Idealism refers to the philosophical theory that ideas are the only reality. It involves the elevated quality of believing that ideas should be pursued and thinking of things in their ideal form rather than the way they are (Rockmore 30). I disagree with the philosophy of idealism for a number of reasons. First, I believe that it is very important to accept facts about life. The reason for this is that it helps one to live consciously, knowing the importance of values such as honesty, reliability, and trust, among others (Rockmore 41). In addition, accepting the fact that everyone will die at some point plays a crucial role in making life more meaningful and purposeful.
Second, I disagree with this philosophy because there is a need to favor practicality when it comes to doing certain things in life. One of the factors that make some people more successful than others is their ability to assess the practicality of something before trying it out or investing resources in it (Rockmore 80). This means that being realistic with certain aspects of life or facts about the plausibility of something helps in reducing pain, losses, and dented self-confidence. Third, I disagree with this philosophy because a culture of high-mindedness can easily lead someone into believing that other people are always wrong. This can have drastic negative effects on an individual inclined to this philosophy because they have a high chance of missing the most crucial aspects of a fulfilling life (Rockmore 81).
It is possible to make the world a better place. The reason for this is that God has blessed human beings with the essential resources, which play a crucial role in promoting development. For example, people can make the world a better place by choosing to trust and support each other. Second, the world can become a better place if people make it their own responsibility to use the available resources in a sustainable manner. Third, the world can become better if people love each other more by taking the problems of others as their own. Although I disagree with the philosophy of idealism, it is a fact that it managed to create a better world following the events of World War I. For example, the development of the telegraph technology was because of an individual who had an idea, believed in it, and chose to pursue it. The results of that belief were very good and continue to make life better in the 21st Century (Rockmore 100). Second, the thought about the threatened status quo among the European powers help to bring unity across Europe, which played a crucial role in promoting sustainable development. Third, the ideas of stopping the spread of nationalism and liberalism across Europe helped to bore the reality regarding the importance of unity, peace, and cooperation between the countries.
Works Cited
Rockmore, Tom. Hegel, Idealism, and Analytic Philosophy. Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2005. Print.
Conventionally, the UAE had not been under colonialism; however, the Trucial States were subject to the Britain colonizers. The colonial masters were keen to maintain their territorial boundaries. Prior agreement by Arab leaders and the British government prevented any other power from entering the state. During the decline of the pearling industry, the British were highly vigilant to sustain the existing regional trend of alienation amongst leaders and the people.
After the war search for oil started in the 1950s, oil was struck in commercial quantities offshore from Abu Dhabi. Export facilities were constructed, and shipment started improving the infrastructure across the Trucial States. The influx of foreign men with construction companies ensured increased security for workers at the mines. The provision of employment increased with the development of oil companies. The British authorities felt the mandate to care for the people in this region by developing the Trucial States. Some of the members in the foreign office had gained experience after working in the Sudanese civil service. The foreigners were ready to help in improving the living standards of the people.
However, economic decline and reduced sale of pearls led to a loss of income and lowered the living standards of the people of Trucial states. The funds planned for developing the cities were alternatively channeled to other priority needs, thus derailing development. The formation of the UAE federation was spearheaded by Abu Dhabi. The federation was funded from the sale of oil by the Trucial States. The British political agency transformed into the British embassy and became one of the fast-growing diplomatic missions, which marked the end of the imperial era.
Works Cited
“The Beginning of the Post-Imperial Era for the Trucial States from World War I to the 1960s.” Abu Dhabi, the United Arab Emirates and the Gulf Region: Fifty Years of Transformation, by Frauke Heard-Bey, Gerlach Press, Berlin, Germany, 2017, pp. 126–130.
Born on July 21, 1889, Ernest Hemingway grew up in Illinois and later joined the military before winning the Nobel Peace Prize. His great pieces of literature include The Old Man and the Sea, To have and have Not, The Sun Also Rises, and A Movable Feast, among other aesthetic works of art. Hemingway’s diversity in different fields within the scope of volunteering during World War I, failed relationships, boxing stints, and journalism is believed to have equipped him with the necessary skills to become a great writer. This paper unmasks Ernest Hemingway’s personality in relation to his experience in World War I, coupled with how it affected his writings.
Ernest Hemingway’s personality and how the WWI influenced it
Ernest Hemingway is perceived as an individual of contrasting personalities characterized by mood swings that tend to influence his decisions, especially in his line of writing. His self-esteem comes out as shaky, as portrayed by instances of confidence replaced by a lack of trust within a relatively short period. This aspect saw him marry and divorce a couple of times during the First World War. Hemmingway connects with Wilson-Harris in The Sun Also Rises. Knight posits, Wilson-Harris “is one among the gallery portraits of those who became members of the Lost Generation due to World War I” (108). Hemmingway, just like Wilson-Harris, was a member of the Lost Generation.
He comes out as an individual that seeks self-glorification. In 1921, Hemmingway decided to leave for France together with his wife, Hadley Richardson. Mitchell posits, “Boxing was a useful way of drawing attention to himself” (8). After failing to join the military, he decided to go to France and pursue his passion for boxing before joining the Lost Generation. Joining the army for him implied that he would portray his strength in the battlefields, but his failure did not stop him from engaging in such activities. His personality could not allow failure, which explains why he joined boxing to recompense his failure in the military.
Ernest Hemingway is promiscuous. His promiscuity manifests in his failure in conjugal matters and romance. Women seem to catch his eyes even in his writings, thus implying that he admires women to the extent that they can disrupt his writing. In a café at St Michel, he describes the complexity of a beautiful woman, and he is tempted to approach her before he realizes she is waiting for someone else. He confesses, “I looked at her, and she disturbed me and made me very excited” (Hemingway 17). This aspect depicts his desire and attitude towards women resulting in his four marriages, some of which ended in divorce. Therefore, it is evident that his failure to join the military due to an eye defect during the WW I subjected him to pressure to conquer the romantic world, only to fail a number of times.
As an enthusiastic individual, Hemingway was able to enhance his language skills in French. Mitchel posits, “One useful by-product of Hemingway’s enthusiasm for boxing and other sporting events was rapid improvement in his French language skills” (10). The persistence and enthusiasm showed by Hemmingway in his effort to learn French through reading sports articles can be termed as remarkable. His efforts can also be associated with his desire not to fail in his new line of profession, viz. writing, after he stumbled in joining the military.
Hemingway’s Sentiments in the Lost Generation
Ernest Hemingway’s contribution to the works of the Lost Generation is evident. While working in France for the Toronto Star as a correspondent, the survivors of World War I was termed as the Lost Generation due to the adversities they went through. In this light, Hemmingway took part in writing literary texts alongside other writers such as Gertrude Stein in the Lost Generation group.
