were in no mood to tolerate further competition. Using acts of terrorism (e.g., mass murder and arson) the white newcomers drove the Chinese out of the mining areas (Unk 1).
Conclusion
The Japanese Americans were conditionally released, that is about 33% of them, between 1943 and 1944. College students were allowed to attend school, though they had to report to government officials. The young men and women were also released for military duty. The remaining 67% were not allowed to leave the camps for the whole duration of the war. The fathers lost their role as breadwinners, and the families fell apart since the children were controlled by the military.
The uncertainties of the situation that the Japanese Americans found themselves in led to some committing suicide (Murray and Daniels 53). Others died due to the harsh environment, and the lack of medical facilities. Communication channels were monitored by the camp administration, the Japanese language was banned at public meetings, and Buddhist religious practices were suppressed (Irons 24).
Other extreme measures like deportation, sterilization or stripping off the citizenship of the Japanese Americans were not pursued, though the events that took place had a lot to do with racism, and the attacks on pearl harbour provided the Americans with an opportunity to get rid of the Japanese Americans, and they went for it, going as far as offering them for exchange with American prisoners of war (Murray and Daniels 60).
Works Cited
Daniels, Roger. The Politics of Prejudice. New York: Atheneum, 1970. Print.
Irons, Peter. Justice at War: The Story of the Japanese American Internment Cases. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.
Murray, Alice Yang and Roger Daniels. What Did the Internment of Japanese Americans Mean? Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2000.
Okihiro, Gary Y. Whispered Silences: Japanese Americans and World War II. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996.
Robinson, Greg. By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001.
Unk. The Exclusion of the Ethnic Japanese from the US West Coast in 1942. 1998. Web.
Winston Churchill’s speech has been dedicated to the analysis of the past events happened in the course of the Second World War as well as the challenges and problems arisen from constrains people had to overcome. The speech was promoted as an opposition manifest toward the tyranny, deterrence and war.
Instead, the primary focus was made on the necessity to propagandize democracy, freedom of speech, and strength of mind. Awareness of existing threats, according to Churchill, was the only way to understand and estimate the economic, political, and social situation occurred to the US and British government.
Churchill’s speech starts with the consideration of the past problems and challenges that people suffer from, the sacrifices they should make, as well as the solutions they should provide to overcome the consequences of military actions. In order to overcome these problems, the British politician insists on the necessity to singly out clearly the purposes, to grant simplicity of the decisions made, and declare the human rights and freedoms on the threshold of the forthcoming American Democracy.
Introducing the main features of a peaceful and democratic society, Churchill strives to advance the penetration of the British government to a more civilized community that will be accountable for their decisions and strategies within the country.
While speaking of the American government, Churchill states that it also faces similar problems in the face of the forthcoming Cold War. Particular reference has been made to the analysis of challenges connected with the development of the nuclear power that was in question after the termination of the Second World War.
The secret development of the weapons of mass structure was on the agenda during this time and, therefore, Churchill considers it a priority to keep this secret knowledge away from the International organizations. Being under the influence of war, the political and ideological activist believes that the country should be on guard on the ongoing change to stand the opposition and promote democratic policies.
The development of powerful weapon can ensure citizen’s safety and security from the established tyranny in the world. As Churchill reports, the society’s “…supreme task and duty is to guard the homes of the common people from the horrors and miseries of another war” (2). In this respect, the speaker is specifically concerned with the dangers and threats that might come outside the country.
In order to overcome the challenges of war, the Britain activist also proposes to equip the United Nations Organizations with an international armed force. In addition, sheriffs and constable should also be introduced to take control of magistrates and courts. Such a position proves the necessity to proclaim the principle of liberty and human rights that constitute “joint inheritance of the English-speaking world” (Churchill 3). These principles are also implemented into the American Declaration of Independence that also stands the utmost freedoms and rights.
In conclusion, it can be stated that Churchill was anxious about implementing radical principles for promoting democracy, equality, security, and human rights. Overcoming the consequences of the Second World War, the British politician places a strong emphasis on the necessity to introduce greater responsibilities and duties for promoting the concepts of security and safety which is possible with the implementation of armed forces development.
Works Cited
Churchill, Winston. Sinews of Peace (Iron Curtain). Missouri: Westminster College.
History as we know only consists of the conclusions of previous historians and documentation. Whether we accept these conclusions as valid representation of the past is our own choice, and the past holds us responsible to evaluate it justly. This essay explores some of the historiography available thus on the racial prejudices that faced Americans of Japanese origins during the Second World War.
Although the WW II was a vital event to the American history, its repercussions on the American citizens is often swept under the rug of historical radar. The stories of the Japanese -Americans, as told by twenty-first century historians vary in focus and content (Chang 2).
