Category: Working Memory Model

The working memory model is a theory for how short-term memory works, and an expansion of the views expressed in the MSM theory. Baddeley and Hitch in 1974 felt that STM was not just one store but a collection of different stores. These concepts lead them to form a model which consists of three slave systems; the central executive, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad. They used the phrase ‘working memory’ to refer to the division of our memory that we utilize when we are working on an intricate task that requires data to be stored as you go along.

​The central executive is the key component of working memory. It works at delegating our attention to specific tasks, determining at any time how the two other components, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad, should be allocated different tasks. The central executive also has an exceedingly short capacity, so it is not able to deal with too many things in one time.

The phonological loop also has a restricted capacity. It works in conserving auditory information and preserves which order that information came in. In 1986 Baddeley further divided the phonological loop into two separate components; the phonological store and the articulatory process. The phonological store operates as an inner ear, holding the words you hear and the articulatory processor operates like an inner voice, only used for words heard or seen. It then repeats them silently, which is a form of maintenance rehearsal. The visuo-spatial sketchpad is used when you have to plan a spatial task (determining visual relationships between objects).

It stores both visual and spatial data here, but only temporarily. Visual information is what things look like and spatial information is the relationship between things.

The working memory model contains a vast amount of strong points, however we don’t know completely everything regarding the working memory model, so there is an opportunity for it to be developed further and intensify our understanding of our shot term memory. The working memory model also creates predictions that are able to be tested empirically, therefore enabling the model to be repeated and be more reliable. Baddeley et al (1975) showed that people are able to recall shorter words better then longer words, which is known as the word length effect, probably because the phonological loop only retains two seconds worth of information. Participants were asked to memorize a list of five monosyllabic words, and one other list made up of five polysyllabic words. Participants recalled the monosyllabic list better than the polysyllabic list, due to the fact that the longer words can’t be rehearsed on the phonological loop because they don’t fit. The discoveries prove that George Miller’s discovery, that the span of the immediate memory is 7 ± 2 is false, because the length of the words matter.

Baddeley’s experiment contains a lack of mundane realism because the participants would not memorize random lists in day to day life containing words with the same syllables. Nevertheless, because it is a lab experiment it can be controlled. This experiment shows a cause and effect, that the longer the words the less the participants can recall. The results of the experiment show that the phonological loop can become over loaded, and has a limited capacity. Shallice and Warrington (1970) conducted research into brain damage by studying KF, who had a STM that could work independently of his LTM and could deal with it realistically well with visual information and meaningful sounds, but some aspects of his immediate memory were impaired and he could not cope well with verbal material.

This research offers evidence for the WMM, as it proposes that only his phonological loop was affected, nothing else. LH, studied by Farah et al (1988), tended to perform better on spatial tasks rather than visual imagery tasks, which also offers evidence for the WMM, as it proposes separate visual and spatial systems. Using brain scans, Bunge et al (2000) showed there was more brain activity when participants in the tests were doing tasks simultaneously rather than one after the other which supports the existence and involvement of the central executive.

Baddeley (1982) conducted research that showed when people process sounds two separate areas of the brain are active which supports the existence of separate components in the phonological system in the WMM Hitch and Baddeley in 1976 demonstrated that when participants performed two STM tasks using the same stores (i.e. both phonological) performance slowed, whereas two tasks using different stores (i.e. visual and phonological tasks) performance was not affected. Participants accomplished both tasks as well as they would have done if doing the tasks separately. This shows that the Working Memory must have separate modalities. The findings also highlighted the difficulties of doing multiple tasks using the same store as oppose to using separate stores simultaneously.

In the Lab experiment, participants were given a statement such as “A is followed by B” while continuously repeating a random word such as ‘the, the, the’, then they were given another statement such as “AB” and asked to say true or false. As this study was a Lab experiment, it was highly controlled resulting in a higher degree of accuracy. The fact that it was a lab experiment also allowed it to be easily repeated, thereby allowing the researcher to retest findings. The Working Memory Model (WMM) is critisised of the central executive being too vague. It appears to be that it allocates resources and is essentially the same as attention. Which doesn’t really explain anything scientifically?

