The World War II transformed the economies of many nations including that of the United States. The war forced the country to increase its productions. The government recruited more individuals in order to fight during the war. These changes resulted in new employment patterns. For instance, many African Americans joined the country’s workforce. The battle for equality in different working environments led to the passage of the Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC).
The tightening labor market in the country also resulted in new employment patterns. Many African Americans began to different industries during the World War II. However, the post-war period resulted in new shifts and developments. Such developments eventually resulted in deindustrialization. New challenges and patterns became common during this period. For instance, “the East Bay faced numerous challenges thus sinking into a period of economic decline” (Murch 35). Structural unemployment and inequality also became common in the country.
The country’s economy was under threat because more investors and businesspeople were not ready to invest in different American cities. The “increasing level of crime and unpredictability of social conditions affected the economies of many American cities” (Sugrue 27). The increasing rate of unionization made it impossible for different companies to invest in the country. The existing local industries and firms discouraged more businesspeople from investing in the country.
The increasing number of riots and civil movements forced many people to quit their jobs. The lives of many African-American factory workers in different cities changed significantly after the war. Many whites were no longer willing to work with any African American. More people abandoned their jobs thus affecting the performance of different firms. Unemployment became a major challenge in the country. For instance, the American Shipbuilding Industry suffered a major blow due to these racial issues. Racial tensions in the country resulted in new disagreements and havocs (Murch 38). Such issues and developments resulted in deindustrialization.
The student explains how an economic boom emerged during the Second World War. The situation created more jobs for many citizens. A large number of African Americans migrated to the North in order to improve their living conditions. New protests and movements emerged because every African American wanted to be part of the country’s economy. Equality became a critical concern during the period.
The student mainly focuses on the issues that characterized the post-war period. The student fails to identify the processes that led to deindustrialization. The student outlines the tensions that existed in different working environments. Certain factors such as “unfair wages, inequalities, and inappropriate employment practices resulted in disagreements” (Murch 35). Such issues reshaped the future of America’s economy.
The student begins his article by examining the issues affecting the United States after the World War II. The war made it easier for different minority groups to get new employment opportunities in the country. For example, many African Americans began to work in different firms. This situation played a major role towards supporting the lives of many people. The student identifies the major factors that created more job opportunities for many African Americans.
Such factors included “new labor markets, civil rights movements, and battle for equality” (Sugrue 27). The “increasing number of crimes and unrests in different cities discouraged more individuals from investing in the country” (Sugrue 29). Many industries recorded a decreasing number of employees. This situation would eventually result in deindustrialization.
Works Cited
Murch, Jean. Living for the City: Migration, Education, and the Rise of the Black. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 2010. Print.
Sugrue, Thomas. The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005. Print.
Professor of American history Robert James Maddox made the assertion that it was necessary for the United States government, to give the go signal to drop an atomic bomb on Japan to end World War II. Maddox argued that by releasing the deadly power of the A-bomb on Japanese soil, the Japanese people, and their leaders could visualize the utter senselessness of the war. Maddox asserted that the destructive capability of the atomic bombs forced Hirohito, and other high government officials to seriously consider its impact on the nation’s capital. Maddox also argued that the deadly impact of the atomic bombs provided Emperor Hirohito a solid explanation, as to why it is imperative to end the war as soon as possible. Without the potential impact of an atomic bomb, the Emperor would have a hard time convincing hardliner to lay down their arms.
Aside from forcing the hand of the emperor, and the hardliners in the Japanese army, there is another major reason for dropping the bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. President Truman was unwilling to authorize a land invasion of Japan. The Battle of Okinawa was a grim reminder of what would happen if American forces decided to send foot soldiers into the heart of the Japanese empire. If Japanese soldiers were willing to give their lives in the defense of a tiny island several kilometers from the Japanese mainland, one can just imagine how far they would go to protect the nation’s capital.
Truman saw a way out. He realized that there is no need to sacrifice the lives of American soldiers, in the same way that Roosevelt made the decision to sacrifice the lives of young men when he ordered the invasion of France and Germany. Truman also realized that the American people were battle weary because after almost four years of incessant fighting, American soldiers paid a dear price in fighting the enemy in Europe and the Pacific Islands. But there was no end in sight. One of the most problematic issues in August of 1945 was the realization that even after Nazi Germany was already defeated; the Japanese Imperial army was still willing to go through a protracted war. In addition, the Japanese army was using unconventional tactics that drastically increased war casualties on both sides. Truman was left with no other option, except to drop the A-bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Summary of Hasegawa’s Argument
Professor of American history Tsuyoshi Hasegawa argued that there was no need to drop the atomic bomb on Japan. Hasegawa asserted that the entrance of the Soviet Union into the war was the last straw that broke the camel’s back. He said that the A-bomb was not the major reason why the Japanese government surrendered to the United States.
Hasegawa bolstered his claim by pointing out several alternatives. He said that there were several roads not taken. Hasegawa contended that if President Truman had no hidden agenda, and if he was willing to work with the Japanese government, he could have ended the war without resorting to nuclear tactics. Hasegawa argued that a compromise in the Potsdam ultimatum could have given the Japanese government a way to save face so to speak, and could have paved the way for an early termination of military conflict in Asia.
Hasegawa’s main argument was based on the idea that the Japanese Imperial army cannot fight a battle with two fronts, one with America, and the other one with Russia. In fact, Japan’s decision to continue the fight in 1945 was based on the assumption that Russia will remain neutral. Hasegawa also pointed out that the Japanese government could not afford to see Russian troops occupy one of the major islands. Before the Japanese Imperial army surrendered to the Americans, Stalin’s army was poised to take over Hokkaido. Due to the heavy losses sustained by American troops in Europe and the Pacific Islands, the U.S. army will not risk a confrontation with Russia if Stalin decided to send troops to Hokkaido, after Russia’s successful entry into Manchuria, no one can stop them. Thus, concerns over Russia’s military intervention were the real reason why the Japanese Imperial army capitulated to the demands of the U.S. government. Hasegawa said it is not because of the dropping of atomic bombs on Japanese soil.
It was Indeed Necessary to Drop Atomic Bombs on Japan
It was necessary to drop A-bombs on Japanese soil to compel the Japanese Imperial army to surrender and end World War II. There were three justifiable reasons that warranted the use of atomic bombs. First, there was a need to end the war as soon as possible, in order to begin the rebuilding process (Goldberg & Hinderaker, 2006). Second, the atomic bombs created a “shock-effect” that forced the Emperor Hirohito to reconsider his political and military position with regards to the war (Maddox, ). Third, by shortening the war, Truman was hoping to save American and Japanese lives.
Aside from the need to end the war as soon as possible in order to save lives and initiate the rebuilding process, Truman’s decision was based on available information. One of the most critical information that weighed in favor of dropping the atomic bombs was the fanatical devotion of the Japanese soldiers and the Japanese people towards their homeland and their emperor. The emperor was viewed as a sacred individual.
The Japanese people considered him a demi-god and the Japanese soldiers revered him like a deity. Therefore, it was unthinkable to consider the argument of Hasegawa that the Japanese Imperial army can be swayed on the basis of logical argument. It is almost impossible to find the logic behind the kamikaze. No one from the West can accurately describe the reason why a Japanese soldier is willing to strap himself to an airplane filled with explosives and crash the said aircraft on enemy battleships.
In the Battle of Okinawa for instance, both armies suffered heavy casualties because Japanese soldiers embarked on suicide missions to inflict major damage on the invading enemy forces. It is easy to understand why Truman feared to contemplate the impact of 500,000 American bodies scattered all over Japan. If there was a way to avoid this grim scenario, Truman has to take it.