The association between Americans and Japanese began in the late 1941 when Japan initiated an attack on the United States Naval base in Hawaiian island of Oahu forcing the US into the 2nd world war. The Japanese attack cost US 170 airplanes and about 4000 American lives. Following this attack, the then U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt signed an executive order on February 1942 fearing that the Americans of Japanese origin would assist the enemy (Japan).
The order permitted the state agencies to move thousands of Americans of Japanese origin into isolated zones where they became virtually incarcerated. In the same year, the United State’s War Relocation Authority set up relocation centers in six states for Americans of Japanese origin to settle during this period. The most famous of these relocation centers was the Manzanar relocation center which was situated near Lone, California (Wakatsuki 1).
In this historical paper, I will argue that the current stories asserting that racial science and eugenics are not exclusively Nazi anti-Semitic ideology, but rather a more complex transnational and multifaceted context in which these sciences must be considered.
This essay will emphasize on racial discrimination towards Japanese Americans in the United States during the 2nd World War which led to the creation of 442nd Regiment Combat Team (Comprising of Japanese American soldiers). The subject of racial identity is strong because these Japanese fought for America against their native country even after facing racial prejudice in the U.S (Chang 2-3).
Jean Wakatsuki’s account
In her memoir “Farewell to Manzanar “published in the early 70s, Jean Wakatsuki describes the lives OF Japanese Americans in the concentration camps in Manzanar following the presidential order. This memoir was adapted for a movie in the mid 70s. The book and the movie describe the lives of Jean and James’ family (who represent the Americans of Japanese origin) in the Manzanar camp. The story evolves around Jean who is an American Citizen by naturalization and a second -generation Japanese.
The story embarks on December 1941 when the maternal side of Jean’s family was bidding farewell to their husbands who were fishermen heading to the sea. The news that Japan (their native country) had bombed U.S. (their adopted country) came as shock to Jean’s grandma and Grandpa. They rushed home to destroy the Japanese artifacts fearing that that their ties with Japan might cause them trouble (Wakatsuki 3).
As the U.S. became more involved in the 2nd world war, Ko Wakatsuki (Jean’s father) was taken into custody over fake charges of treason for selling oil to his native land. Jean’s family was forced to shift from their home to Terminal Island where their oldest son resided.
Eventually, the President issued an order to relocate Americans of Japanese decent into relocation camps. After numerous attempts of relocating, Jean’s family found themselves in Manzanar relocation camp. At the camp, the family of twelve members was given a barrack which was in a dilapidated condition (Wakatsuki 5).
Ko Wakatsuki soon joined the family, but his false incarceration left him very harsh and overpowered. Once a proud and decent man from a noble family of Samurai, he transformed into a total wreck. Humiliated by his arrest and the current situation, Papa Wakatsuki changed into an alcoholic forgetting his family honor.
Regardless of his noticeable blemish of pride and haughtiness, Ko was a very fine man who had numerous skills. Having left his native country for U.S. in search of the American dream, Ko was totally destroyed by being held captive in a concentration camp (Wakatsuki 23).
The conditions in the camp gradually wore down the family unit. Ko drank excessively and habitually abused his wife. The older children were forced to take jobs within and outside the concentration camp.
The little ones entertained themselves by loitering around the camp unsupervised. Gradually, Wakatsuki family became used to the life in the concentration camp. Two years later, the Americans of Japanese origins were forced to take an oath of allegiance or else be sent back to their native country. The oath was a show of loyalty and willingness to fight the common enemy (Japan). Woody and Ko filled the form reluctantly.
Just after the family had settled very well in the concentration camp when the government had availed the social facilities, the camp was closed down. The majority of the Americans of Japanese decent were left without homes and in abject poverty. They were forced to go back to a society that had lost trust in them and detested them. They had lost everything when they were relocated into the concentration camps and at this moment they owned nothing (Wakatsuki 53).
Jean’s story leaves us with a lot of questions and dilemma on the true American identity. According to the story, Jeanne’s Japanese identity clashes with her American identity since (according to the public perception during that time) Americans and Japanese were completely different people.
This prejudice made it difficult for Jeanne to hold onto the American identity as well as maintain her native culture. At Manzanar, Jeanne was unable to maintain her American identity when she was released from the concentration camp and set free. She was also not able to retain her native (Japanese) identity.
Given that the Japanese were looked down upon by the public, maintaining American and Japanese identity became very difficult for Jeanne. Jeanne saw how the Americans were scared as a result of the 2nd world war and their justification for incarcerating the Japanese in camps. Jean also felt a lot of pain by the manner in which Americans with Japanese roots were being treated (Wakatsuki 3-4).