Critics also stated that central executive might consist of not one but probably several components According to Eslinger and Damasio 1985 who studied EVR who had had a cerebral tumour removed. He performed well on tests requiring reasoning which suggested that his central executive was intact. However, he had poor decision-making skills which suggest that in fact his central executive was not wholly together. Therefore, this indicates that the central executive is unsatisfactory and fails to explain anything in details because it might be more complex than currently presented.

The working memory model offers a more detailed explanation of the MSM, which proposed that information flows through several different stores. It describes the short-term memory with a number of components rather than a unitary store. Additionally, the working memory model includes verbal rehearsal as an optional process rather that the only means by which information is kept in immediate memory. It also emphasises process more than the MSM, which emphasised the structure. The working memory model also takes into account of how we do a range of tasks, such as verbal reasoning, problem solving and comprehension.

Understanding memory is important because ‘Memory is the means by which we draw on our past experiences in order to use this information in the present’ (Sternberg, 1999). Baddeley and Hitch (1974) talked about the working memory model. They believed that our short-term memory has many stores. One of them being the ability to understand information and finish work depending on the component of the working memory we are using. If we are using the same component for different types of activities at the same time, we might do them wrong inaccurate. However, if we used different components of the working store memory at the same time, we could finish our tasks accurately. The working memory has many components, the one that relates with music the most is the ‘phonological loop.’ This can be separated further into the articulatory central process and the phonological store. The articulatory process means that we can take in repetition items into the phonological store. The phonological store is where acoustic items are kept (speech-based sounds) for a small period. Listening to music that has lyrics in it may make it harder for someone to memorise something, and the information in front of them is less absorbed. Also, loud music can make it very difficult to focus on the tasks given. Many researchers have done studies to investigate this such as Bugter et all (2012), and Fassbender et al (2012).

A researcher that has looked at the impact of memory is Bugter et al (2012). This study aimed to replicate the Eskritt and Lee (2005) study and to investigate the effects of music on a test of spatial IQ. 60 college undergraduates (24 men and 36 women) took part in this study. The participants had an average age of 20.25. The participants were students from a small, private liberal arts university in the south. All students were given extra credit for taking part in the study. The participants were randomly assigned to one of three experimental groups; each group had 20 participants. The first thing that was predicted is that there would be a difference between the three groups (classical, rap and silence), this was supported. The data showed significant differences between the groups. The second hypothesis predicted that classical music would have the best outcome during the memory task, this was also supported as the group exposed to classical music done better than the other groups. The results show that the group who was exposed to rap music didn’t score well on the memory test. The other group exposed to classical music seemed to have scored better. The researchers believe that the first group didn’t score well as rap music is more distracting as it also has lyrics in them. The results support the hypothesis with the classical; music being the most successful genre when learning. It was hypothesized before the experiment that there would be a difference in memory scores with the three types of situations: classical music, rap, and sitting in silences. The participants had to do a concentration game. This was confirmed by the results when the participants who listened to classical music got better results than those who listened to rap music.

Another researcher that investigated memory and music is Fassbender et al (2012). ‘The impact of music in memory.’ The aim was to find out if music can help memories for a different type of tests. Different type of students was asked to take part in this experiment, 75% were females between the ages 17-22. This experiment had 4 different types of tests that the participants had to take part in. In the first test (A) 50 syllables made no sense, the second test (B) there was another 50 syllables that made no sense, for the third test (C) there were 50 numbers in a random order, and for the fourth test (D) there were 12 lines of a poem in a different order. Test A participant was in the same class, it was completed in silence. For the next phase, the students were separated into three groups with the same questions as test A. Then participants had to do three different tests on memory, in the same classroom, but sitting at a different spot. The first group that took the test did not listen to any music, the second group listened to music that had lyrics in them, and the third group listened to relaxing music. Each group had the same amount of time (5 minutes) to memorise everything they did (test A, B, C) once the time was up, they had to write down everything that they remembered. The music was the same during the memorising stage and then repeated during the writing stage with the same volume levels and had headphones in. The results showed that there are no significant differences between the groups with relaxing music to the group who listened to music with lyrics in them. Trying to memorise lines that are not in the correct order whilst listening to music is less effective. Although memorising without any distractions is more effective, music is an effective way to increase someone’s mood, but when reading and memorising (numbers, lines, and poems) it is better not to listen to anything.