Aside from the fanatical devotion of the Japanese soldiers, Truman also considered the commitment of the Japanese people to defend their homeland. If there were two million soldiers stationed in Japan, in anticipation of an invasion, the casualty can triple. Soldiers and civilians are willing to give up their lives, thus the casualty rate can easily exceed the estimate that 500,000 American soldiers will perish in the event of an invasion (Maddox ) But if one will consider the presence of civilians who were slowly being integrated into a comprehensive defense strategy to protect their homeland from foreign invasion, the casualty rate is unthinkable.
Hasegawa made the claim that the atomic bomb was not the main reason for Japanese capitulation. He added that it was the entry of the Soviet Union into the war. But in explaining the Japanese government’s decision to surrender, Emperor Hirohito cited the A-bombs that were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (Hasegawa, 2007). It is hard to accept the argument that the atomic bombs did not play a decisive role in ending the war. Japanese leaders saw the destructive power of the nuclear bombs, and they were affected by it, in the same way that people all over the world were affected after they saw images of the unspeakable horror created by a tremendous blast of energy.
Truman made the decision based on what he knew. Hasegawa made an argument based on what he knew after the event took place. Hasegawa benefited from hindsight but Truman made a decision based on the evidence presented before him. Truman saw a nation that was not going to surrender without a fight. He saw a people who had a different understanding of suicide missions, and the need to maintain their honor no matter what the cost. Truman knew that if young Japanese men were willing to pilot an aircraft laden with explosives, and force it to explode on enemy battleships, this army will use suicide tactics to inflict heavy losses on the invading army. Truman realized that it was foolish to send young American soldiers into a country that trained civilians, to willingly offer their lives as an ultimate sacrifice to defend their homeland.
Truman realized that the Japanese Imperial army did not anticipate the destructive power of the A-bombs. Thus, Truman decided to utilize the “shock-effect” of nuclear weapons. He made the right decision because a month later, the Japanese army decided to end hostilities between the two countries.
References
Goldberg, R. & Hinderaker, E. (2006). American views: Documents in American history. MA: Pearson Custom Publishing.
Hasegawa, T. (2007). Racing the enemy: Stalin, Truman, and the surrender of Japan.
In L. Madaras & J. Sorelle (eds.), United States history: reconstruction to present (245-254). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Maddox, J. (2007). The biggest decision: why we had to drop the atomic bomb.
In L. Madaras & L. Sorelle (eds.), United States history: reconstruction to present (236-244). New York: McGraw-Hill.
The position of Americans of Asian descent in the United States appears to be integral for modern society as this population contributes to the contemporary culture, politics, and economy to a vast extent. However, less than a hundred years ago, the situation was drastically different as Chinese and Japanese Americans were considered borderline outcasts in American society. Accordingly, as is the case with nearly every nation and country in human history, there are aspects of this time period that could be terrifying and poignant. Therefore, it is important to elaborate on the history of relationships between Japanese Americans and Chinese Americans in the period between 1920 and 1940.
Main body
The conflicting nature of the relationships between the identified populations of the United States was largely determined by the political events outside the country. Particularly, the war between China and Japan, which started in 1937, is the crucially important factor as well as the US government’s attitude toward the Asian populations within the country1. Japan was perceived as the enemy and aggressor (moreover, even worse aggressor than Germany), and, naturally, this perception extended to Japanese Americans who lived in the United States2. Thus, the tendency for the distinguishing and distancing of the Chinese from the Japanese was highly evident in this period3.
Conclusion
The second important aspect is Madame Chiang Kai-shek’s tour of the United States that began in 1943. During the tour, the visitors attended numerous cities on the West coast, however, they were on the East coast as well, visiting New York and Washington, DC4. This tour had a large positive impact on the perception of Chinese Americans. Finally, the congressional repeal of the Chinese exclusion acts, which also happened in 1943, remarked the crucial change in the status of the Chinese American population5.
Bibliography
Lee, Johnatan H. X., and Christen T. Sasaki, eds., Asian American History: Primary Documents of the Asian American Experience. San Diego: Cognella Academic Publishing, 2015.
Wong, K. Scott. “From Pariah to Paragon: Shifting Images of Chinese Americans during World War II.” In Chinese Americans and the Politics of Race and Culture, edited by Sucheng Chan and Madeline Y. Hsu, 153-172. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008.
Yoo, David K., and Eiichiro Azuma, eds., The Oxford Handbook of Asian American History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2016.
Footnotes
Johnatan H. X. Lee and Christen T. Sasaki, eds., Asian American History: Primary Documents of the Asian American Experience (San Diego: Cognella Academic Publishing, 2015).
David K. Yoo and Eiichiro Azuma, eds., The Oxford Handbook of Asian American History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).
Wong, K. Scott, “From Pariah to Paragon: Shifting Images of Chinese Americans during World War II,” in Chinese Americans and the Politics of Race and Culture, ed. Sucheng Chan and Madeline Y. Hsu (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008), 153-156.
Retirement of baby boomers is inevitable. To analyze the government’s strategies concerning retirement and social security of the same, it is important to note some key factors. The people born immediately after World War II (baby boomers) were many; unfortunately, they have not been giving birth to enough children that could match the population of that time; therefore, demographic change is inevitable. The number of tax paying employees has been declining since 2008 when the first crop of baby boomers entered retirement.
The decline is attributed to the simple reason that baby boomers did not bring forth enough children to maintain constant population. This implicates that, without proper management, social security will shrink and finally collapse because tax-paying population cannot sustain retirement benefits for retired and retiring baby boomers. So, what is the government doing about this lurking crisis?
Government Plans
According to Gale (2007), “80 million Americans born from 1946 to 1964 could qualify for Social Security and Medicare during the next 22 years.” Out of this 80 millions, 3.2 millions entered retirement in 2008 at age 62, the early retirement age. Even though some have dubbed this, “the single greatest economic challenge of our era” (Bernheim, 2000, p. 288), government has strategies in place to counter these challenges.
Actually, one of the biggest, though unknown challenges is the fact that many baby boomers are not having enough private savings; hence, they would be forced to depend entirely of social security fund. Nevertheless, the much publicized ‘enough’ private savings is not quantifiable because this is a personal issue.
After the government realized that, more than a quarter of baby boomers had not saved enough, it embarked on a campaign to encourage baby boomers not to retire at 62 but prolong that, a little bit long. “Because people who retire at 62 can expect to live another 20 years, each year they postpone retirement reduces their need for retirement savings by about 5 percent” (Gale, 2007, 5).
Extending retirement by a single year increases one’s social security benefits by a significant margin and government is currently campaigning for this extension. Moreover, working for a longer time presents one with the opportunity of saving more, hence reducing the amount that he or she will need from the social security scheme.
For instance, taking the case of Casey-Kirschling, at 62 years this year, if she starts drawing money from the social security trust fund next year, “she will get $240 less per month than she would have if she waited four years” (Butrica, Howard, Iams & Karen, 2010). This makes sense and this is the reason the government is campaigning for baby boomers to extend their retirement time.
Congress has been working tirelessly to ensure that baby boomers retirement does not plunge the country into economic crisis. In 2003, Congress increased healthcare budget by $768 annually; however, in 2005, “lawmakers nicked Medicaid’s projected cost by $5 billion over five years, but the Congressional Budget Office still projects the program to grow by about 8% a year” (Butrica, Howard, Iams & Karen, 2010). This is commendable and it would work; at least for some time.
The other strategy, though a risky one is that of basing government “pension plans on the assumption that stocks will return an astounding 9.5% yearly growth on average, and that bonds will pay about 5.75%” (Kotlikoff, & Auerbach, 2009).
The risky part of this notwithstanding, this strategy would work out very well and let baby boomers retire in peace. The other option that the government has is to increase tax rates and cut down the rates of benefits that retirees would get from the social security trust fund. However, this would face opposition from many quarters.