The non-Japanese played a major role in this story. The people who were ordered to incarcerate the Japanese or put them in the concentration camps were non-Japanese. They also included the guards and soldiers who kept vigil at the concentration camps. Even after the closure of the camp, there were non-Japanese people who had significant impact on Jeanne especially at school.
Her classmates and friend treated and viewed her differently from other American students. Even their parents viewed her very differently and were very suspicious of her. They did not allow Jeanne to join student clubs or befriend their children because she was Japanese. Jeanne became the center of attention because of her Japanese roots. She recalled numerous obnoxious memories from the non-Japanese Americans in her life (Wakatsuki 25).
Jeanne found out that instead of shunning the non-Japanese for forcing them into concentration camps, she became the main victim of detestation. She was hated by the general public because of her Japanese connection and was even associated with her native country. Following the Japanese attacks on the Americans naval bases, she was considered evil and dreadful. The public assumed that she was like Japanese U.S. was fighting and therefore directed all their anger and hatred towards her.
The situation was further worsened by the U.S. propaganda against Japan and its people. They depicted Japanese people as wicked and threateningly vindictive. The images painted by the government made the non-Japanese Americans to hate Japanese people even more. Jeanne established that the non-Japanese Americans presented their bitterness on the Japanese people even after the war came to an end (Wakatsuki 26).
Racism before and after the attack on the Pearl’s Harbor
According to Sahina Robert, attack on Pearl Harbor increased the already prominent racial animosity directed towards the Japanese and other Asian immigrants living in United States. This phenomenon can be traced back to the late 19th century. This animosity and fear was evident in the discriminatory laws against the Americans with Japanese origin (particularly the Issei) who were born in Japan and migrated to America.
Before the 2nd World War, the Issei were denied American citizenship and were not allowed to own land in America. They were also not permitted to marry American citizens or seek employment in some areas. In addition, there was a very strong anti-Japanese sentiment in the West (Asahina 2).
In the early 20th century, the U.S government worked out an agreement with the Japanese government. In this agreement, the Japanese citizens bound for U.S were not to be issued with passports. This accord stemmed from the Anti-Japanese groups in the state of California where there was high level of racial segregation.
Some historians attribute this legal and social prejudice to economic competition between Japan and U.S during that era. Regardless of the fact that Americans-Japanese citizens owned small parcels of land, their success in Agriculture caused fear and bitterness (Asahina 2-3).
The native farmers were too happy to see the Japanese Americans sent to the concentration camps. There was also anxiety among the White Americans at the manner in which the Japanese were gaining popularity and influence in the West Coast.
They felt that the Japanese were so different from other European groups and hence could not be assimilated in their way of life. There was a popular belief among the natives that Japanese Americans practiced strange religion, were educated in their native country and were still fond of their native country (Asahina 4).
Following the attack on the Pearl Harbor by the Japanese, the United States government started to use propaganda. Much of it touched on the racial aspect that encouraged the natives to detest the Japanese natives by comparing them to parasites and beasts rather than focusing on defeating the Japanese military.
Even the American media (during that time) depicted Japanese people as sub-humans. They referred to them as “Nip”, an offensive Japanese slang. Moreover, they depicted Japanese people using various offensive pictorial images such as Apes and demons (Asahina 8).
In the present day, many Americans are very much ashamed with the manner in which the U.S government and the non-Japanese treated Japanese Americans during that time. However, such kind of mistreatment enjoyed widespread popular support during that era because of the abovementioned propaganda. As a matter of fact, many people were complaining that the government was not doing enough to avert the attack. The sending off of Japanese Americans into the concentration camps was greatly influenced by how the general public portrayed them (Asahina 12).
President Roosevelt’s decision was largely influenced by his advisors most notably secretary of war Henry Stimson and General John Dewitt. These two were major proponents of concentration camps and were profound racists. They believed that Japanese were very likely to sponsor terrorism because it was in their blood.
The main reason given for sending the Japanese Americans to the concentration camps was because the government believed that they were still loyal to their native country and could act as spies. This was worsened by the anti-Japanese sentiments after the attack of the Pearl Harbor. The popular pressure forced the United States government to address the matter immediately and with drastic measures (Asahina 18).
Following the attack of the Pearl Harbor, there was a general belief that Americans of Japanese origins living there could have assisted the Japanese government in carrying out the attacks through the provision of intelligence.
This was among the reasons used by the government to send the Japanese Americans into the concentration camps. Regardless of the government’s claim that action was necessary to avert further espionage by the enemy at that time, up to now there is no evidence linking Japanese Americans to support military repression.