This experiment was necessary as the researcher made sure to include a variety age range, doing this by including teachers and students both male and female participants also took part. This allows more data to be collected, it makes it easier to generalise to the population. Unlike the other studies that focused on people of similar ages. The researcher wanted to find out if the results from these two studies would be replicated.

Design: The researcher did a lab experiment in a classroom. This has high ecological validity, since it was done in a classroom which the participants are familiar with, making the results more useful and the results can be applied to everyday life, it can also be replicated easier. By experimenting with this it meant that all the variables could be monitored closely. The independent variable for this experiment was the type of music playing. In the first condition, there was pop music playing, the researcher picked popular songs. In the second condition, there was classical music playing, and in the third and last condition, there was no music playing and the participants had to sit in silence. The dependent variables for this experiment were the number of questions that the participants answered correctly during the memory test. An extraneous variable for this is that the experiment was done at the end of the day, therefore meaning the participants could have been tired and this could have affected their performance. The researcher chose independent group design in their experiment, therefore it ensured that demand characteristics do not occur during the experiment, and order effects do not occur. The location for this experiment was the same for each condition.

Sample: In this experiment, the main target for this experiment was senior pupils in high school, all around the age of 1617. 3 teachers took part, the three teachers were divided into each group. In total there were 18 participants both male and female. 10 of these participants have previously done or currently doing higher psychology. 33% of the group were male and 67% were female. The participant was picked through opportunity sampling. This was done as opportunity sampling is the most effective. This was chosen because there is no specific gender, and background information was not specified.

Materials: Brief (Appendix 2), debrief (Appendix 3), consent form (1), laptop for YouTube clips, passage to study (4), question paper (5), pen or pencil.

Procedure: Before the experiment started the researcher divided the participants into 3 groups, there were 6 participants in each. There was the same number of teachers, males and females in each group, the number of males and females in each group was random. The researcher got the participants to read the brief first so that they were aware of the experiment, and what to expect. After all, participants read the brief, the researcher handed out consent forms for everyone to read and sign. This consent form had a box that the participants had to tick off to show that they were 16 . After this, the researcher then passed out the passage to the participants, every group had the same amount of time to learn a passage about the extinction of dinosaurs and what researchers believe happened. The groups all had 4 minutes to study the passage, once the time was up the participants then had 2 minutes to answer questions about the passage to see how much they could remember. When each group entered the classroom, they were told one person per desk, ensuring that they were not sitting next to someone and be influenced by their answers. During this experiment they were told to sit in silence, there was a possible 9 marks that the participant could achieve for the questions given. Once the time was up the researcher got the participants to read the debrief before leaving the experiment. Group A had to learn this passage whilst listening to popular music, group B had classical music on when learning the passage, and group C experimented with silence. Altogether there were 5 questions to answer at the end, worth 9 marks. At the end of the experiment, the experimenter explained to the group that the information would be collected to be analysed, and the participants were told throughout the experiment that all information given would be kept confidential.

Ethics: Any psychological research that was done has to follow BPS guidelines; this is done to protect the participants. There was no deception used as the true aim of the study was explained to the participants during the brief and the debrief, the researcher went over everything that was going to happen and answered any questions. Confidentiality was ensured as the experiment was conducted to make sure that there were no names, gender or age mentioned. Participants were made aware that they could withdraw at any time, and any work that was done would not be added to the results. The researcher made sure that there was no risk of any harm by ensuring that there was no deception, and the participants knew everything that was going on. The researcher ensured that everyone was at least 16, the consent form had a box that the participants had to tick off to show that they were 16 .