However, his emotions and perceptions, as depicted in the literary works, have elicited mixed reactions, thus prompting an analysis of his sensitivity or cold-heartedness in this case. The events of World War I and Hemmingway’s personal experiences seemed to have an impact on his writings as he sought to establish himself alongside great writers in the Lost Generation, thus portraying his sensitivity. Apparently, “The experience of war also had a great influence on the Lost Generation’s attitudes towards other generations” (Toker 25). Therefore, they became alienated.
Hemmingway’s drinking behavior and his fellows evoked sensitive reactions, as seen in the stories that they wrote in the Lost Generation. The insight that Hemingway brought to the Lost Generation indicated that the tribulations that he had gone through early in the World War I period were extreme. This aspect was evident as Hemingway wrote pessimistic literature that was attributed to the failure in his relationships and enlisting in the US military. He asked Ford why he was drinking with him. He replied, “I’m drinking with you as a promising young writer” (Hemmingway 79). This aspect portrays his love for brandy and the social gathering he had with fellow writers.
Moral decadence during and after World War I was part of Hemingway’s life. His indulgence in alcohol, together with his colleagues from the Lost Generation team, depicted an image that the society was rotten. Wilson-Harris values are lacking in vitality, and he seeks to replace them with new values and bring more significance to his personality (Knight 108). The detriments of World War I cultivated a sense of lack of responsibility, thus resulting in decadence. The elements of the immoral society are clearly presented in the Lost Generation’s works. Thus, the literature by Hemingway after World War I had a great impact on his subsequent works, especially in The Lost Generation, as his personality changed from time to time due to personal life events that changed his view of life.
How Hemingway’s Personality Influences His Literature
Hemingway’s consistent use of dialog in his literary works was the distinctive attribute of his style. Known as an individual who loves engaging others in meaningful conversations, he used the “inaccrochable” style in his writing, whereby sentimental ideas were published in the Lost Generation. He says, “I would sometimes try to get Miss Stein to talk about books” (Hemmingway 57). As can be seen, Hemingway sought advice from his good friend, Stein, who engaged him in a dialog on how to enhance his skills as a writer, thus leading to the formation of the Lost Generation. The writers of that period used a new style of writing as pioneered by Hemingway.
Short and concrete bits characterized literature by Hemingway. This element of writing could be associated with his brief professional stints in journalism, short conjugal relationships, and military experience. The need to drive his points in a precise manner that could be easily comprehended demonstrated his sensitivity towards an aspect of life, such as homosexuality. He briefly describes a friend’s place as a “gay flat” (Hemmingway 33). He carries on with this style in his succeeding novels.
The personality traits possessed by Hemingway throughout his life were part of his literary episodes, as characters seem to take after him. Wilson-Harris’ indulgence in alcohol, love for fishing, and a liking for banter enabled him to cope well with Jake and Bill (Knight 108). In addition, Knight notes that Hemingway “suggests that the war was a crisis for Wilson-Harris” (108). Similarly, the war was devastating to Hemmingway, just as it was to Wilson-Harris. As an individual who appreciated diversity, he used some of his experiences and attitudes on various aspects of his life in stories such as The Sun Also Rises. His artistic mastery enabled him to bring his diverse and ever-changing personalities into his fictitious works that earned him respect as one of the best writers in the US after World War I.
Conclusion
Ernest Hemingway was a great writer, as seen in his artistic works of literature. His personal experiences seemed to shape his style in writing, coupled with how he viewed aspects of life. His personality, in particular, played a significant role in facilitating his writing career since alternating characters characterized it. His movement from one location to another, the First World War, and his sexual relationships gave him different perspectives of viewing the various aspects of life. Consequently, this aspect resulted in remarkable literary texts that have influenced writers up to date.
Works Cited
Hemingway, Ernest. A Movable Feast, New York: Simon and Schuster, 2009. Print.
Knight, Kark. “Hemingway’s The Sun also Rises.” The Explicator 50.2 (1992): 107-109. Print.
Mitchell, Lawrence. “Ernest Hemingway: In the Ring and Out.” The Hemingway Review 31.1 (2011): 7-23. Print.
Toker, Alpaslan. “Ernest Hemingway’s Characters In The Sun Also Rises Trapped Within The Vicious Circle of Alienation.” Journal of Academic Studies 14.56 (2013): 17-34. Print.
Following the publication of the scholarly works such as the Great War and Women’s Consciousness by Claire Tylee’s, other feminist scholars such as Angela K. Smith emerged to provide an expanded investigation and a critical assessment of various writings on the roles of women in the First World War authored by women scholars.
While Women Writings on The First World War provide an anthology of manuscripts, which are not published addressing various political voices of women struggling to live in a society dominated by male chauvinism, the book The Second Battlefield: Women, Modernism, and the First World War evaluates and/or assesses various terrains that women walked through during the First World War.
This assessment helps in laying a theoretical background on the contributions that are made by women in the development of literature on war history. The evaluation and assessment are conducted in relation to the stingy and scholarly troublesome concept of modernism.
In The Second Battlefield: Women, Modernism, and the First World War, Smith develops various themes related to women’s contributions in war with particular reference to the First World War.
The first theme is the connection of writings of women on the subject of the First World War and the modernism theoretical constructs. Another important theme is the need for placing emphasis on gender issues that are prevalent in the modern world upon drawing from the role of women in the social developments showcased during the First World War.
Development of the two themes is supported by information drawn from a myriad of letters coupled with unpublished diaries. The selection of sources to support scholarly arguments introduces major weaknesses in terms of reliability of sources to give credible information to the arguments in a bid to provide solid scholarly evidence supporting the claims advanced by Smith.
However, thematic issues developed in the book are essential in helping to evaluate the roles played by women since the First World War in shaping the world order in the context of modernist theoretical paradigms.
This way, the book aids in triggering different paradigms for searching new mechanisms of women’s expression in a free and transparent society prescribed by the theories of modernism. This gives the book the strength of contributing to scholarly development of women’s contribution in modernism.
In the development of the first theme, Smith depicts the First World War as the foundation of the development of feminism. She is quick to point out her inclination on feminist arguments by subscribing to the school of thought of equal social economic and political rights of women, which were brought into societal limelight during and after the First World War.
She views various writings on the roles of women in the First World War as essentially reflecting and supporting the concepts of female modernism. This assertion is evident based on her argument that war experiences “influenced the development of female modernist practice, opening up a pathway for a diverse range of different experimental discourses.
This case implies that, through the First World War experiences, women recognized that they had equal abilities tantamount to men. This line of argument may be challenged. History has records of women playing behind-war-scene roles during wars. Such roles include the provision of nursing services to wounded soldiers.