The U.S intelligence also investigated the possibility of shore-to-ship signaling from the Japanese Americans. However, they did not found any evidence linking them to acts of terrorism. In addition, numerous communication devices were taken away from Japanese American homes after through search without reasonable cause. Nonetheless, these devices were also found in the homes of many Native Americans (Asahina 20).
During the war and after the incarceration of the Japanese Americans, the American public was shown video footage and pictures that justified the confinement of Japanese Americans in the concentration camps.
American movie theatres showed how the Japanese Americans were very happy in the concentration camps and were enthusiastically waiting for the American victory against the Japanese military. Majority of the media were dominated by Japanese war atrocities against the Chinese and the oppression of the Americans in Philippines. In other words, the media content was full of Japanese brutality, their viciousness and cruelty (Asahina 24).
The military personnel were shown pictures of Japanese people as fanged creatures. They were even required to watch a string of state-produced films entitled “Why We Fight”. These films depicted Japanese people as brutal imperialists who were up to control the world.
The official and the unofficial propaganda used in U.S during that time promoted what historical experts refer to as “executionist” mentality towards the Japanese people. This type of mentality seemed to rationalize the mass killing of Japanese civilian and soldiers. It is worthy to mention that this strategy was used by both sides during the World War II and on the frontlines separating the enemies and non-enemies.
Therefore, just like the American public, the American soldiers also regarded the Japanese people as subhuman and majority of them believed that killing as many Japanese as possible was a justified course to take. The Japanese people were not only discriminated because of their skin color, but were perceived as totally opposite of the American people (Asahina 25-26).
Following the attacks, any leader of the Japanese community living in U.S or anyone suspected of having links with the Japan was incarcerated. The U.S treasury also froze all the accounts of Japanese citizens living in U.S. In addition, there was a compulsory curfew on the Japanese Americans who were subjected to carrying identity cards wherever they went and their homes were searched without any warrants.
When the Japanese Americans were being sent to the concentration camps, they were instructed to carry along only a few of their possessions. Some of the American Japanese were even forced to sell all their assets and businesses for a few bucks or give them up given that they had no other option (Asahina 28).
In the concentration camps, the Japanese Americans were faced with military barracks type of housing located in isolated desert. The camps were under military surveillance and surrounded by barbed wires with guards everywhere. Social amenities were haphazardly availed and were not well built.
These facilities were frail with a lot of cracks. Insects and small but dangerous animals like snakes could find there way into homes. Some of the houses in the concentrations camps were once used as horse stalls before the relocation. The heat from the desert enhanced the unpleasant smell from the old horse manures and attracted a lot of flies (Asahina 30).
The government considered the concentration camps as temporary and therefore did not want to invest significant amount of money on them especially with the rising cost of defense during that time.
Therefore, the concentration camps lacked all kind of supplies, aid workers and some basic facilities. Adding more salts to the already agonizing wound, some families were separated from their loved ones. For instance, those who were suspected to be trouble makers or spies were placed under solitary confinement away from their friends and families (Asahina 31).
Despite of all these atrocities, majority of the Americans including the Japanese Americans believed that the only way to prove their devotion was to voluntarily move to the concentration camps and help the U.S in fighting their enemy, a sentiment that was widely spread through the media.
Japanese Americans in the concentration camps just like other Americans were also involved in the activities that supported the war effort. They were assigned jobs like making military uniforms and parachutes and were paid a little amount for doing these jobs.
Majority of them grew and canned food for their own subsistence use and send some to the troops. Factory and service jobs within the concentration camps were considered as suitable wartime occupation for the loyal Japanese Americans by the U.S government. Most people in the concentration camps joined Japanese American Citizens league to prove their loyalty to the US (Asahina 35).
The biggest contribution of the Japanese Americans came from the highly decorated Nisei Soldiers. Even before the drafting or incarceration of the Japanese Americans, many of Japanese Americans were already willing to serve their country.
More than thirty thousands Nisei soldiers fought in the 2nd world war, irrespective of the fact that many of their families were being held in the concentration camps. Most of these soldiers served in the European campaigns for fear of becoming treacherous if they served in the Pacific. Nonetheless, some of them served as translators and were taught in the U.S Military Intelligence Service Language School.
The Nisei soldiers earned several accolades for their loyalty and service to the country. Examples of Nisei soldiers are 100th battalion and 442nd Regimental Combat Team, with the latter mainly consisting of Nisei coming from the concentration camps. The 100th Battalion served in North Africa and Italy. In addition, they suffered numerous casualties and earned themselves 900Purple Heart decorations (Asahina 45).