Social Security Trust Fund
The government initialized Social security system to enable utilization of tax money in a bid top provide retirement benefits to retirees and baby boomers make a good number of these retirees. Among the taxes accumulated under the social security program, are taxes on salaries, wages, and Medicare.
According to Pearson (2007), “out of every dollar collected, 85 cents are deposited into social security trust fund while the remaining 15 cents are utilized to pay the benefits to disabled people and their families.” Even though this strategy is not sufficient, it would work and save baby boomers from financial woes.
Generally, Social security trust fund benefits are entitled to retirees, their spouses or any dependants and this is commendable. Moreover, the social security system is dynamic and retirees can choose how to get their benefits. For instance, the government, through the social security trust fund pays full benefits to those retiring at or after 65.
This is a strategy on its own, for baby boomers would be compensated upon their retirement. The amount they will get may be relatively small to what is expected; however, the fact is the sustenance of the social security trust fund is helping greatly in strategizing on baby boomers retirement.
On the other hand, government has restructured the social security trust fund system to allow retirees to take early retirement. This of course contradicts the ongoing campaign to encourage people to extent their retirement. However, because not everyone is willing to extent his/her retirement, the social security fund allows those who are willing to take early retirement to do so at a cost.
Those willing to retire early receive “permanently reduced retirement benefits if they opt for early retirement” (Pearson, 2007). This strategy helps to save more money that would otherwise been paid to these early retirees if they retired at the appropriate time.
To create a balance between early retirees and late retirees, government is giving incentives to those willing to prolong their retirement age. In this case, those who “defer receiving the retirement benefits until the age of 70; they collect higher benefits after that” (Pearson, 2007).
This strategy also works; logically, if someone prolongs his or her working age to 70, the tax-paying workforce will be high and this deals with the fears of imbalanced tax-paying employees compared to those depending wholly on the social security trust fund. Moreover, it implies that, apart from withdrawing from the trust fund, people working past their retirement age contribute to it and this may work for the government.
Finally, there is a $100 billion surplus annually for the next ten years directed towards the social security trust fund. Moreover, the medical reforms that the Obama administration is pushing may work for the best of baby boomers. With medical services becoming more available, baby boomers retirees do not have to worry; even if they have little money left for medical expenses, this would match the reduced costs of health care services.
Conclusion
Baby boomers expected and inevitable retirement has caused ripples in different quarters as a crisis looms over their retirement benefits. Nevertheless, the government has ensured that proper mechanisms are in place to counter any crisis. The dynamic nature of the social security trust fund caters the needs of baby boomers’ retirement.
The government is campaigning for extension of retirement age, as this would boost the capacity of the social security trust fund to pay retirees. The $100 billion annual surplus towards the trust fund is a landmark as it ameliorates the trust’s capacity to compensate retirees. On the other hand, the Obama administration is pushing for medical reforms and this would help ‘cash strapped’ retirees.
References List
Bernheim, B. (2000). How Much Should Americans Be Saving for Retirement? American Economic Review, 90(2); 288-292.
Butrica, A., Howard, M., Iams, K., & Karen E. (2010). It’s All Relative: Understanding the Retirement Prospects of Baby Boomers. Chestnut Hill: Boston College Center for Retirement Research.
Gale, G. (2007). The Aging of America: Will the Baby Boom Be Ready for Retirement? Brookings Review, 15(3); 4-9.
Kotlikoff, L., Auerbach, J. (2009). U.S. Fiscal and Savings Crises and Their Impact for Baby Boomers. Washington: Employee Benefit Research Institute.
Person, C. (2007). Social Security & Government Retirement Benefits. Web.
Despite the fact that many features of the traditional gender order continue to exist, some considerable changes in gender arrangements cannot be neglected. Keeping in mind certain periods of time, one can probably trace back numerous transformations in gender arrangements capitalism brought about. For instance, when discussing the period after the Second World War, one can speak about the so-called male breadwinner model. The term involves not only male dominance in family relations, but also a variety of social and cultural behaviours the discussed conception is based on.
The Australian male breadwinner model and its peculiarities
It should be noted, however, that the Australian male breadwinner model is of particular concern, as in the early fifties (the post-war period) the model was totally revaluated (Nolan 2003; McQueen 2003). Thus, the assumption that males should be regarded as the principal family providers was criticised. According to the traditional Australian position on the model, women had to be dependent upon their partners, and men had to earn money and endow their wives and children. Most of the married women did not work. The male breadwinner model was promoted by Australian authorities and propagandised in other spheres, including the country’s political and social life. Exclusion of females from the labour market was explained by the assumption that females were not providing for children and their partners. For this reason, women’s wages were much lower as compared with men’s incomes. In other words, one can conclude that women’s exclusion was regarded as the kind of protection in order to prevent women’s seeking a job (Murphy 2003). In spite of the fact that the Australian male breadwinner model was rather conservative, the country’s postwar period was characterised by a wide range of dynamic transformations on gender arrangements.
The Australian women’s movement and gender segregation
Taking into account the conservative attitude towards gender order and state economic intervention in postwar times, it becomes evident that global transformations in the Australian male breadwinner model were unavoidable. Of course, the expansion of community services area led to the reevaluation of the traditional male breadwinner model. Furthermore, the Australian women’s movement, which took place in the early seventies also impacted on the authority’s decision to adopt certain norms in relation to the growth in women’s employment. On the other hand, it seems to be obvious that the traditional attitudes to gender roles could not be completely eradicated. Thus, despite the fact that females entered into a labour market, the growth of women’s employment was probably aggravated with such phenomenon as gender segregation. The supposition is considered to be correct, as according to Cass (1998, p. 42) “the values of the male breadwinner model were deeply embedded in dominant Australian social and cultural norms throughout the post-war period and women remained primarily responsible for domestic labour and caring work”. Keeping in mind the above-mentioned circumstances, there is no wonder that women’s participation in labour market gave rise to females’ economic independence.
Global restructuring and its consequences
Political, social and economic transformations, which occurred in Australia at that time, cannot be ignored, as they affected gender relations at all levels (McDowell 1991). Generally, the consequences of global restructuring should be regarded rather ambiguously, as the traditional cultural norms were not eliminated, as some may think. In other words, restructuring affected both – the traditional male breadwinner model and women’s movement. For this reason, one can probably make a conclusion that the golden mean was finally found out; moreover, there is a strong need to rely on the data provided by the Australian Bureau of Statistics, as according to its readings, both – men and women were employed. As far as males were full-time employed and females were part-time employed, it becomes clear that males continued to remain the main earners and therefore, the Australian male breadwinner model was still important.
The Australian feminisation of work
The growth of women’s employment in Australia is mostly associated with such phenomenon as the feminisation of work. Thus, as far as most of the females were part-time employed, the labour market also underwent certain changes. First of all, it should be noted that the market started to provide people not only with permanent employment, and also with part-time engagement. The country’s rate of part-time employment was higher as compared with other nations. For instance, “only 20 per cent of Australian women with children are employed full-time compared to 40 per cent in the USA” (Bittman et al. 2003).
The overall effect of the Australian restructuring
Many labour market changes, which took place in the early seventies, eighties and nineties, caused investments inequalities. Generally, “creating a polarisation of households into work rich and work poorly” (Borland et al. 2001) can be defined as the overall effect of the Australian restructuring. Taking into consideration the extremely high demands of the modern business world, one can notice that both – males and females are on overtime.