However, this counter argument does not imply that women were not engaged in direct combats during the First World War. The dispute is that, for Angela K. Smith’s argument that First World War laid crucial backgrounds to the development of modern feminist theoretical constructs advocating for equality of men and women to be factual, it is important to provide statistical and quantitative data. This provides evidence for an equal ability of women and men to participate in war with specific reference to First World War beyond any doubt.
Smith sees women’s writings during and soon after the First World War as significant contributors to the bridging of the realist school of thought of the nineteenth century and the experimental and practical works of the 1920s. This perhaps reveals why she relies on diaries and epistles as her sources.
She claims that such sources “contain within them elements of stylistic change as their writers strive to find ways to articulate an experience, which cannot be easily condensed into convectional language.” This belief is simplistic and one that is anchored on weak evidential foundations.
It suggests that the First World War led to the emergence of formal innovation, which facilitated the cognition of women’s abilities that had long been shrouded. For instance, she sees the work of women writers such as La Motte together with the work of Borden as portraying concepts of modernism accidentally.
In particular, she argues that the work of Borden reflects high self-consciousness, a literary realization, which requires scholarly credit. However, this perception does not consider the familiarity of women with experimentalist works advanced by Gertrude Stein together with Amy Lowell. Hence, she fails to accord justice to their works, which displayed incredible writing brilliance.
Amid the criticisms for development of the first theme, Smith writes from safer grounds by choosing to analyze the various themes reflected in the women’s writings on the First World War to unveil the concepts of modernism. Chapter 5 is dedicated to the evaluation of diverse women authors portraying their roles in the First World War. This creates various juxtapositions.
For instance, the works of May Sinclaire are not sufficiently addressed, yet she was a significant contributor of modernism that is celebrated today. Her focus is on developing arguments on the roles of women during the First World War.
Therefore, in the effort to advance the argument on the development of modernism school of thought, an intensive error is created in presenting May Sinclaire as a modernist writer whose roles and heroism in the First World War era were only recognized just before she died. In chapter 6, she explores the work of Katherine Mansfield and others presenting the theme of domestic imagery.
This capacity to run through a range of works developed by eloquently known women writers and feminists is non-canonical and unproductive. However, it is through deployment of this strategy that she is able to explore and provide expansive parameters for evaluation of various approaches to female modernism. This way, readers are able to traverse various writings of women during the First World War to determine how they link up with the concepts of modernism as they relate to feminism.
The second theme developed by The Second Battlefield: Women, Modernism, and the First World War is the need for placing central emphasis on gender issues that are prevalent in the modern world upon drawing from the historical roles of women in First World War together with social developments.
In this quest, she emphasizes her orthodox approach to the selection of her various materials reflecting this theme in the effort to exhibit the largest possible degree of experience of women in contributing to social progression of the society. This position is a major strength in her work to address the prevalent modern issues in the advancement of modernism issues.
Her work captures texts that are representative of the broad class boundaries. This means that the work of Smith passes the test for representation of the overall arguments on the development of women since the First World War amid cultural and geographical divides. This position is an essential characteristic for reliability and validity of a scholarly historical piece of work.
In the selection of the texts investigated by Smith, a major weakness is introduced. In her arguments against the segregation and perception of gender roles, not all women amid their class status are given sufficient attention. For instance, in chapter 4, Smith argues that women believed that, when the war broke, their only role was to oppose it since they had no other role to engage in the frontlines.
This was men’s responsibility, but not women who were also not recognized in the systems of governance. Indeed, according to Smith, women were life creators as opposed to destroyers. The perception of life destruction was far removed from their nature. However, she claims that women who took part in the front lines during the First World War altered the traditional belief.
She further adds that such women wrote letters and diaries from which she draws her evidence of the development of perspectives of modernism during the First World War. Such women were literate. Literacy was a reserve for middle and upper- middle class group of women in 1910s and 1920s. This raises the question on the roles of illiterate women in setting the background for addressing gender-related issues prevalent in the modernist theoretical constructs.
Women writers reflected in the book are essentially drawn from the upper-middle-class and the middle class in some instances. Many are also highly reputable in the historical writing profession. This raises the scholarly question of whether only women belonging to this societal class had the capacity to disapprove the fallacy of segregation and division of gender roles.
Did the low-class women have the ability to perform equally or out perform some men in some gender-centered roles? In the development of the argument in the text, Smith has emphasized feminist topics together with the styles of writing, which reflect the development of modernism during and after the First World War.
While this emphasis is crucial in enhancing the provision of a feminist text, which is highly informative, such emphasis acts also as a weakness. The selections are highly abbreviated. This makes them not useful for scholarly research.
Smith’s book The Second Battlefield: Women, Modernism, and the First World War is one of the books that reflect the theme of modernism. Such themes include the roles played by women in the First World War.
People interested in studies of history of the evaluation of women gender roles and/or how the subjects that have taken immense attention in the modern approaches to feminism relate to modernism will find the book worth reading.
Bibliography
Smith, Angela. The Second Battlefield: Women, Modernism, and the First World War. New York: Manchester University Press, 2000.
John Keegan was an author of British war history books. Besides, he was also a lecturer and a journalist. He was born on 15 May 1934 and died on 2 August 2012. His books cut across “the 14th to 21st century history of armed combats from air, maritime, land, and military warfare intelligences”. His books reflect themes of war psychology.
His major writings include Who Was Who in the World War II, Fields of Battle: The Wars for North America, The Iraq War, and The First World War among others.
In The First World War, John Keegan explores various war-related themes. One of the major themes is the manner in which the war progressed out of the failure of diplomacy and communication resulting in the escalation of bilateral disputes into a global conflict.
This theme is prevalent in all chapters. It is developed through narrations, analysis, and critical assessment of military conflicts in a fashion that is not anticipated of a person untrained in military operations. Keegan is also committed to narrating different events that took place in the Second World War where he shows how the different pieces fit together.
In developing the above two themes, Keegan relied on secondary materials as evidenced in the footnotes of the book. Hence, his book is not based on a first-hand experience on the first world events. Indeed, he was born in 1934, which is much later after First World War. Nevertheless, he narrates the events and military strategies of the First World War in a manner that reflects a first-hand experience in the war. Where could he have gotten this experience?
Is it from his father who served in the war? He is not clear on this issue. Through the vivid description of the First World War, military strategies and tactics prove that John Keegan is an expert in the field of military history. However, his sympathy and strong position that Britons were not defeated in the war gives an unbalanced account of the implications of the war. As he later proves in the book, many Britons lost their lives in the unnecessary war.
Based on its inclusion of legendary names in military such as Gallipoli, Sheds, and Somme, The First World War provides an incredible insight into the military tactics in the war especially the roles played by technology combined with geography in enhancing the success of combat attacks on targets.