The racism against the Japanese Americans was rampant even before the Japanese invasion on the Pearl Harbor. As a matter of fact, it is believed that the racial prejudice was one of the factors that influenced the decision to bomb Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The extent of racism that existed between Japan and America was worse than German and American racism which existed in the 1st world war but was not prominent in the 2nd world war.
This was attributed to the fact that majority of Americans had German roots. It is significant to note that President Roosevelt’s order did not exclusively apply to Japanese Americans. The order also applied to German and Italian Americans who were considered as enemies and were forced to move (Asahina 48).
The work of the activists
As the war ensued, a number of U.S officials started to debate on the continued incarceration of the Japanese Americans. This was because the cost of running those camps was becoming too high for the government and the public was still in fear of the subversive acts.
The U.S Government even came up with a questionnaire to test the loyalty of the Japanese Americans in the concentration camps. These questionnaires were also used to screen out the Nisei to be drafted into the armed forces. There was a second questionnaire to test those who were not qualified for armed services.
This questionnaire was used to release the loyal Japanese Americans from the concentration camps provided that they were not going back to the west coast. The government closed down the last camp in 1946 without fully compensating those who had lost their belongings. They were only given around $50 per family or $20 per individual and fare to wherever they were moving to (Asahina 60).
In the mid 40s, the Japanese American Citizen’s League and American Civil Liberties Union sued the government with regard to the executive order 9066. They argued that none of those people taken to the concentration camps had ever taken part in subversive or spying activities.
A number of these cases reached the Supreme Court but the court ruled that the curfew placed on the Japanese Americans during that time was constitutional. The court stated that confinement of the Japanese Americans in the internship camps was not against the law but barred the government from preventing the interns from moving to whatever direction they preferred (Asahina 75).
However, a couple of decades later, the Japanese American Citizens League launched a campaign to secure reparation from the congress for the internment survivors, an official apology from the government and a trust fund for the children of internees. In 1980, a commission was set up by President Carter to investigate the internment and the atrocities committed against the Japanese Americans during the 2nd World War.
The commission’s report, “Justice Denied” established that the confinement of Japanese Americans in the concentration camps was not just and urged the government to apologize to the victims, compensated the survivors 20000 dollars per head, and set up an educational trust fund as demanded by the Japanese American Citizens League to educate American Japanese children (Asahina 80).
The initial redress legislation was not presented in Congress until two years later in 1983, and was not passed until late 1980s due to lack of enough funds in the treasury and the ruling of the Supreme Court in 1946. President Reagan signed the Civil Liberties Act in 1988 and lastly the demands of the commission and Japanese American Citizens League were enforced (Asahina 81-82).
The 442nd Infantry Regiment
The 442nd infantry regiment previously known as the 442nd Regimental Combat Team was a military unit composed mainly of Asian Americans particularly Japanese Americans. They fought for U.S in Europe during the 2nd World War. In spite of the fact that many of their families were held up in the concentration camps, this military unit was a force to reckon with.
They fought with exceptional distinction in Italy, Germany and France. This unit became famous and was the most decorated battalion unit in the history of the United States armed forces (Chang 2).
Before the attack on the Pearl’s Harbor, most of the Japanese Americans who fought in the 2nd World War were sons and daughters of the Japanese immigrants born in U.S. Later on (following the attack by the Japanese on Pearl Harbor) they were considered as enemies and were not eligible to serve in the armed forces.
The executive order signed by President Roosevelt gave the military commanders authority to determine at their own discretion the people they deemed fit to serve in the armed forces. Although the President Roosevelt’s order did not particularly refer to the Americans with Japanese origin, it set up a precedent for the confinement of the Japanese Americans in the concentration camps (Chang 2).
In 1942, Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt (who was in charge of the Western Defense Command) ordered the relocation of Japanese Americans from their homes in the West Coast to the heavily guarded internment camps. In Hawaii, there was a total clampdown and blackout imposed by the government.
Majority of the Japanese Americans serving in the armed forces were relieved of active services following the order from the war department. On the same note, commanders in charge of United States army in Hawaii also decided to discharge those who were in charge of the territorial guard consisting mostly of the students from the University of Hawaii.
However, there were some soldiers particularly those in 298th and 299th infantry battalion who were retained. The group that was discharged from their duties petitioned to be allowed to help in the war effort. Their petition was granted and they were given various complementary jobs in the military (Chang 3-4).
The army general in Hawaii was getting nervous about the allegiance of the Japanese American soldiers in case of another attack on the U.S soil, and therefore asked the war department to restructure the 298th and 299th and relocate them from the West Coast. The move was granted by the war department and the provisional regiment set sail for training.