The importance of socio-economic groups
Various socio-economic groups females belonged to were considered to be of particular concern, as in most cases employment changes depended upon women’s socio-economic positions (Probert 1996). Thus, higher unemployment rates among women were observed in low-status neighbourhoods. The men experienced the same situation. The outcomes of labour marker restructuring greatly affected gender order. However, it should be noted that women’s contribution to household income was significant because the male breadwinner model was not persistent anymore. That is to say the model became obsolete (Gregory & Hunter 1995).
Conclusion
Deep transformations of the Australian gender order were unavoidable, as a variety of social, cultural and economic changes required immediate reevaluation of the traditional Australian male breadwinner model. On the other hand, one can probably notice that the effect of the first wave of globalisation could not be neglected too, as the new demands of the world required urgent reconsideration of old conceptions in all spheres of life. Thus, the Australian government was also involved into the evolutionary process of the time and speeded up a decline of the traditional male breadwinner model (Baxter 1998).
References:
Baxter, J 1998, Moving towards Equality? Questions of Change and Equality in Household Work Patterns, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
Bittman, M, England, P, Folbre, N, Sayer, L, & Matheson, G 2003, ‘When Does Gender Trump Money? Bargaining and Time in Household Work’, American Journal of Sociology, vol. 109, no. 1, pp. 186-214.
Borland, J, Gregory, B & Sheehan, P 2001, Inequality and Economic Change, Centre for Strategic Studies, Victoria University, Melbourne.
Cass, B 1998, The Social Policy Context, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
Gregory, R & Hunter, B 1995, ‘The Macro Economy and the Growth of Ghettos and Urban Poverty in Australia’, ANU Centre for Economic Policy Research Discussion Papers, no. 325.
McDowell, L 1991, ‘Life without Father and Ford: the New Gender Order of Post-Fordism’, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 400-419.
McQueen, H 2003, ‘Breadwinning in the 1950s: A Response to John Murphy’, Labour & Industry, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 93-98.
Murphy, J 2003, ‘Reply to Humphrey McQueen’, Labour & Industry, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 99-103.
Nolan, M 2003, ‘The High Tide of a Labour Market System: The Australasian Male Breadwinner Model’, Labour & Industry, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 73-92.
Probert, B 1996, ‘The Riddle of Women’s Work’, Arena Manazine, no. 23.
The impact of religions on the world throughout history is undeniable, it can be seen how different religions include in their teachings all of the life aspects and affect them in a way or another. Religions have always created a stronghold on their believers by deep belief, fear, or nationalism that they become a tool for political intrigues or global conflicts. In this article, the main theme is Japan’s Shinto religion.
This subject is going to cover the definition and the origins of Shintoism.
The connection between the Shinto religion and the nationalism in Japan and how this affected the way Japan behaved in World War II. This topic will also include the main ideologies of the Shinto and its radical movement. At last, the fate of Shintoism in the post-war period is going to be discussed along with the way it has been changed in modern Japanese life.
Main body
Shinto is the traditional religion of Japan which involves worship of Kami – a Japanese word that refers to spirits within objects. The Kami worship is the main element of the practical definition of the Shinto along with shrine rituals that were indicated back in ancient times. Shintoism is viewed as the presence of the gods in every object in nature such as a stone or a tree.
Shinto is not a system or a set of specific rules, and in a religious context, it is a religion that rose naturally within the historical progress of independent culture, in opposite to ‘founded religions’, which were based on the rules and laws of their historical founders.
These founded religions often are viewed as world religions, because their impact was wide across its founder’s countries to reach a global role.
On the other hand, Shinto as a religion is specifically linked to a single nation of Japan and did not have the purpose of spreading its teachings outside of the country or to popularize it around the globe.
There were always difficulties in following Shinto through history as a separate religion for it was always influenced by other religious traditions.
“The influence of the religions of China has been prominent since ancient times, and among them, the religion that left the most profound impact was Chinese Buddhism. Even if we were to use the term ‘Early Shinto’ to refer to some archaic prototype of Shinto, we would find that such a distant ancestor of Shinto would already have been transformed in important ways by Chinese forms of Buddhism.
In addition, other continental traditions such as Confucianism, Taoism, and theories about Yin and Yang and the Five Phases of matter (wood, fire, earth, metal, and water) left their imprint in ideas about, and practices around, the kami from an early date.” (Satoshi, Jun, and Mizue 2).
With the presence of Buddhism and its fast adoption in the country, there was an apparent need to distinguish the differences between original Japanese beliefs and Buddhist teachings. In fact, Shinto was nameless until there was a need to separate it from Buddhism.
Buddhism and Shinto existed together and were up until the end of the Edo period.
In the latter half of the nineteenth century in what was called the beginning of the Meiji era, Shinto was made the state religion of Japan, its rules of morals and the code of honor.
The emperors learned Shinto’s principles and have revived and sharply strengthened the cult of goddess Amaterasu.
Not only in the main temples, but also in each house altar, henceforth there should be a plaque with the name of the goddess, which transformed into a symbol of Japanese nationalism. The revival of Shintoism was accompanied by anti-Buddhist actions, however, Buddhism has appeared resistant enough and has skillfully adapted to the new conditions, and the 1889 decree about the freedom of belief has helped Buddhism to survive and even to keep its influence.
Shinto’s laws laid in the basics of the patriotism and fidelity to the emperor (not to the homeland) and the Japanese Samurais from which during the Second World War the staff of suicides was scooped.
The official Japanese propagation in her nationalist claims leaned on the basis of the ancient Shinto’s myths about the creation of the world, goddess Amaterasu, the emperor, and the country, it is called to create ” Great Asia ” and to unite the world under the authority of Japan and the Japanese emperor, the descendant of goddess Amaterasu.
It was no wonder that for the first half of the twentieth century the influence of Shintoism in the country has sharply increased.
There was a set of new very popular temples in the country, a significant part of which has been devoted to the fallen in the war (especially known generals), who was by the Shinto’s tradition, considered as godlike heroes, whose death for the Emperor cleared them from all lifetime sins and even crimes. In looking back we can see that with the introduction of mass education, industrialization, and foreign wars, Japanese nationalism began to present itself as a powerful force in society.
The massive popularization of education and conscription served as a possible new standard to teach the new generation the idea of Japan as a whole country and nation instead of identifying it as a feudal domain. In such a manner the loyalty to the state was achieved.
The strong emphasis on the industry awoke in the Japanese people the sense of competition with the West.
The government has declared, that henceforth Shintoism loses the status of religion and becomes a cult of a national patriotism within the limits of which the ritual of reverence of the emperor and his divine ancestors, which was executed in Shinto’s sanctuaries, began to be considered as a civil duty of all citizens of the country; for example, schoolboys should visit Shinto’s sanctuaries and give there “tribute” to divine founders of Japan.
Many Shinto sanctuaries and clerics openly received grants from the state.
Special law that forbidden at school the sermon of any religions (such as the Buddhism and Christianity), however, an obligatory subject have been entered under the name ” national ethics ” – a mix of Shinto’s and Confucian’s ideas, that proved the sacred character of Japanese people and the state that they have been brought into the Kami world, and as the main ethical precept of each Japanese was to express faithful feelings to the emperor and to the government of the country.
Along with the rise of Japanese nationalism, which paralleled the growth of nationalism in the West, came the growth of ultra-nationalism.
It was apparent for a moment that with industrialization and westernization something purely Japanese from the religious aspect was missed.
Throughout the Meiji period, many nationalists stood against this westernization, but in the years after the First World War, criticism of Japanese ambitions changed the direction of the nationalist movement in Japan.
The above-mentioned ideology promoted the union and the mobilization of the Japanese population while preparing and during the second world war. In the foreground of all of this ideological campaign was Shintoism, however, in support of nationalistic and militaristic aspirations, Buddhism and even Japanese Christianity acted along in characteristic unity with Shintoism.