The range in this experiment was used to recognise the range of data collected from each condition. This helps show the researcher the highest or lowest score which will help determine the average result. The participants in the silence condition had a larger range of 7, suggesting that results in this condition varied, which may have had an impact on the mean scores.

The mean in this table helps the researcher to see the average score that participants got in their memory test, therefore making it easier later when the researcher is conducting a conclusion. For example, in the classical music condition, the mean was 5, suggesting that the results from this condition are not varied as most of the participants got similar results.

The mode in this table shows the researcher the most common scores from each condition. For example, in the Pop music condition, the most common score was 4. The mode is helpful for the researcher as they can see the most common answer that people got, and if the conditions made a difference for the overall score.

The median allows the researcher to see what the middle number is between a list of numbers. For example, the median for the silent condition was 5.

This graph shows that 32.1% got an average score of 4 during the pop music condition, 30.6% also got an average score of 4 during the silence condition, and 37.3% got an average score of t during the classical music condition.

The researcher decided to make this graph to show frequent answers that the participants gave during the memory test. This type of graph is more effective to use as it clearly shows the conditions and the percentage.

The results from the study refute the hypothesis to an extent. As the hypothesis was to see if any music affects memory, and the results show that pop music has a negative effect, however, it was also concluded that sitting in silence had the worst impact.

Analysis: Overall the researcher concluded that the results from the study refute the hypothesis to an extent. It was stated that music could harm someone’s memory. However, this was not shown in the results. The condition that seemed to harm someone’s memory was when the participants were sitting in silence, this condition had the lowest score. The next condition that seemed to have a negative impact was popular music, this scored the second-lowest. Finally, for the classical music condition, the participants were the most successful with their task and got the highest mark.

There are a few variables that could have affected the results. For the popular music condition, some of the participants could have been used to studying music, therefore, explaining why some done better than others. For example, some people scored 7 whereas others didn’t do as well. Another variable that could have affected the results is during the silent condition a phone went off. This could have distracted the participants, therefore, explaining why this condition was the most unsuccessful. a final variable that could have affected the results is that the researcher did the experiments in the afternoon, 3 conditions took 10 minutes for each one, the silent condition was the last one to take place and could have been done poorly because it was done at the end of the day and the participants could have been tired and not performing as well as they could have. If repeating the experiment, the researcher would experiment earlier on in the day, instead of late in the afternoon. By changing the time could make the results more successful as participants won’t be as tired. To help improve the music condition the researcher would give out a survey on how people would normally study: with music, classical music and no music. Based on the results the researcher would then manage the groups, and make sure a participant who studies with music for example would not take part in the music condition but put them in the silent condition to see how that affects them. To make sure that there are no interruptions like the phone going off during the silence condition, for example, the researcher would make sure that all devices were switched off or silenced.

The researchers relate to one of the previous researchers, the Bugter et al 2012 study ‘The effects of music genre on a memory task’ the results show that the group who studied with classical music scored significantly better than those who did not listen to classical music. The other researcher Fassbender et al 2012 study ‘the impact of music on memory’ the results were not similar. The results showed that there are no significant differences between the groups with relaxing music to the group who listened to music with lyrics in them. A survey was done before the study and the results showed that 54% of the participants listen to music when studying, this could have affected the results because some people in the group already listen to music when studying so this would not have affected them.

The researcher’s results could be applied to the real world because the results show that classical music has a positive impact on someone when memorising so, if someone is stressed about a test, they could listen to classical music to help them.

More research could be done to better this experiment has the results did not fully meet the hypothesis.

Overall, from this experiment, the researcher learned that listening to classical music has the most successful results on someone’s memory. You can see this from the mode because the most frequent marks were from the classical condition, the results were between 5 and 6. The other condition that was still successful was the silence condition, where the frequent mark was 5, although this is not the same as the classical condition, the participants were more successful when in silence compared to participants with pop music. The mode shows that listening to pop music was not successful as the most frequent marks were 4, meaning it backs up the theory that music can harm someone’s memory. This partly backs up the hypothesis. The results for classical music may have been more successful as it is calming and may help participants to relax and not to stress out.