Although Keegan’s book creates hilarious description of military operations in a manner that its readers envy, he is quick to establish his position on the First World War. He does this through inclusion of a humanistic perspective on the impacts of the war. For instance, he cites the names of people such as Nicholas II and Haig who made it possible for what he terms as “unnecessary war to build up.”
Referring the First World War as unnecessary gives a loose inference that Keegan did not support the war. Hence, he criticizes its inappropriateness in terms of having the repercussion of loss and devastation of human life. This position is important upon considering the need to respect people’s rights to life. However, the emergence of the bill of the right to people’s life across the globe is owed to the occurrence of the First and the Second World War.
In fact, the world civilization has been shaped for the past almost one century by the experiences of the First World War especially on matters of international relations, which focus on maintaining global peace via the global peace accord. In this extent, opposed to the Keegan’s view, the war was necessary. It acted as a tool for shaping the current state of global civilization.
Based on the above argument, it sounds reasonable enough to argue that the First World War does not only serve the purpose of providing historical accounts of successful and fateful military tactics and war intelligence but also the purpose of criticizing decisions to address multilateral and bilateral differences through military confrontations.
Keegan’s queries on the motivation of First World War makers such as Joffre and Haig support this inference, yet various events that translated to the war would have been curtailed “had prudence or common goodwill found a voice.” According to Keegan, the war was tragic since it claimed the lives of more than 10 million people globally while still destroying Europe’s “the benevolent and optimistic culture.” It also gave an opportunity for the occurrence of the Second World War.
Counterarguments offered by Keegan on the factor that contributed to First World War raise scholarly interrogatives. He argues that the war was unnecessary by attributing the rapture of bilateral differences, which could have otherwise been resolved through diplomatic efforts during the First World War, to war makers such as Haig and others. In a counterargument, he claims that these war makers did not send their troops deliberately in fatal battles.
Communication challenges made it impossible for them to evaluate the danger that was ahead in the battlefronts on the lives of the troops. Compared to other British war history books, this position portrays a practical explanation of why Britain was easily lured into war as early as 1914. However, Keegan used the theory of Gallipoli, Paachendaele, and Somme war disasters to explain other major war disasters during First World War.
To him, the decision to send troops into deadly war fields was informed by the ineptitude together with incompetence of generals akin to the poor garnering of military intelligence that was attributed to poor communication5. The question that emerges here is; how could the war have continued without attacks and retaliations?
According to Keegan, at the time when the First World War ended, three major empires felt its negative impacts. The Russian, Ottoman, and Hungarian empires had collapsed completely. He adds that devastation implications of war not only influenced the three empires. In fact, Europe was affected in such a severe way that its culture and political institutions still learn and/or remain informed by the First World War.
Keegan is quick to point out the weakness of the First World War’s historical coverage including his own composition. He highlights an immense sympathy for all people who fought for peace through undying efforts despite the fact that history did not record their contributions.
The second major theme explored by Keegan in his book The First World War is the narration of events that took place. The book documents Greek’s war campaigns together with the manner in which the allies almost lost the war. Accounts on France’s missions for evacuation of Britons from France together with other chronologies of the First World War happenings and/or how the different events fitted cutely together are also given an incredible treatment.
While giving the accounts for these events, he does not forget that he is dealing with military history. Therefore, he poses to provide a detailed explanation of what it implies by being a soldier who takes central locations in a battlefield. While this position offers an explanation for the realities that took place on the ground during the First World War, it also offers invaluable aspects, which make the book convey the central theme it was designed: to narrate the experiences of fighting in a global war.
Keegan explains that the war emerged from various decisions, which were not analyzed critically to evaluate their implications. He accuses the German generals of having instigated the war claiming that, not even one of them thought that simple incidences could have led to a global war.
Indeed, he writes that all military professionals who were caught up in the First World War “died in their thousands at Ypres not because of an ideal or self-sacrifice, but because it was expected of them and, in any case, there was no alternative.” The revelation establishes a major weakness of Keegan’s book. It scores highly in providing explanations on how the war initiated together with how it was an incident-gone-badly.
He plays the role of the involvements of the world’s superpowers in the initiation of the war claiming that they were only caught up in a conflict that was caused by German generals, Serbian nationalists, and Balkans. While the accounts of how the war began are solid, the story of how it was brought to a halt is weak.
The book is authored from a British dimension. It forms a memory for British soldiers whose success is not substantive to account for the human lives that were lost although they emerged winners. However, its political, cultural, and institutional relevance lives to date.
The First World War by John Keegan is a must-read book for people who are interested in military conflict studies. John Keegan is a great scholar in the military history. The book perhaps portrays him as the best military historian of the 21st century. It is authored in an elegant manner, thus carrying vivid details of the accounts of the First World War. It gives clear and omniscient explanations of military tactics.
The book gives thrilling narrations of the initiation of the First World War, records its impacts, discusses the manner in which it was executed, and sums by offering details on how the allies emerged the winners. The manner of writing of the book paints a clear picture that reflects accurately how the war unfolded on the ground. Through the description of the effects of the war on the lives, politics, and culture of Britons, the war sounds like a big mystery that engulfed the world.
However, according to Keegan, it could have been prevented from occurring. On reading the whole epilogue of the First World War, questions emerge why men and women agreed to fight under unspeakable war conditions. Why did it occur? Why did it occur for so long while leaders were aware of the large loss of human life on a daily basis?
Anyone seeking any response to these questions needs to read the full text of John Keegan The First World War. Keegan does not underrate these questions. Rather, he addresses them directly in details in a contemporary context such that any military history nonprofessional reader would find easy to synthesize.
Reference
Keegan, John. The First World War. London: Vintage, 2000.
The modern-day Middle East is a caricature of the aftermaths of the First World War. Approximately, twenty autonomous states, which fall under the umbrella of Middle East, still nurse the wound of the historical war (world’s first war).
These countries include Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Pakistan, Bahrain, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Israel, Qatar, Jordan, Turkey, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan Egypt and Sudan are still debatable if they belong to Asia or North Africa. During World War I, many nations especially those in the Middle East suffered political instability, social, and economic imbalance.
Nevertheless, the First World War spurred the technological development in Middle East nations. After the World War I, most of the countries were under colonialism; nevertheless, the departure of colonialists spurred civil wars, ethnic wars, boundary disputes, political uprisings, and subsequent economic decline that many of these nations fight to control.
Changes in the Middle East after the commencement of World War I
Power derangement was the worldwide impact of the First World War and Middle East was no exception. Furthermore, according to political analyst the genesis of the political upheavals in the modern day Middle East dates back in 1914 during the world war (Craig et al, 2009, P.20). The Ottoman Empire an influential political identity in the Middle East, which the Arabians defended, was the main target during the war.
Subsequently, after the empire crumbled, the Britain controlled Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Jordan, and Palestine among other countries in the Middle East (Magnus, 2005, p.40). The involvement in the war by the countries from the Middle East not only led to loss of power but also spurred the economic decline and created social problems.