They first landed in Oakland, California and two days later were sent to Wisconsin camp. This battalion was later designated as 100th infantry battalion. The group performed excellently in training that the U.S government changed their mind and allowed Japanese Americans back into active armed service. This led to the formation of the Japanese American Combat Unit (Chang 4).
The government started the recruitment of Japanese Americans into the unit but first they had to fill the loyalty questionnaire. Over 75% of those who filled the questionnaire were willing to serve in the U.S armed forces and swore allegiance to the U.S. The U.S war department then enlisted about 1500 volunteers from the west coast and 3000 from the mainland. Over 10,000 men turned out from the Hawaiian island.
However, Japanese Americans from the mainland received the announcement with less enthusiasm since majority of those men who were qualified for the armed service were being held in the concentration camp. This forced the war department to revise the quota and enlisted an additional 2900 from West Coast and a further 1500 from the mainland. Only 1256 from the mainland were willing to join the forces.
Ultimately, the army decided to draft 1500 men from Hawaii and 800 men from the mainland. This led to the formation of the 422nd infantry regimental Combat Team which was announced by President Roosevelt. During the announcement, the president made it known to the public that Americanism was not a matter of race or descent (Chang 4-5).
Conclusion
Racism against the Japanese government started way far before the attack on the Pearl’s Harbor. However, it increased after the attack and completely changed the way the general public viewed the Japanese people. Racial prejudice and hatred was enhanced through official and unofficial propaganda mostly spread by the government and its machineries.
Japanese Americans were subjected to unwarranted sufferings, atrocities and even incarceration in the concentration camps. These facilities were frail with a lot of cracks. Insects and small but dangerous animals like snakes could find their way into homes. Some of the houses in the concentrations camps were once used as horse stalls before the relocation.
The heat from the desert enhanced the unpleasant smell from the old horse manures and attracted a lot of flies In spite of all these problems and racial discrimination, the Japanese American Combat units were willing to fight for their country even though their families were held up in the internment camps. This story highlights the meaning of true Americanism and American identity.
Works Cited
Asahina, Robert. Just Americans: How Japanese Americans Won a War at Home and Abroad, The Story of the 100th Battalion/442d Regimental Combat Team in World War II. New York: Gotham Books, 2006.
Chang, Thelma. I Can Never Forget: Men of the 100th/442nd. Honolulu: Sigi Productions, 1991.
Wakatsuki, Houston J. Farewell To Manzanar: A True Story of Japanese American Experience During and After the World War II Internment. New York: Laurel Leaf, 1983.
Art can be defined as the deliberate arrangement of things in a manner that influences an individual’s senses, emotions and intellect (Stokstad, 1995). Art has long been used as a form of universal communication. In politics, art is mainly used to advance propaganda.
Political art may refer to human creations that create a visual or hearing experience with the intension of presenting a political view (Rhodes, 1996). The term propaganda has no universally agreed meaning as it may be used to refer to a variety of persuasions. However, it can be generally described as the “art of communicating with the aim of influencing the attitude of a community toward some cause or position in order to benefit oneself or one’s group” (Rhodes, 1996, p. 45).
Propaganda has long been used to advance political agenda, and this is responsible for its negative connotation. Propaganda as its known today, relates to the techniques that were employed by Nazi during the Second World War.
This paper seeks to establish the use of art in politics and especially its use to advance propaganda. The paper will mainly focus on how Nazi used art/propaganda during the Second World War.
Use of art in politics
Art has been used to advance political agenda since the advent of human civilization ad development of complex societies. There are many instances where literature, films, songs and visual art are used to communicate political views. Depending on the political system, artists can either be paid or ordered to create works that are used to advance political agenda. The success of political art is measured by how the message influences the intended audience.
Use of Art/propaganda by Nazi before and during the Second World War
Nazi officials formulated a propaganda strategy long before the Second World War. A ministry of public enlightenment and propaganda was created in 1937 with a mandate of using several themes to create external and internal enemies (Hitler, 1999). The external enemies in this sense comprised countries that had played a part in getting Germany to sign the treaty of Versailles. The internal enemies mostly comprised Jews and other immigrant groups.
Media
The media was very much used to spread the Nazi Propaganda. Below is a description of the different types of media that were used and how.
Newspapers
The NSDAP has its official newspaper identified as the Volkischer Beobachter (People’s ob) which was launched in 1920 (Lighgtboy, 2004). It was mainly used to spread Nazi ideology by mainly writing scathing articles that were directed towards the weakness of parliamentary systems, Jewish evil behaviors and the national humiliation of the Versailles treaty among other topics (Rhodes, 1996).