Evaluation: A strength of this experiment is that it has high ecological validity. This is because the researcher did a lab experiment in a classroom. This meant that the variables could be tightly controlled and monitored. Also, as it was done in a classroom the participants may have felt more comfortable as they were familiar with their surroundings, as they are in there most of the day.

A weakness of this experiment is that the participants knew each other meaning the participants could have felt more comfortable and making them not take the experiment seriously and mess about.

Another strength of this experiment is it is more varied. This is because the researcher included both male and female participants in this experiment. This means it is more representative of the population, and it can be generalised easier.

However, as the researcher asked classmates and friends to take part in the experiment, it could be argued that the participants could have been distracted as they knew the researcher.

An absence of exploration about the short-term memory of intellectually gifted students added to the need for this investigation. In the event that a presence of contrasts between mentally, general, and different students is seen, it would profit the educational system to know where the memory’s qualities and shortcomings of individual students lay. Not only would the information on such data would be beneficial for the student, however the information would also add benefits to the accomplishment of instructional conveyance and assessment as well as academic and vocation direction of the student.

The reason for this investigation is to inspect the short-term memory of intellectually gifted students. In particular, it tries to decide whether there are contrasts in the memory of skilled students, general training students, and students receiving specialized education services.

The method the researchers of this study used for the collection of data was a presentation of the lined-up word list was via Microsoft PowerPoint. They used Computational Analysis of Present-Day American English by Kucera and Francis’ (1967) which is also used in serial position effect researches. To maintain its random integrity, the presentations were prepared with five random word list. Words were then shown in intervals and after the presentation, the participants were given the chance to write as many words as they can recall. Some written or recalled words that were not on the list and was immediately reported.

Statistically, there was no significant effect found between general education students and gifted education groups. Intellectually gifted students recalled .12 more words than general education students. On the other hand, results were significantly found between gifted education and special education. The students with gifted education recalled numerically 1.37 more words than those getting special education services. Finally, based on the data gathered, there was also a significant difference between general education students and students receiving special education services.

Generally, results has shown that there is not enough contrast between the general education students and intellectually gifted students upon the data collected. On the other hand, the difference between students who receive special education services and general education and intellectually gifted education was large enough difference to generate results. There was also a small increase in the number of total remembered words for the intellectually gifted students. This information can add knowledge and contribute about memory that is crucial to support each group to execute better. Thus, this memory approach should be considered in daily practices for the benefits of all the learners. One final thought is that in addition to the fact that it is significant for teachers to understand the effect of misunderstanding challenged students, guardians additionally will have an advantage from knowing the genuine qualities of mentally challenged students.

The title of the study is brief and informative. However, it does not clearly show the impact of short-term memory capacity on the intellectually gifted students and general education students. Furthermore, it is not clearly stated what are the age range of the students that were chosen for the study.

According to the researcher lack of research about short term memory of students who are intellectually gifted and generally educated students helped to the need for this study to be conducted. The educational system of the certain place will benefit from its results if presence of differences between different kinds of students or learners in general and present. it would benefit the country’s educational system to distinguish the strengths and weaknesses of every learner. not only the results but having such knowledge could help a student.

The problem of the study clearly stated that it will also be personally helpful for students, the data that will be gathered will be advantageous to the success of college and career orientation of the student. This study aims to examine the short-term memory of intellectually gifted students and generally educated learner. it aims to determine if there is statistically significant difference in their memory and specifically short-term memory

The Hypothesis of the study was clearly stated, there is a statistically significant difference in the short-term memory between the two subjects which is the intellectually gifted students and general education students studying at the Southern part of Mississippi. The second hypothesis stated that students who are intellectually gifted and general education students’ short-term memory has a statistical significant difference. And for the null hypothesis they stated that there is no statistical significant difference between the students’ short-term memory when receiving special student services. The independent and dependent variable, the independent variable in the study is Short-term memory while the dependent variable fo the study are the intellectually gifted student and general education students.