The second change set in by the First World War was the technology development in the Middle East. Britain, Germany, and France had adopted the use of powerful machines like guns, bombs and nuclear weapons, which the people of Middle East acquired. The forces/ people from Middle East who participated in the war acquired operating and construction skills for the deadly weapons (Wilbur, 1991, p.50).
Consequently, the current technological trend especially in weapons is now on the rise in the Middle East. Therefore, the war led to the acquisition of military personnel, weapons, and fighting strategies in the Middle East.
The third change set by the First World War is the psychological torture and imbalance by the military personnel and citizens of Middle East. Deaths, insecurity, and family loss led to the victims, civilians, and military to undergo psychological trauma.
Moreover, the abrupt change of power from monarchical to colonialism negatively affected the citizens of Middle East. Consequently, the occupation of Middle East by foreigners stimulated anger and frustrations among the citizens.
Lastly, racism and ethnic bias started immediately as the world uprising commenced. The creation of sanctions by Britain and France, the crush of the Ottoman Empire and the occurrence of the Armenian genocide exacerbated racial conflicts and ethnicity in the Middle East (Niall, 2006, p.30). Therefore, the occurrence of the First World War was the genesis of all the social, economic, and political problems as expounded next.
The rise of each Middle East country and historical overview since the end of the World War I
Though not fully involved in the First World War, Afghanistan was always in constant conflicts with the Greeks, Persians, British (Anglo-afghan war) and Mongols among others.
The major war that involved Russians in 1980, led to the death and displacement of many Afghanis. Since the end of World War I up to now, Afghanistan has not known peace, civil wars and terrorism have contributed to the poor economic, social, and political stability.
On the contrary, Bahrain, which was a British colony (after the First World War) up to 1971, has experienced an economic boom due to availability of political stability, tourism sector and petroleum industry. Although it contains immense natural resources, Iran is a state that has experienced political instability since the end of the First World War. However, it is currently struggling to implement political, economic, and social reforms.
Likewise, Iraq has experienced both civil and internally wars, but the fall of Saddam Hussein and control of political aggression by the U.S have led to transition.
Israel is a state that holds the landmarks of all the three main religions (Christianity, Muslim and Jewish) in the world. Nevertheless, ethnic clashes have led to political upheaval since the end of the first war. On the other hand, Jordan was a colony of Britain (after WWI) but gained independence in 1945, which led to the establishment of international trade and economic reforms.
In the same way, Lebanon became independent but civil wars due to political instability reigned for sometime. Currently, the state is struggling to reinstate political and economic reforms. Like Lebanon, after independence from Britain Pakistan has been in conflicts with the Indians over the Kashmir region but currently the political reforms and international treaties are in place to ensure there is peace.
Besides the Gulf War and colonialism that are now at bay, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar and Kyrgyzstan, are the few nations in the region, which are economically stable due to the presence of petroleum industry, modern infrastructures, and natural gas among others. However, Qatar is the nations with the highest income per capita in the Middle East region.
Turkey is a nation formed by Anatolian remnants after the fall of the Ottoman Empire. The nation has successfully adopted reforms, which have led to economic prowess.
Similarly, Saudi Arabia experiences political instability and economic growth from oil reserves since the end of the First World War. While Tajikistan and Syria after gaining independence from Soviet Union and the French respectively they have adopted economic, political, and social reforms that have led to the nation’s stability.
In addition, the independence of Turkmenistan and U.A.E from Soviet Union and Britain respectively, has led to the establishment of autonomous states with economic stability. Lastly, Yemen and Uzbekistan colonies of British and Soviet Union respectively have gained independence and due to possession of natural resources, their economic power is on the rise.
Conclusion
Although most of the countries in the Middle East are lucky to posses’ natural resources like gas, petroleum and minerals, the impact of the First World War I still holds back their economic growth.
Political instability and social problems like racism and ethnicity are some of the vices acquired during the first world, which the states struggle to control decades after the end of the war. However, a few of the states have put in place reforms to control the problems initiated by the First World War.
References
Craig, A. M., Graham, W. A., Kagan, D., Ozment, S., & Turner, F. M. (2009). The Heritage of World Civilizations. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Magnus, B. (2005). Reclaiming a Plundered past: archaeology and nation Building in modern Iraq. USA: University of Texas Press.
Niall, F. (2006). The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of The West. New York: Penguin Press.
Wilbur, C. L. (1991). Zeppelins of World War I. New York: Paragon Press
World War 1 that sparked on 28th July 1914 was caused by a number of intertwined factors; the sparking day was when Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated in Sarajevo.
The death of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne triggered anger, conflicts, and hostility that had stockpiled for decades among tribes in Central Europe. The stockpiled conflicts and hostility had been built by diplomatic clashes among the then Great Powers (Austria-Hungarian Empire, Italy, France, Great Britain, Germany, and Russia); the failed diplomacy can be traced since 1867, they created and left high tensions among the nations.
There are many versions that have been developed by historians and philosophers, however the most talked and agreed cause is the “One Thing Led to Another”. According to the concept Austro-Hungarian wanted to partake disciplinary measures upon Balkans; however the German repelled them as they wanted greater power and international influence. The move by German did not go well with Britain Navy army who responded by Dreadnought and greater warships.
France also desired to revenge against Germans following disastrous defeat in 1871; the defeat had created rising tension in France Army, they seemed to have been waiting for time to revenge. Japanese and Russian Military war in 1905 created the anxiety to restore some semblance of national prestige; the anxiety was high enough that it could be triggered to war.
The trigger took effect on the 28th July 1914 when every nation seemed to take different stand on the occasion; despite the action, it’s true that the underlying pressures and conflicts only find their path to be expressed unfortunately through war. Factors that led inexorably to World War 1 can be summed up as militarism, alliances, nationalism, and imperialism differences that prevailed among the early 20th century Great Powers.
In Western Europe, the war went till early 1920 however in the eastern side the war ended on 11:00 am GMT on November 11, 1918. The aftermath of the war was felt in economic, social, and cultural arenas in Africa, Europe, and Asia; there were also some effects on those countries that never got involved directly.
In a nutshell the effect can be classified as demolition of countries/territories, formation of international organizations that aimed at preventing any such future attacks, formation of new countries, creating of ideologies in people among others.
Before the end of war in 11th Nov. 1918, Germany lost approximately 523,000 people from hunger and war effect; during war there was what was referred to as blockade of Germany. Blockade of Germany was export restrictions by other war countries to Germany; Germany them depended on importation so the suffering was severe. In 1918, there was an outbreak of flue which was mistaken to be Spanish Flu; it is estimated that the viral disease claimed the lives of over 50 million people worldwide.