The military mood of the Japanese Empire was at its peak, this was the apparent result of the propaganda which was based on Shinto’s teachings. The self-sacrifice of the Japanese pilots was marked even by Americans against whom the attacks were actually directed. National patriotism in Japan is strong, and it was even stronger down to the end of the Second World War. Japanese patriotism is characterized by full unanimity. In particular, there are no documents on any Japanese dissidents, who would have been accused of sending the Japanese armies to China or for the attack of the American military base in Pearl Harbor in 1941.
In this sense, it is possible to speak about national support of the Japanese military doctrine in Japan. Many Japanese understand patriotism as absolute loyalty to the Emperor. The authority of the Emperor was firm for centuries. In particular, Emperor Hirohito, even having lost the largest war in the history of mankind, has been kept not only his life and freedom, but also the formal position, and a dynasty of emperors continues existence. The Japanese patriotism was in full conformity with the cult of service and Shinto’s ideals. Therefore the secret service of Japan was not expensive for the Empire. To serve ideals, instead of money, apparently was rather favorable to the state. For Japan, the road to war began with the imperial ambitions which were brought to life and popularized through the country by the teachings of Shintoism. The military affected civilian life by mixing religion with national identity and ambition.
The teachings of Shinto gave major inspirations for the Japanese in the battle.” It was Shinto that fostered Japan’s feverish nationalism. It was Shinto that inspired Article I of Japan’s constitution, which said: “The Empire of Japan shall be reigned over and governed by a line of Emperors unbroken for ages eternal,” and Article III, which said: “The Emperor is sacred and inviolable.” It was Shinto that taught Japanese law students: “Subjects have no mind apart from the will of the Emperor.” Shinto taught Japanese Army privates: “Those who, with the words ‘Tenno Heika Banzai!’ (May the Emperor live forever!) on their lips, have consummated a tragic death in battle, whether they are good or whether they are bad, are thereby sanctified.” (Shinto (Way of the Gods)).
Another side of Shintoism is its delivery to the Japanese people a perfectionist view of the community. The all-for-one and one for all mindset along with the social responsibility are evident in Japan. The land and the people of Japan are considered sacred by Shintoists.
The Japanese feel and sense of destiny as they consider the islands of Japan and its people descended from the gods and chosen by them to rule the earth.
This idea reached the extreme borders of fundamentalism in Kamikaze – “the term was used for a Japanese suicide air force composed of fliers who crashed their bomb-laden planes into their targets, usually ships.
The kamikaze was first used extensively at Leyte Gulf and was especially active at Okinawa.” (“Kamikaze”).
After the Second World War, it seemed that Shintoism took another direction of evolution. Japan’s loss in World War II put an end to State Shinto. In the post-war period, various New Religions appeared, many of them were based on Shinto, but in general, we can say that Japanese religiosity might have decreased, and it can be said that Japan’s loss in the world war has been of the main reasons for that. After the war, Shinto has, for the most part, existed with less importance based on mythology or the divinity of the Imperial family.
The shrines started to focus on helping people gain better fortunes and became more of a social aspect of life in contrast to the pre-war nationalistic mood. Post-war, the number of Japanese citizens who can identify their religion as Shinto has decreased, though the main practice of Shinto rituals has not decreased accordingly, and many practices have stayed as general cultural beliefs and focused more on religious practices ideology. The reason for that might have been that the Shinto religion in its origins has been focused on that direction and the emphasis of the ideology and nationalism came after separating the Shinto teachings from Buddhism. From December, 15th 1945 the state religion has been canceled by the instruction of the supreme commander in chief of forces of allies and in Japan, the period of occupation had started.
Shintoism has turned into one of many religions and could count only on the voluntary support of the population.
On January, 1st 1946 an Imperial order has been published in which the emperor renounced his divine origin and declared, that the relations between the throne and people are based exclusively upon mutual trust and love. The Shintoism state has departed in the past, but nationalist ideas of «the sacred ground «and» the sacred nation ” have not disappeared, but only have changed. In the mass form of Shintoism, it is reduced to customs and norms of behavior.
Conclusion
In general, we can see that the connection of religion with political situations in the world as a whole and in Japan, in particular, is more of a need for spiritual assistance in life. The government in Japan’s empire used the religious teachings and transformed them from their initial form to fulfill their imperial ambitions. The use of patriotism and nationalism may have its benefits in the form of raising living standards and achieving leading positions in various aspects of the modern world while maintaining the basic instincts of morality. Nevertheless, the focus on militarism as proof of superiority in the world has given examples in history as a total failure although we can see that as a stimulant the religion was working perfectly for the population. The ideology that raised the warrior spirit in the armed forces of Japan moved the warrior privilege of certain groups in Japan to the masses. Every citizen of the Japanese Empire became a warrior and that if not a total success, was a distinctive historical victory. A victory of ideology that proved that vanity can move nations and start wars.
The year 1945 did not simply represent the end of the second war, but it also signaled the beginning of new relationships between various countries. China’s foreign relations determine its relationships with other nations. Since China is a great power, its foreign policy is extremely valuable. The major aim of this policy is to uphold the integrity, independence, and sovereignty of China. The relationship that China and New Zealand have had can be discussed as follows.
Political Relationship
In 1971, President Nixon mentioned that his government had abolished isolationist strategy on communist china, which USA had been practicing since 1949. Moreover, China established a more cordial relationship with USA than with the Soviet Union. New Zealand found it increasingly necessary to corporate with China to avoid confrontational dealings with the dominant powers that had an interest in the Pacific region.
New Zealand was in excellent terms with Japan, and it was also allied to USA. Even though it did not have significant relationships with Moscow, it cooperated with the Soviet Union. Therefore, the only gap New Zealand had to link was China. The desire for additional markets also motivated New Zealand to communicate with China. This is because China had a considerable market potential since it is populous.
In this case, “New Zealand faced the challenge of how it could establish a relationship with the people of Republic without jettisoning Taiwan, as required by the people of the Republic”?
Apart from New Zealand, other nations like Canada had also faced this hurdle before. “New Zealand’s official relationship with China began under the Labor Government of Normzan Kirk when diplomatic relations were established in 1972, the same year as the Kissinger-Nixon ‘ping pong diplomacy”.
“Besides China, Norman Kirk established diplomatic ties with the Soviet Union, Latin America, and the Middle East”. Kirk was initially reluctant to recognize China and his recognition of China was only precipitated by the fact that Australia had shifted its focus to Beijing.
The Interaction between China and New Zealand became formal in 1976, as a mechanism for curbing USSR influence. “This event was marked when Muldoon travelled to Peking in 1976 to meet Mao Zedong”. “It was plainly stated that China was eager for New Zealand to maintain its alliance with the USA”. Muldoon’s visit showed that China and New Zealand could relate well and find issues of common interest to them. Nonetheless, this did not necessarily imply that they did not have some divergent view.
For example, China still went on with its nuclear projects, and this drew sharp criticism from New Zealand. Another disagreement emerged out of the manner in which China responded during the attack of Cambodia by Vietnamese in 1978. In this case, China intervened by attacking Vietnam. This action was not supported by New Zealand, which saw it as similar to the conduct of Vietnam. New Zealand advised China to stop intervening in that conflict.
The political aspect of their cooperation was manifested by the several official visits which they both conducted on an equal measure. The tension was quickly alleviated due to the quick withdrawal of China.
Despite of these disagreements, China and New Zealand were both able to work together toward restoring development in Cambodia. “Since the implosion of the USSR, Russia is attempting to regain its former authority; the USA is playing the same Cold War game, and China is continuing the same course”.
The USA has been antagonistic to Russia, due to the fact that Russia is a powerful geopolitical bloc with the capacity to contain perpetration of USA hegemony. On the other hand, China is often perceived by western countries as a de facto partner, and they are keen on ensuring that it becomes de jure.