This study provides four related literatures that is relevant and sufficient to the study which are ‘Short-term memory Defined and Short-term Memory Model’, ‘Working Memory Defined and the Working Memory Model’, ‘Long-term memory’, and Free recall and Serial Position Effect’. The purpose of the study was to conduct a critical analysis of the data percentage of recall to determine in what group remembered more than the other group. The short-term meory was examined through tests, and data was analyzed by looking at the dfferences in th two said groups. And to determine the differences between short-term memory of the intellectually gifted and generally educated student when receiving special education services.

To address the relevance of the discussion to the purpose of the study. The researcher clearly stated the purpose of the present study is to examine the short-term memory intellectually gifted students and generally educated students. According to the discussion the method that was utilized in this study for collection of data was a presentation of the lined-up words via Microsoft Power Point, the type of platform that was used may somehow affect the data gathered by the research since the participants were too young to understand Microsoft resulting into impaired quality of the results. The participants that were gathered aren’t also equally divided. This study is comparing two different groups, so it must have two equal number of participants in a group. The data that were collected from participants are from different districts in southeastern Mississippi. District A got 235 number of participants while district B only got 226 number of participants.

The researcher was objective in writing the study the decisions were made based on legal and empirical evidence through collecting data and analyzing it using the proper statistical tool. The researcher wrote the study without allowing her personal interest and values affect her judgement and thinking.

In terms of human behavior, short-term memory also known as working memory is a stage of memory which can hold information for up to a minute or so after the trace of the stimulus decays. In the article, they focused more on the differences of short-term memory capacity between 3 variables that resulted in this memory approach to be considered in daily practices for the benefits of all the learners.

In the module, it is stated that memory is triggered when a certain experience is being right at that moment. Which also in this article, despite the small chance of getting reliable results, the researchers made sure that it is quantifiable by utilizing word lists as presentations as a tool for measuring short-term memory. Being right at that moment and testing each child’s working memory. The article stated that STM is the stage of memory that is initiated by a sensory perception and maintains roughly 8 items of information for a range of 0-18 seconds.

Compulsive gambling is a problematic behaviour that has a widespread impact all over the world. For example, there are many cities such as Las Vegas and Macau that are designated for entertainment purposes such as gambling, and many casinos have been established in those regions to cater to patrons. From the engaging lights and sounds of slot machines to strategic moves in playing card games, gambling stimulates an extensive range of cognitive functions in the brain. In the long run, gambling has been a way to cope with stress, as observed in individuals with depression and post-traumatic stress disorder. (source)

Compulsive gambling, however, loses the purpose of entertainment when it creates drastic changes to one’s daily functioning. Compulsive gamblers have an uncontrollable urge to gamble without considering the consequences that they may face. In addition, they believe that the duration of their gameplay and their bet values have a large contribution to their chances of winning. These are some of the myths that compulsive gamblers have in mind despite the low probability of winning. They would still constantly take risky chances to get their desired result. (source) – gambler’s fallacy

There is a substantial amount of research with regards to the behavioural features of compulsive gamblers, but little is known for its association with working memory and long term memory. Compulsive gambling is an addiction that may lead to negative outcomes causing harm to the individual and the people surrounding them. That being said, studies of the cognitive functions of memory have been able to reveal some connections between compulsive behaviour and processing stimuli in the working memory and long term memory stores.

Working memory is used in situations where it’s necessary to strategize and make quick decisions. For example, gambling is an activity that requires a lot of decision-making and creating personal strategies in order to win games. The concept of working memory is defined as the temporary storage of information and is responsible for holding visual and auditory stimuli. Baddley and Hitch (1974) created the working memory model which composes of three main components namely the visuospatial sketchpad, the phonological loop, and the central executive, which all come together to build the process of working memory. Each part of the working memory model has a corresponding function to hold different types of information.