The cost involved in the war were much and had an effect on the fighting countries at the expense of economic , social, and political development of the fighting nations. For example the United Kingdom expense made the country to be a net borrower with approximately 40% its government spending being financed from debts. Inflation in Germany, Russia, and United Kingdom doubled between 1914 and 1920. High inflation and strained government spending lead to deterioration of living standards (Divine, Breen, Fredrickson, 2006).
How does Jim Crow emerge and evolve into the system of profound segregation?
Jim Crow Laws are United States of America local laws enacted between 1876 and 1956; the laws were enacted with the aim of mandating de jure racial segregation. The laws led to the believe, treatments, and accommodation that Black Americans were separate but equal to their counterparts White Americans.
According to the laws, Blacks were allowed to attend schools, have some economic activities, enjoy some social amenities but they were doing this not at the same facilities with the White Americans. They saw the introduction of some drinking places, public transport, segregation of restrooms for the whites and black Americans.
The name Jim Crow is not aperson’s name as it is likely to suggest; it was the subject of a song by Thomas Dartmouth “Daddy” Rice. Thomas Dartmouth “Daddy” Rice performed in black face and aimed at denigrating blacks through his songs; the song suggest some satisfaction that slaves had by their very nature of being slaves in a mockery manner.
The song gave the background of Jim Crow laws; in the laws as was legislated later suggested that there was no need to have Black-White marriages and any other sexual contact among the two.
In the event that a White was competing with a Black, the laws provided that the White has worn and should be crowned. In social and economic cycles, the interaction of the whites and Blacks was controlled by the laws that neither of the groups was allowed to cross the other party’s path.
Jim Crow laws emerged in the period of 1865 to 1877 where federal laws provided rights to vote and contend for a seat to both White and Black Americans. However the Whites used paramilitary to intimidate and prevent the Blacks from voting; the end result was conservative white democrats dominating in every southern state.
In 1877 national election, there were efforts to gain the support of the southerners; to get the support of the black Jim Crow laws were legislated to create some segregation of black and white.
The way the laws were enacted was in a manner likely to suggest that the blacks have been given some rights and privileges that they never enjoyed under the federal laws.
The rights and privileges were seen as shadow of the Whites as it involved elements like being allowed to go to school, medical care, games, and clubs but the facilities were of lower class than the ones the White Americans went. This created tension among them where the whites were supported by the law to behave in a manner likely to suggest they are superior beings than the Blacks Americans.
The civil rights act of 1964 declared most “separate but equal” (Jim Crow) laws as unconstitutional; the legislation aimed at creating an equal playing ground where both the whites and the Blacks would be regarded as Americans and not be treated differently. Despite the advocacy against the laws, there are some elements of its practice in South America where some whites believe the Blacks are the reason why they suffer thus they need to be treated differently(Divine, Breen, Fredrickson, 2006).
Causes of the Great Depression and how New Deal programs attempt to solve the underlying flaws of the economy?
Great Depression is termed as one of the worst economic downfall to have faced the United States of America; the depression was not caused by a single parameter but by combination of different factors. The causes of the depression are thought to include the stock market clash on October 29 1929; after the clash, two month down the lane stockholders lost approximately $40 billion dollars.
In 1930, there were over 6000 American banks that failed; the failure was followed by huge losses as the banks had not insured their savings.
Those banks that survived were not willing to offer loan facilities thus the economic development and confidence in financial institutions was lost. With the stock market clash and the reduced loan facilities, the Americans were not willing to spend the little saving they had, the net effect was reduction in purchasing across the board.
Other than the economic hardship of the 1929 and 1930, there was drought in Mississippi Valley in 1930 (the drought made the area be nicknamed “The Dust Bowl”) which made people not able to pay their taxes. When taxes are not paid, the government has no finances to spend in the countries development.
As a policy to save domestic companies, the American government introduced a tax called Smoot-Hawley Tariff on imports, the tariff made importation expensive and trading countries shied off from trading with America, the net effect was economic retaliation.
The New Deal policy was an American economic strategy between 1933 and 1936 under President Franklin D. Roosevelt to respond to Great Depression issues. The program aimed at implementing fast and efficient mechanisms to restore people’s living standards and gain confidence with the economy, the policy was working on 3R’s policy (Relief, Recovery, and Reform).
Programs termed as relief focused on the poor and unemployed; under the program the government created jobs for them and looked for ways that people would become self reliant with their businesses. Under the recovery programs aimed at returning the challenged economy to its original state as a growing and strong world economy. Under the policies the government was writing off debts and financing institutions that have succumbed to the Great Depression.
When recovery and relief programs were operating as had been planned, the government embarked on aggressive reforms in policies and institutions in the efforts to ensure such an occurrence will not occur. Some of the institutions addressed by reforms programs include the financial sector, insurances, and large multinationals and manufacturing companies. It was also agreed that policies enacted in the economy be vetted closely to ensure they are quality and can stand economic downturns (Divine, Breen, Fredrickson, 2006).
Compare the leadership styles and policies of Theodore Roosevelt and Franklin Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt was the 26th United States President, he lived October 27, 1858 – January 6, 1919; the leadership style adopted by the president was that that involved the people solve their own problems. He emphasized on equality in resources distribution, power, and opportunities for all citizens regardless their ethnic background.
The leader emphasized on the need to conserve American Heritage; he is remembered for having managed to conserve f 5 national parks, 18 national monuments, and 150 National Forests.
Although Theodore Roosevelt had no problem with other nationalists in America, he emphasized the need to Americanize. In most of his speech he made it clear that any nationalist who qualified and was willing to become an American was welcomed to do so but in the event someone does not want to become an American, then he was opposed to such a person being in the territory.
During his time he made the role of a president felt in the economy where he used his character and knowledge to make decisions that had to be followed to the letter. He is one of American presidents who attended churches and believed in God; he thus advocated for just, integrity, and an economy without corruption.
Franklin Roosevelt (January 30, 1882 – April 12, 1945) was a charismatic leaders who addressed United States political and economic matters during the era of world war and economic crisis. His charisma was seen in how he physically got involved in matters of economic development and creating strong army in the country to protect its borders.
According to the leaders style the government should act only as a wheel to an economy but the people were the real drivers of an economy. He redefined the role of government in an economy and advocated for social programs that aimed at addressing a certain social program. When making decisions, he was one president who wanted to be involved in every process however in his turn he involved his subordinates when making decisions.
Theodore Roosevelt and Franklin Roosevelt ruled in different eras however their leadership styles have a lot in common. Both the presidents emphasized on the role the government should play to facilitate economic, social, and political development in the economy. Again they were cautious of the role that citizens play in the economic system of America. The main difference of the leaders is seen on how they approached making fast and quick decisions.