As such, the USA has been trying to influence countries that were in the Soviet Union to join NATO, and it also aims at forming nuclear programs in Poland. “The containing Cold War partnership with China makes the encirclement of Russia almost complete, the problematic factors being Central Asian Republics, and others such as the Ukraine, all targets of the Soros network”.
Economic Relationship
“China has been presented for several decades as being the panacea for New Zealand’s economic situation and it can ultimately be traced back to the scuttling of Empire after World War II”. Political relationship was first put in place as a primary step towards economic cooperation between them.
The economic gains that could arise from increased commercial integration did not lie far behind, particularly for the New Zealand. “Therefore, the lure for enormous Chinese markets was a seductive for new Zealand and other nations”. China’s market rapidly expanded during this period, and there was a significant increase in the amount and range of commodities traded in their markets. China derived most of its raw materials from New Zealand.
It also exported most of its finished goods to New Zealand. However, this new trade agreement did not promote China much. Hence, it continuously complained that New Zealand did not do much to balance trade between them. Consequently, China was compelled to look for other markets in Europe and Asia.
Therefore, in terms of economic relationship, China and New Zealand developed trade and investment agreements, and up to 1990, China remained one of the principal trading partners of New Zealand. “New Zealand was the first Western country to commence bilateral negotiations with China on China’s WTO entry, also the first Western country to conclude such talks”.
Cultural Relationship
On cultural issues, they practiced people-to-people associations. This was done by teachers, cultural groups, and students. China had managed to deploy enough experts even before it started cooperating with New Zealand. As such, experts from New Zealand just did the ‘polishing’ of Chinese treatise that were being translated to English and other languages. For instance, many teachers from New Zealand performed such tasks in Beijing.
Besides this, China also took advantage of skills and technology that were available in New Zealand. Exchange of skills became an aspect of the cultural exchange programs. Exchange of skills was also seen as underpinning commercial activities. With time, the exchange programs expanded immensely, and they now encompassed banking and legal processes.
Tiananmen Chaos
In 1989, the long cooperation between China and New Zealand was affected by chaos that emerged in China at Tiananmen Square. Many students got involved in the street demonstrations and they caused a lot of property damage.
New Zealand and other western countries responded quickly, and they actually criticized the manner in which the Chinese troops handled the students who engaged in the mass demonstrations. The actions that were taken by both New Zealand and other European countries on China did not interfere with their trade links, but it strained their relationship. The occurrence at the Tiananmen Square actually exposed the tension between western countries and China.
The government of China had not actually employed new strategies for handling the chaos culprits. This was not the prime cause of New Zealand’s criticism of China. The problem that led to the criticism of China by New Zealand was the fact that the European countries wanted China to embrace Western political ideals.
This is because China had already adopted western economic models and they felt that it was expedient for China to do the same in politics. Tiananmen chaos was only used as an excuse for the criticism. In March 1990, China and New Zealand solved their differences and New Zealand also informed China about its concerns.
Conclusion
China and New Zealand have generally had a favorable long term relationship. Nonetheless, it characterized by some divergent views that have always emerged between them. New Zealand’s aim of gaining commercial opportunities has been often seen as one of the main reasons that motivated it to have a partnership with China.
Hence, interests waned when commercial gains from China reduced or proved challenging to get. “The conclusion from these years is that differences of perspectives, policy, and practice did not impede the establishment and management of a relationship from which both could benefit”.
References
Alley, R. 2007. New Zealand in World Affairs 1990-2005. New York: Victoria University Press.
Brown, B. 1970. New Zealand foreign policy in retrospect (1947-54 and the 1960s). New York: Institute of International Affairs.
New Zealand Institute. 2003. China and New Zealand: A Thriving Relationship Thirty Years on. London: Wiley.
Robinson, T. 1996. Chinese Foreign Policy: Theory and Practice. New York: Oxford University Press.
Sutter, R. 2009. Chinese Foreign Relations: Power and Policy since the Cold War. London: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
The main emphases of the foreign policy of the United States from World War 2 to the present day have been the containment of the Soviet Union and its allies, military domination, expansion of economy, the War on Terror, and overall stability. The paper is focused on the foreign policy during the Cold War, and basic peculiarities of American foreign policy of the end of the XX – the beginning of XXI century.
The origins of Cold War are preceded from the World War 2; tense rivalry between America and Russia became more evident. In contrast to the Soviet Union, America’s policy was oriented not only to the military domination, but to the economic expansion, as well. The collapse of the USSR outlined a new era in the foreign policy of the United States, connected with terrorism and peaceful Obama’s strategy.
During the World War 2, the U.S. and the Soviet Union were the allies, but there were some signs of tense relationships between them. According to Brinkley (2009), the nature of such global phenomenon, as Cold War, is in tension between the Soviet Union and U.S., expressed in military rivalry:
“The Cold War was a profound event in the history of the twentieth century and, like World War II, reshaped the world order in important ways. The intense rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union – and between democratic capitalism and communism – divided much of the world into two not-quite-warring camps” (Brinkley, 757).
Thus, the nature of Cold War predestined the rivalry of the both super-countries in the world arena. What are the origins? Most historians believe that “both the United states and the soviet union contributed to the atmosphere of hostility and suspicion that quickly clouded the peace” (Brinkley, 758).
As Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin had different visions of the postwar picture, the sources of Soviet-American tension should be found in Atlantic charter of 1941. After the war, in 1945, these politicians signed the agreement on the Yalta Conference.
Nevertheless, the visions of the Soviet Union and those of Anglo-American were different: “…the Soviet Union moved systematically to establish pro-communist governments in one Central or Eastern European nation after another” (Brinkley, 759). Thus, the global struggle of America and Russia was inevitable.
The failure of Potsdam agreement led to the tenser situation: as the Soviet Union fortified its positions, the U.S. claimed their containment doctrine, directed against the Soviet Union. The adopted Marshall Plan was beneficial for the United States:
“An integral part of the containment policy was a proposal to aid in the economic reconstruction of Western Europe. There were many motives: humanitarian concern for the European people; a fear that Europe would remain an economic drain on the United States if it could not quickly rebuild and begin to feed itself; a desire for a strong European market for American goods” (Brinkley, 762).
Consequently, while the Soviet Union outlined strengthened its communistic power and search the allies, the U.S. tried to get most part of Western Europe as its ally. Western Europe served a shield against the Soviet Union. In 1949, twelve countries signed an agreement, and there appeared North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), intended to defend the United States and Western Europe against military attack of the enemy.
It speeded up the process of creation an alliance of communist governments (Eastern Europe), realized in 1955, by Warsaw pact. The explosion of first atomic bomb by the Soviet Union, frightened the United States, and made it strengthen the non-communist world position. Non-Aligned Movement, intended to limit Soviet expansion, was established; there started continuous ideological struggle of the two super-countries.
America’s military domination led to the military conflict, realized in the Vietnam War (1955-1975). The military opposition of North Vietnam, supported by the Communists, and South Vietnam, supported by the American government. Although, it resulted in the victory of the Communists, nevertheless, it coasted extremely high. Although, this war was painful for Americans, as well: the U.S. lost 55,000 people (Brinkley, 811).
The period in American economics of 1950-1960, Brinkley named as “the economic miracle” that was characterized by intensive economic growth (Brinkley, 780). The technological development, caused by economic growth, influenced the high level of American Air Force, and weapons – bombs, rockets, and missiles.
Also, there was the growth of industrial and cultural centers of the United States, the success of the labour movement, the explosion of science and technology, technical progress, and the dawn of the computer age. Nevertheless, the Soviet Union did not want to go behind, and launched the first satellite “Sputnik” into outer space. “Explorer I” was American answer to it; moreover, the United States created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).