The newspaper’s main role was attack opponents in the political arena and the Jewish community. The Volkischer Beobachter was later merged with the Der Angriff, a daily Newspaper run by joseph Goebbels (Rhodes, 1996). The Der Angriff attacked political opponents and Jews through disgusting cartoons. The paper also glorified Nazi heroes such as Adolf Hitler.
When Hitler assumed power in 1933, all media laterally came under complete Nazi control. Propaganda Newspapers were also established in the Nazi occupied states. In Ukraine, all the existing newspapers were ordered to print articles sourced from German agencies. This was intended to spread an anti-American and anti-British ideology.
Speeches
Hitler and the Nazi party relied heavily on the spoken word to pass their ideology to the masses. In the mein kampf, Hitler alleged that the he had discovered that speaking was a much more convenient way communicating to the people. People did not read things readily but would strive to hear speakers.
Speakers would get the appropriate feedback and adjust appropriately to keep in touch with the masses. Hitler was well known for his oratory and this played a major role in his ascend to power. Speakers were also vital for passing information that was intended specifically for the German population as this was not easily accessible in comparison to other forms of media. The speakers were under the ministry of propaganda and were provided with the specific information to say to different groups of people.
Posters
Posters were central to the Nazi propaganda ideology. They were not only used to gain popular support in Germany but also in the occupied territories. Posters were advantageous in several ways. They could easily be manipulated to have a strong visual effect so as to attract attention easily. Unlike other forms of propaganda, posters could not be avoided by the targeted audience.
Imagery was used to show Nazi youth and the SS as heroes with illumination to produce opulence (Rhodes, 1996).
Posters were placed in several strategic areas including schools. For instance, school posters would show an “institution for the feeble-minded on the other hand and houses on the other, to inform students that the annual cost of the institution would build 17 homes for healthier families” (Lighgtboy, 2004, p. 68).
Films
The Nazi party produced a lot of films to promote their agenda. The films featured several themes such as the virtue of the Nordic or Aryan, the strength of the military and the German industry, and the evils of those who were perceived to be enemies (Rhodes, 1996). Film was part of the strategies employed by the ministry of propaganda and was allocated a fully functional department.
The department controlled filming activities including the issuance of licenses prior to film production. In some instances, “the government would handpick actors for a film, provide financial support and offer tax breaks to the producers” (Rhodes, 1996, p.87). Self censorship was encouraged among film producers through schemes such as awards for films that were seen as valuable to the Nazi regime.
Under Nazi rule, almost all filming activities were nationalized by controlling the filming agencies. Some agencies however managed to escape by providing a certain version to the director of film department and producing a completely different version (Lighgtboy, 2004).
Under the Nazi rule, most schools were installed with motion picture projectors to act as a propaganda tool. The films that were specifically produced to influence school going children were termed “military education” (Hitler, 1999, p. 102).
Books
Nazi party and its supporters wrote many books. It’s important to note that the beliefs and ideas of Nazi had existed in Germany as early as 19th century. Most of the “beliefs that were to be associated with Nazi such as German nationalism, eugenics and anti-Semitism had existed in form of books since the 19th century” (Rhodes, 1996,p. 37). Nazi’s own publications borrowed a lot from this existing works.
One of the most conspicuous books is the Mein Kampf, a book that was authored by Adolf Hitler about his own beliefs (Rhodes, 1996). The book gave a detailed account of ideas that would later spark the Second World War. Hitler’s book borrowed a lot from “The Crowd: A study of the Popular Mind” a book that was written by Gustave Le Bon in 1895 (Hitler, 1999, p. 33). The book must have been of interest to Hitler as it described how irrational crowds could be controlled using propaganda.
Many other books such as Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes written by Hans Gunther and Rasse und Seele by Dr Ludwig Clauss, tried to show the superiority of the Nordic or Aryan while identifying other communities as inferior (Rhodes, 1996). As a strategy to spread its propaganda, the Nazi regime ensured the use of such books as teaching texts in all schools.
Geopolitical atlases stressed the schemes advanced by the Nazi party; they showed Germany as an encircled country that was at risk of being overrun. The atlases showed the dangers posed by the Slav nations, depicted as being sympathetic to ideologies of enemy countries (Lighgtboy, 2004). Germany was shown to have a dense population compared to the Eastern regions of Europe; they emphasized the need for Germany to expand to these regions.
Math text books had so many military applications and employed the use of military words in problem solving. Other subjects “such as physics and chemistry also concentrated on military applications, and grammar lessons were heavily made of propaganda sentences” (Lighgtboy, 2004, p. 150).
In the occupied areas of France, German agencies ensured that German works were translated and made available. English books were banned, except for the classics (Lighgtboy, 2004). Majority of works done by the Jewish were banned, except for important scientific works (Rhodes, 1996).