Theodore Roosevelt never had the need to consult when coming up with a decision but made a decision and stood by it; the style can be termed to have some form of soft dictatorship. On the other hand, Franklin Roosevelt believed in consultation; when making fast decisions, he would consult experts and never minded consulting his oppressors. As long as someone had what it took to improve the American economy, Franklin Roosevelt was willing to work with him or her (Divine, Breen, Fredrickson, 2006).
Discuss the history of the working class movement from the end of the Civil war through the Taft-Hartley Act
The end of American Civil wars in 1865 saw the emergence of labor movements; the movement were aimed at reducing oppression of workers and advocated for better packages and good working conditions. The first labor union was founded in 1866 called National Labor Union (NLU); it was followed by the Order of the Knights of St, Crispin in an year later.
The movements were against the introduction of machinery in the shoes production industry; they claimed that the introduction would lead to loss of jobs. In 1870 with the development of railways transport system, there was the emergence of Railroad brotherhoods; the movement aimed at addressing issues specific in the industry.
They looked into issues like medical and insurance packages to drivers and conductors. In 1916, the consolidated their power and threatened to conduct a national strike; they included movements like the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen, the Order of Railway Conductors the Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen, and Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers (BLE). With the threat the government ordered for a ten hour pay for an eight hour day job.
In 1935, New York Senator Robert F. Wagner sponsored a bill that seeks to allow private employers to react on their employees who formed labor unions. The bill seeks to protect employers from oppression from their employees although it came with some exemptions.
The bill excluded employees who were covered by Railways labor Union, government employees, and agricultural employees. The second world war saw the developments of labor unions; during the time 36% American working class joined labor unions this was a rise from 8.7 million in 1940 to over 14.3 million in 1945.
The end of Second World War in August 1945 came the wave of workers strikes demanding better salaries and better working conditions; the strikes were led by labor unions that negotiated on behalf of their members. In 1945 United Auto Workers Union (UAW) sent their members (GM employees) to a strike; 180,000 employees participated in the national wide strike where they demanded better working conditions and wages.
In January the following year, the striking GM employees were joined by almost half a million steelworkers, 150,000 packinghouse workers, and approximately 200,000 electrical workers and numerous other small industry employees. The 1945/1946 strengthened labor unions but weakened the economy.
The United States government decided to enact a legislation which would be an improvement of Wagner Act; the law aimed at creating an alternative method of solving employment contracts disputes other than strikes; the bill was called the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 or Labor-Management Relations Act.
Labor-Management Relations Act was sponsored by Senator Robert Taft and Representative Fred Hartley; the act aimed at creating better platform where employers and employees would debate and solve their disputes in more diplomatic manner than striking. However the bill did not face-out workers striking right but outline some prohibited labor practices (Divine, Breen, Fredrickson, 2006).
Reference
Divine, A., Breen, H., Fredrickson, G. (2006). America Past and Present, Volume II (since 1865). New York: Longman.
The aspects of democracy are evident in the America’s context. This is notable especially during and just after the First World War. Democracy is a kind of regime in which all eligible citizens are allowed to contribute to the decisions of the state. This paper discusses the extent to which America made democracy realistic (locally and abroad), during and just after the First World War as indicated before.
It is crucial to understand the provisions of democracy as well as its elements. America is one of the countries that have nurtured the establishment, ratification, and embracement of democracy to extreme levels. At home, the country has a well-structured constitution to ensure that the American citizens enjoy their democratic rights.
Previously, the country experienced racial discrimination, gender inequality, abuse of power, and unquestionable administrative trends. These have changed remarkably. For instance, nowadays, black Americans can hold executive offices, a fact that could not be allowed before.
The aspects of democracy have evolved in numerous sectors of the government. Additionally, election provisions have been set in regard to democracy. Americans have been mandated by the law to exercise their voting rights among other considerable provisions.
Precisely, it is vital to note that the country has made remarkable steps to enact and embrace democracy. These provisions emerged during and immediately after the world war when the country realized the significance of every stakeholder in the governance mechanisms. Democracy has also spread to other countries despite the challenges.
However, the U.S. has hardly inculcated democratic objectives in the Middle East. It is crucial to understand why such challenges exist despite the quest to have conventional democratic provisions. Nonetheless, America has made democracy more a reality both at home and abroad.
The country has initiated various programs meant to enhance democracy in its territories. Other nations affiliated to the U.S. enjoy credible support on their endeavours to establish, enact, and embrace democracy. It is vital to understand the provisions associated with democracy as indicated earlier.
For instance, the U.S. has established and supported a proficient Human Rights department to propel the aspects of democracy within the country. Human rights activists and other relevant lobby groups have been established to ensure that the country achieves its pre-established mandates on democracy. There are considerable challenges that the country faces in its efforts to promote democracy in other countries. This has been pertinent in numerous countries where dictatorship and bad governance still reigns.
Various countries, which participated in the First World War, have made considerable steps in the context of democracy. Viable leadership styles, economic growth, freedom of speech, and human rights provisions are major indicators of democracy. America has spearheaded these provisions since the commencement of the First World War.
At home, Americans are enjoying a considerable democratic environment. This indicates how the country has made remarkable milestones in its efforts to impel internal democracy. The country serves as an example to other conservative nations that have not yet believed in the provisions of democracy.
America embraces a special kind of governance, power sharing provisions, and association of the public in the critical national issues. These are true indicators of democracy despite the looming challenges noticeable in the entire context. Conclusively, America’s endeavours to ratify democracy have been evident. The country has a considerable history on issues regarding democracy.
There are numerous authors who have endeavoured to identify and describe the factors which triggered the First World War. John Merriman has given an account of the events which prepared the ground for the war to start. In his description of the war, it is clear that Europe played a key role towards the formation of the war alliances.
Europe is said to have formed a series of alliances which were later used in the war. It was the ideological compromise between France and Russia, which started in the twentieth century that led to the war alliances. The following are the key factors that sparked the First World War.
The Causes of the First World War
First, the growth of nationalism in Europe was largely untamable. The French Revolution caused a strong sense of nationalism, which was spread in many parts of Europe. Ideologies of sovereignty dominated the minds of European leaders. It, therefore, became a duty of European leaders at the time to spread the wave of nationalism in other parts of the world. In so doing, nationalism formed a strong political force which eventually led to the First World War.
Secondly, the unresolved conflicts in Europe were a propelling force of the First World War. John Merriman gives an elaborate account of the years preceding the war. In his analysis, the factors which caused the war were intertwined. The four decades, which preceded the war, were marred by hostility and conflicts between different states in Europe. A period of militarism was created.
The statesmen further formed alliances to support their militarism agenda. The weapons and army training was not enough, and alignments of military power were formed. The imperialism factors could not be ruled out at the initial stages of the war. The war emanated from the Central Europe and later spread to other parts of the world.