In addition, Americans were the first people who footed on the surface of the Moon: in “1969, Neil Armstrong, Edwin Aldrin, and Michael Collins successfully travelled in a space capsule into orbit around the moon” (Brinkley, 787). The massive cultural development ideologically influenced the Soviet Union that had another vision on culture, limited by communistic ideals.
Gradually, the face of affluent American society was changing: the civil rights movement, population minority’s activity, antiwar demonstrations, general disappointments of American society, the crisis of Cold War (the Soviet Union placed its nuclear bombs on Cuba), etc. weaken the power of the United States. Also, there was the crisis of authority: the impeachment of Nixon (caused by the Watergate crisis) negatively influenced the American position in the world arena that showed signs of its economic decay.
Though, in 80-ies, Reagan influenced the revival of the overall American situation. Elected in 1980, this president “became a symbol of a new kind of confident conservatism that would soon have enormous influence in the United States and in many other parts of the world” (Brinkley, 871). The roots of American economic success were in the reliable power of free market. Also, he strengthened foreign policy:
‘The Reagan administration supported opponents of communism anywhere in the world, whether or not they had any direct connection to the Soviet Union. This new policy became known as the Reagan Doctrine, and it meant, above all, a new American activism in the Third world” (Brinkley, 884).
Reagan’s successful policy and economics reflected on the prosperity of America. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union was losing its position, in 1989, it dissolved into separate independent countries, and there was “…the collapse of communist regimes all over Europe and in other parts of the world” (Brinkley, 890).
The Cold War ended, and the situation in the world changed. The United States was on the way to the stabilization: free trade continued, the government protected the national interests in the world arena, there grew a concern for human rights.
The age of globalization started, and the United States faced with other foreign policy crises: the military conflict in Kosovo. The Operation Allied Force (in other words, NATO) caused bombing of Yugoslavia that raised many controversial points to be discussed. In terms of the military and economic partnerships, the USA created a major non-NATO ally, now it includes fourteen nations.
On the turn of the centuries, there were some essential issues for the politic and economy of the United States, but one of them deserves particular attention. In September 11, 2001 one of the most horrible events in American history took place. It faced with the open military aggression, caused by nuclear terrorism in which the United States was engaged.
In the same day, there were several catastrophes: two commercial airliners crashed into Manhattan’s towers, and another commercial airliner crashed into the building of Pentagon. These dreadful catastrophes were:
“… the result of a single, orchestrated plan by members of Al Qaeda, a previously little-known Middle Eastern terrorist group. The attacks they launched profoundly affected the United States and the world. They made what came to be known as the “war on terrorism” a central issue in American life” (Brinkley, 893).
In answer to this terroristic act, Bush started a continuous Iraq War that lasted seven years, till 2010. The aim of this war was the overthrow of Saddam Hussein by invasion of American troops and those of the allies of the United States. There were many deaths either on the side of Iraq or the USA; that caused many critical opinions concerning the American foreign policy and unfair behavior in relation to Iraq.
In 2008, with the election of a new president Barack Obama, a foreign policy changed its strategy, demonstrating the peaceful character. Modern foreign policy of the United States is characterized by the “post-modern orientation” (Viotti, 8). It is based on the decrease of military confrontation, economic partnership, and friendly relationships with all countries of the world.
Positive thinking of Obama in the world arena realizes “the core of an American foreign policy grounded on liberal principles” (Viotti, 38). Thus, the 44th president of the USA holds out a hope for the stability, terrorism prevention, and successful world trade.
Taking into consideration all mentioned above, some conclusions can be made. After the World War 2, the USA started the Cold war foreign policy that oriented to the containment of the principal enemy – the Soviet Union. The military dominion and economic expansion of the US were two main strategies that time.
After the collapse of the USSR, America faced the nuclear terrorism, realized in the terroristic act of Al Qaeda and the Iraq War. Realizing possible consequences of the previous foreign policy of the USA, Barack Obama tries to establish peaceful strategy, and decrease the American military confrontation.
Taking into account previous mistakes, a new administration intend to stabilize the foreign policy and economy of the US, directed to the prosperous and peaceful existence.
Works Cited
Brinkley, Alan. American History: A Survey.13th ed., vol. 2. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009. Print.
Viotti, Paul. American Foreign Policy. Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2010.
The Second World War, which ended in 1945, is still regarded as the most devastating war in human history. The war involved the greatest number of nations with all the major countries in the world playing a role in the war. The human and economic costs of the war were astronomical and most countries took decades to recover from the damaging impacts of the war.
During the war, participating nations made alliances with each other in order to bolster their positions. Countries offered financial and military assistance to their allies who were in a weak position.
The United States and China had a cordial relationship in the years heralding the war and during World War II; the two nations were allies since they were both fighting against the German led aggression in East Asia. The paper will review Chinese – American relations during the World War II to show that this period provided a special stage in the relationship of these two countries.
Prewar US-China Relations
China and the US had a mostly unfavorable relationship for the better part of the 19th century. The Caucasian American’s resented the huge influx of Chinese laborers during the 1860s and they considered them culturally and racially inferior.
This led to anti-Chinese sentiments which culminated in the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 which was an act prohibiting Chinese immigrants from entering the US. Xiaohua observes that the discriminatory law not only ended the free immigration era in American history but it also negatively affected the future relations between China and America (40).
Relations between 1932 and 1945
The 1930s were characterized by many external attacks on the Nationalist government of China. Specifically, China experienced significant encroachment by the aggressive Japanese forces. Japan agents assassinated the Chinese warlord in Manchuria and took control of the territory under the guise of an independent state called Manchukuo, which was only recognized by Japan.
This blatant grab of Manchuria by Japan was viewed as a hostile action by the United States. However, the US did not respond forcefully since the country was still dealing with the disastrous consequences of the Great Depression. However, the Hoover administration formally protested and sent additional forces to China (Sutter 35).
The US was opposed to the establishment of exclusive spheres of influence by European powers and later Japan. The US supported the principles of free access to China and Chinese territorial integrity even as Japan endeavored to carve up Chinese territory (Sutter 16). Measures were therefore taken to limit Japan’s increasing dominance in East Asia and preserve Chinese integrity.
The US supported Chinese national interests and this led to the emergence of a special relationship between the two nations. Sutter notes that while China was apprehensive of US involvement in her internal affairs, Chinese officials saw American policies and practices as less aggressive than other powers (16).
Since 1927, Washington maintained a fleet in the Yangtze River to defend US treaty rights and protect American lives and property. This military presence became a symbol of American commitment to the open door in china.
The US was instrumental in the building of a more efficient Chinese Army. During World War II, US officials encouraged their Chinese allies to build a better army in order to repulse the Japanese. Xiaohua documents that a primary goal of the US was to “keep China in the war in order to tie up millions of Japanese troops until the ultimate Allied victory in Europe” (41).
China received financial support from the US in order to aid in her war efforts. In Asia, Japan had established herself as the economic and military powerhouse and she had been able to engage in expansionism with little Chinese opposition. The US was keen to strengthen Chinese forces in order to alter the Pacific War. The US lent China $500 million in 1942 to help improve Chinese military capabilities.
The Pearl Harbor attack was a significant event in the US-China relations. This attack resulted in an active involvement by the US as the country abandoned its policy of isolationism and she took major action in response to Japanese action (Schaller 34).
While she had previously restricted her involvement to providing material support to the war efforts, the attack officially brought the US into the war and troops were committed to fight the Axis alliance.
After this attack, American sympathy for the Chinese grew to unprecedented levels. The Americans began to view the Chinese as a people who had been bravely resisting Japanese aggression for years (Xiaohua 47). The American press developed a positive image of the Chinese who were portrayed as valiant fighters against Japanese aggression.