Comics
Comics were used to spread propaganda both in Germany and the Nazi occupied countries. One notable comic book was the Vica series that was produced during the Second World War. The Vica was produced in the occupied territory France territory. The Vica series were primarily intended to act as a propaganda tool against the allied forces (Rhodes, 1996). The series were published by Vincent Krassousky and they showed how the Nazi influenced and thought about the French society (Lighgtboy, 2004).
Magazines
In 1939 and the period after, a representatives of the Nazi regime provided guidelines on what topics magazines were to write on (Lighgtboy, 2004). There were several other publications that were owned by Nazi and were used to propagandize the German society.
Neues Volk was published by the office of racial policy and contained racial propaganda (Rhodes, 1996). The magazine was mainly composed of articles criticizing the Jews and other races while praising Aryan types and portraying them as ideal.
The Signal magazine was one of the main propaganda magazines published during the Second World War. The magazine was made available in all occupied and neutral countries. The magazine was in circulation from April 1940 to March 1945 (Rhodes, 1996). The magazine was published in up to twenty different languages and was the highest selling war time magazine. The magazine was well budgeted for by the ministry of propaganda.
It was intended to create an illusion in the mind of the reader that Germany under the rule of Nazi as the greatest model of western civilization. The paper talked of “Germany and its allies as the humane liberators of occupied states” (Stokstad, 1995). The magazine would sometimes carry articles with pictures showing intense battle scenes. Unlike other magazines, Jews were hardly depicted in the Signal.
The NS-Frauen-Warte was a woman’s magazine (Rhodes, 1996). The magazine had several topics that stipulated the roles that women were required to play by the Nazi regime. The magazine carried articles that attacked intellectualism and encouraged women to have more children (Hitler, 1999).
They discussed what Nazi had done or would do for women and urged them to play bigger roles in the war. Other ladies’ magazines such as the Das deustche Madel recommended masculine activities for the girl child. The Das deutsche Madel, propagandized German women to be more active and masculine (Rhodes, 1996).
Radio
Many scholars have argued that Nazi pioneered the use of radio as a genocide tool. Indeed it can be established that Nazi officials relied a lot on radio broadcasts to spread propaganda even before they came to power. During the Second World War, Nazi radio broadcasts were mainly divided into internal and external broadcasts. Millions of cheap radios were manufactured under a program subsidized by the government and sold to the masses at affordable prices.
By the beginning of the Second World War, “more that 70% of German households had radios”, mainly the cheaper models that was limited in range so as to deny the citizens a chance of listening to foreign broadcast (Lighgtboy, 2004). Loudspeakers were employed to play radio broadcasts in public places and places of work (Rhodes, 1996).
Different non propaganda elements were introduced by Nazi so as to ensure that citizens continually listened to the radio. Music, advices and tips were the main form of entertainment used by Nazi.
The Nazi regime employed the use of radio to send messages to “occupied territories and enemy countries” (Lighgtboy, 2004, p. 45). The UK was one the main countries targeted by Nazi broadcasts. William Joyce was one of the broadcasters used by the German government to air propaganda views in English.
He went to Germany in 1939 where he initially read the News in English but later played a major role in broadcasting propaganda during the Second World War (Rhodes, 1996). He was captured after “the world war and executed in 1946 for treason charges” (Lighgtboy, 2004,p. 167).
Several other countries such as the US and France were victims of propaganda broadcasts. Radio Paris and radio Vichy were the main tools of propaganda in France (Rhodes, 1996).
Fine arts
The Nazi used fine arts as symbols of creating ideals. Sculptures were used to basically to represent Nazis racial theories where common nude male sculptures were used to portray the ideal Aryan race (Rhodes, 1996). There were landscaping paintings that were mainly displayed in the art Exhibitions that were carried even during the war. Explicitly political paintings and anti-Semitic paintings were rare.
Conclusion
This paper sought to define political art, identify how it’s used in politics and give a detailed account of how it was used by Nazi during the Second World War. Indeed it has been established that art has been used in politics for a very long time to spread propaganda. The paper has also established that Nazi used art intensively to influence people both in Germany and elsewhere. Nazi used different forms of art to spread their propaganda. The most notable ones include Newspapers, speeches, radio, magazines, films, posters and fine arts.
References
Hitler, A. (1999). Mein Kampf. Boston: Houghton Miffin.
Lighgtboy, B. (2004). The Second World War: Ambitions to Nemesis. New york: Routledge.
Rhodes, A. (1996). Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II. New York: Chelsea House Publishers.
Stokstad, M. (1995). Art History. New York: Harry N. Abrahams Inc.