Thirdly, the factors mentioned above were aggravated by the existence of diplomatic problems between the superpowers of Europe by the time. As John Merriman puts it, diplomatic clashes created a period of tension between the European superpowers. The diplomatic clashes occurred at a time when there was a crucial imbalance of power in Europe.
The tensions created over the territory of the Balkans were a spark to the war which had long been prepared for. The untamed competition between Russia, Serbia and Austria-Hungary eventually caused other European powers to join the war.
Fourth, the period before the war was attributed to countries accumulating wealth through the control of overseas colonies. United Kingdom and France were extremely wealthy and powerful through colonial control of trade and resources. Russia and other European countries had similar ambitions, which were repeatedly frustrated by the United Kingdom. This created tensions, which gave birth to the war.
The Role of America Entering the War and Russia’s Exit
During the initial stages of the war, America maintained a neutral stand. The American participation in the war was caused by the German use of the U-boat which killed 128 Americans. The American participation played a crucial role in the defeat of Germany. The victory of the Allied powers was due to the American support. The exit of Russia from the war weakened the Allied forces. The Allied forces would have faced a defeat, if American forces never intervened.
Conclusion
The First World War was caused by a series of factors intertwined together has John Merriman asserts. Central Europe played a leading role in the war. The Allied forces were seriously weakened by the exit of Russia from the war. The American venture in the war strengthened the Allied forces.
The federal bureaucracy entails a number of departments, administrative units, agencies, commissions, as well as authorities that perform responsibilities and duties assigned to them under the law (Tindall & Shi, 2013). There are very many reasons why the federal bureaucracy has been expanding, but the Congress, the public, as well as head of the state, contended that some aspects of connected to global and domestic affairs needed more attention from the federal government (Tindall & Shi, 2013).
With these, a number of government agencies were created during the WWI particularly when it emerged that there was a need to regulate or control industrial sector as well as the call for the US to participate in the war to support its allies. The paper discusses areas that witnessed bureaucratic expansion during the WWI and also gave reasons about why it expanded or departments were added.
Establishment of the Public Information Committee
The public information committee was established to manage domestic public opinion that had gone out of control during the WWI. The committee specifically supplied the media with information relating to the situation at hand. Committee worked together with other government agencies to define what the general public was allowed to say during the time of war. Those who opposed the government directive were sent to prison.
War industries Board
The board was created in 1917. As a federal agency, the board was to ensure that the people the United States both home and oversees had to access to affordable products and materials (Tindall & Shi, 2013). The board was headed by people who were close to President Wilson. The president asked the head of WIB to work closely with the head of agriculture, Hoover.
This means that whilst the emphasis of Hoover was on agriculture, the raw materials produced were to support the growth of local industries falling under war industries board (Tindall & Shi, 2013). The war industries board was generally organized in several units to supervise and manage all aspects of WWI needs. This ranged from the distribution of raw materials to price controls on the end products.
The National War Labour Board
The National War Labour Board was created in 1918 (Tindall & Shi, 2013). The WIB consisted mostly of public servants who worked in the army. This is different from the NWLB, which was mainly dominated by the common people. Some of these people included trade unions, workers, and business leaders (Tindall & Shi, 2013). The responsibility of NWLB was to settle conflicts arising from the labor, as well as other issues that had the potential to affect the industrial process during WWI negatively.
The United States Food Administration
The United States Food Administration was created by the federal government upon invoking the executive order in 1917 (Tindall & Shi, 2013). The agency was headed by Hoover. The main responsibility of the agency was to assure that food was promptly supplied, distributed, and conserved during the wartime.
The agency also was to facilitate transportation food, containing monopolies as well as hoarding. In addition, the United States Food Administration was to maintain the control of the government over foods, and this was to be done using a system of licensing as well as voluntary agreements.
Furthermore, the agency tried to get all American people to preserve what they had and also to utilize less of what could be made or even grown. The agency also asked all people living in the United States to grow their own food and also heed to call and preserve what they had (Tindall & Shi, 2013). In other words, they were encouraged to grow more to ensure the country had plenty of food and consume less, as it could also be sent to the American troops and those of friendly countries.
Smith-Lever Act and the Cooperative Extension Service
The Smith-Lever Act was created by Congress in 1914 (Tindall & Shi, 2013). The Cooperative Extension Service was created by this legislation in order to build up effective animal and agricultural husbandry programs, classes, as well as the use of land, offered to organizations such as high learning institutions involved in the field of crop and animal production (Tindall & Shi, 2013). The aim was to give permission to these universities to share knowledge and information with known students.
Food and Fuel Control Act and the Food and Fuel Control Administration
Congress adopted the Act in 1917 as soon as the United States declared that it would take part in the war (Tindall & Shi, 2013). It led to formation of fuel and food administration. Its aim was to ensure that Americans both at home and oversees did not lack anything.
The food and fuel control administration was tasked with managing the production process, price issues, as well as the distribution of food and fuel at the time of war (Tindall & Shi, 2013). Most importantly, the administration ensured that the fuel demand of the United States during the war would be met through conservation.
The economic war agencies
Largely, the economic war agencies used indirect approaches instead of blatant commands to attain their targets (Tindall & Shi, 2013). These agencies were formed during the WWI to help the federal government establish a system of identifying companies that would be used to produce war-related goods.
These companies were allowed greater access to basic things such as raw materials, workforce, fuel, as well as transportation compared to those that were involved in activities that were considered insignificant (Tindall & Shi, 2013). In other words, the agencies were formed to contain companies that chose not to cooperate with the federal government.
One of the main reasons why these agencies set the prices for most goods they prioritized those cooperating with them. That is, they allowed them to earn good profits based on the fact that prices for industrial war were set by these agencies at a level or point that could easily benefit them a lot (Tindall & Shi, 2013). In addition, most players in the industry felt at ease dealing with the agencies as opposed to government officials.
These agencies awarded contracts to those companies that cooperated with the government and also negotiated good terms with them (Tindall & Shi, 2013). In addition, cooperating businesses could easily take part in illegal activities or without being summoned. Several business leaders appreciated the opportunity brought by the war and expanded their companies as there were ready markets and ready labor.
Conclusion
The federal government expanded rapidly during the WWI, particularly around 1916-1918. This is because the US was at the point of or had already the allies in the war. Previously, there were agencies and administrative units, especially those created before or during the civil war. However, many more were established as the need both from the public and federal government grew.
The government developed many agencies to ensure that war weapons were manufactured and delivered the army on time. Others were created to oversee local or home activities such as production and conservation of food, fuel, and raw materials.
References
Tindall, G. B., & Shi, D. E. (2013). America: A narrative history (9th ed., Vol. 2). New York, NY.: W.W. Norton & Co.,.