These pro-China sentiments culminated in the visit to the US and a subsequent address to congress by the Chinese First Lady, Mme. Chiang in 1943. The war relations led to a change in American attitudes towards the Chinese. Since the US and China were officially allies in the war against the German led Axis Alliance, American’s were urged to treat the Chinese with the justice and equality they deserved.
Because of this wave of enthusiasm fostered by the war, a bill to grant the Chinese rights to entry and citizenship in the US was introduced and calls made to repeal the Chinese Exclusion Acts (Xiaohua 51).
The relationship between the two countries increased China’s international prestige. Specifically, the US aided China in her quest to achieve the status of “Great Power” on a global stage (Shen and Mong 478).
The Roosevelt administration embarked on a strategy aimed at promoting China as a Great Power at par with other European powers. It was hoped that such an elevation should help to promote peace and prosperity in Eastern Asia. Because of these efforts, China took over the position of East Asian power and continued to exercise influence in the region even after the war.
Discussion and Conclusion
Bilateral relations between China and the US have varied through the decades from hostile to cooperative. The period between 1932 and 1945 was characterized by a cooperative relationship between the two countries.
The United States and China enjoyed a cordial relationship during this the war period with the two making a coalition to counter the forces of the Axis alliance. This cooperation was beneficial and it contributed to the defeat of Japan.
This paper set out to analyze the relationship between the United States and China during the Second World War. To this end, the paper has demonstrated that WW II led to the formation of a special wartime alliance between the two countries with the US adopting new foreign policies that were favorable to China.
The US made major contributions to China in an attempt to deter Japanese dominance in the region. This wartime cooperation led to better diplomatic relationships between the two nations.
Works Cited
Schaller, Michael. The U.S. Crusade in China: 1938 – 1945. NY: Columbia University Press, 1979.
Shen, Simon and Mong Cheung. “Reshaping nationalism: Chinese intellectual response towards Sino-American and Sino-Japanese relations in the twenty-first century”. Pacific Review 20.4 (2007): 475-497. Web.
Xiaohua Ma. “The Sino-American Alliance during World War II and the Lifting of the Chinese Exclusion Acts”. American Studies International 38.2 (2000): 39-62. Web.
The Second World War is the bloodiest event in human history. During the numerous battles of this war, the latest developments in the field of armaments and ammunition were used. These studies have led to the development of a new, powerful weapon capable of striking targets at long range. One example is the V-2 rocket developed in Nazi Germany in 1942 (Hamilton, 2018). Due to its distance and power, these weapons became a means of intimidating people during the war and desirable for other countries such as the USA and USSR. The V-2 rocket was influential not only in the Second World War but also shaped the concept of the future of the US Army and is the prototype for many modern weapons.
V-2 Rocket Brief History
Despite the negative role that the V-2 rocket played in the war, it is essential to emphasize that this invention is an example of human intelligence and served as an engine for discoveries and developments. As Hamilton (2018) states, “Using a potent mix of ethyl alcohol and liquid oxygen fuel, the V-2 became the first man-made object to reach space” (p. 12). The V-2 was designed by the German engineer Wernher von Braun, whom the Wehrmacht had decided to acquire for war purposes. The V-2 was launched in 1942 and was used in the final phase of the war in 1944 (Hamilton, 2018). After the end of World War II, the development and technology of Nazi Germany related to the missile were acquired by USA and USSR.
V-2 Rocket During the War
At the beginning of the Second World War, the range of weapons for all participating countries was significantly limited. Given the vast geography of the European continent, as well as water objects such as the La Manche channel separating Britain, fighting was a challenge for Nazi Germany. Hitler needed weapons that could hit targets such as London from a distance. Therefore, the situation changed after the invention of the V-2 rocket, a long-range weapon. Notably, the flight time for this rocket to London was only five minutes (Hamilton, 2018). Among the main reasons for using these weapons is the terror of the civilian population. According to Hamilton (2018), “It flew so high and fast that there was no warning and no way to shoot it down” (p. 15). Feeling that the war’s defeat was possible, Hitler and his army began to use such methods to break people’s spirits and hope and demonstrate Nazi Germany’s power.
The Influence of the Rocket on the Outcome of World War II
Notably, although the V-2 missile became the most powerful weapon of World War II, it failed to turn the tide in favor of Nazi Germany. The Allies achieved victory over Hitler on the battlefield, leading to his country’s surrender. However, it is important to stress that the V-2 rocket made a powerful impression on the world community, as it became the first weapon of this type. The devastations left by the missile in London and other English cities were catastrophic. The V-2 rocket’s power allows it to destroy entire city blocks (Morgan, 2020). According to Angelo and Todd (2019), “Fortunately, the V-2 rocket arrived too late to change the outcome of World War II in Europe” (p. 63). Consequently, it is important to emphasize that the Allied forces managed to defeat Nazi Germany before Hitler could develop mass production of V-2 missiles. One possible reason for ending the war as quickly as possible was to prevent mass terror and a turning point in the war using V-2 Missiles by Nazi Germany.
V-2 Rocket in Today’s US Army
After the end of World War II, not only the USSR but also the United States of America tried to acquire various technologies developed in Nazi Germany, including the V-2 Rocket. Countries understood that such weaponry would not only be a reason for non-aggression by other countries but would serve as an impetus for developing the country’s various weapons and defense industries. Consequently, the V-2 Rocket was one of the catalysts for The Cold War between the USA and the USSR (Morgan, 2020). It is important to emphasize that the Americans recruited about 1,500 German specialists who worked on the V-2 Rocket, together with its creator, Wernher von Braun (Morgan, 2020). The Americans had no such technology, and a man like von Braun needed to help them. As a result, the V-2 missile not only influenced today’s US army but significantly developed the technological capabilities of the United States in space technology. This missile became a catalyst for the development of US rockets and missiles. It led to significant investments in the improvement of new missile-related technologies in the modern US army.
Shaping the Air Defense Artillery Branch of the US Army
The V-2 Rocket had a significant, albeit indirect, influence on the formation of the US Army’s modern Air defense artillery branch. As mentioned in previous paragraphs, the Americans have acquired many of the technologies related to this missile and have invested in the invention and production of their rockets. This experience allowed a thorough study of the technology and behavior of this weapon, its trajectory, distance, blast radius, and other aspects of the V-2. The obtained data formed the basis for the creation of an effective system of air defense artillery. A typical example of such a system is the MIM-104 Patriot, a surface-to-air missile system designed in 1969 (David et al., 2023). Such weapons systems are based on a careful study of the systems themselves and the features of a potential target for the downing, a ballistic missile. Therefore, with detailed information about the V-2 Rocket, it is possible to invent the most appropriate air defense that will be able to eliminate such a threat.
In addition, the United States uses V-2 technologies in various applications that provide the necessary data, including for improving the country’s space capabilities. As David et al. (2023) state, “the US Army (USA) and US Navy (USN) conducting similar programs using V-2 rockets or balloon flights” (p. 254). It is noteworthy that the study of space technology also plays a vital role in creating a high-quality and efficient air defense system in the US, particularly the Artillery Branch of the US Army.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is important to stress that historical experience can form a qualitative foundation for improving the country’s military and defense capabilities. Although the V-2 rocket, created in Germany, is an example of scientific and technological progress, it brought a significant number of casualties during World War II. It became the most potent weapon of the period, and its technology was in demand for decades after the war. Using the V-2 rocket today, the US Army can create efficient systems of air defense and, most importantly, explore other industries critical to human development, such as space exploration.
References
Angelo, J., & Todd, D. (2019). A to z of scientists in space and astronomy, updated edition. Infobase Holdings.