Initially, the visuospatial sketchpad deals with visual and spatial information. In relation to the visuospatial sketchpad, slot machines consist of games that are designed with visually appealing graphics that would attract an individual to play these games over long periods of time. In the past few years, slot machines have become modernized with graphics that are familiar to the general public (e.g., movie-themed slot machines) which are meant to grab attention as people develop preferences for anything that are more familiar to them. Furthermore, the visuospatial sketchpad also identifies spatial information such as where certain symbols are placed indicating a winning arrangement. Through playing slot machines, a large number of stimuli are processed within the visuospatial sketchpad.

With compulsive gamblers, the raging flow of visual and spatial stimuli that they can get through playing games such as slot machines can act as a form of escape and may temporarily aid to alleviate stress. However, the time that an individual can play on slot machines is dependent on the amount of money that is available to use. Gambling becomes a problem when an individual gets immersed in the visuospatial stimuli that the activity provides.

To follow, the phonological loop is responsible for the temporary storage of auditory and verbal information. For example, slot machines are not just composed of attention-grabbing graphics, but also with convincing sound effects. As a matter of fact, slot machines have various sound effects with a purpose to make it seem that there are no losses occurring. This would motivate the player to continue playing without considering the amount of money that they have been losing.

Not only with slot machines does the phonological loop work in the activity of gambling, but it can also be observed with playing table games such as roulette and poker. To elaborate, the spinning of the roulette wheel and the ball that moves with it makes sounds that are processed as auditory stimuli. In addition, poker players have their phonological loop active through processing verbal stimuli during gameplay sessions as they need to pay attention to the announcements of the dealers.

The phonological loop consists of two main parts, namely the phonological store and articulatory control process. For example, the phonological store acts in gambling situations such as when poker players hear a response from the dealer. After hearing the response, the verbal information will be processed in the articulatory control process when players eventually comprehend the response as indicating a winning or losing set of cards.

In the casino setting, varying auditory and verbal stimuli from different types of gambling games are continuously processed in the phonological loop. Without sounds, slot machines and table games would not be enjoyable and lack the purpose of overall amusement to the players. In addition to the games, casinos play background music that creates a welcoming environment for the customers.

Gambling activities consist of a combination of visual, spatial, auditory, and verbal stimuli that are purposely created for the sake of entertainment. When done responsibly, gambling can serve as a pleasurable activity. Nonetheless, when compulsive gambling takes place, an individual gives utmost priority to the gambling aspect and ignores alternative options of entertainment.

Lastly, the central executive controls the system of working memory and deals with attending information in the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop. The central executive is also responsible for problem-solving and calculations. In gambling, an extensive amount of problem-solving and calculations are necessary to conduct the gameplays. Even though the majority of gambling activities rely on chances, some card games require strategic actions that could increase their likeliness of winning among other players.

The central executive handles attention-driven information with two different systems: the conflict-resolution system and the supervisory attentional system. For instance in gambling, the conflict-resolution system can be observed in events where a player is knowledgeable with the rules of a certain game. The conflict-resolution system does not require a lot of attention, and it is based on prior knowledge of an individual. Thus, when a problem occurs within the course of the game, it is responded to automatically as similar situations were previously experienced by the player.

On the other hand, the supervisory attentional system plays more of a major role in the central executive functions as it can work in newly encountered situations. When a player encounters decision-making tasks in gambling (e.g., events of a huge win or loss), the supervisory attentional system creates complex decisions such as stopping and continuing the gameplay. That being said, the supervisory attentional system is an important component in the executive functions, particularly in situations where it’s necessary to make rational decisions.

Research suggests that compulsive gamblers have an impaired executive function (source). For example, compulsive gamblers lose track of the calculations of their winnings and losses. As they engage more in gambling activities, their ability to make rational decisions is also diminished. Compulsive gamblers may effectively process stimuli coming from the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop. In contrast, they may not be able to make sound judgments on critical moments as they get too occupied with the activity.

Ultimately, the initial working memory model paves the way for the concept of an existing connection between the working memory and long term memory. Baddley (2000) added another component to the working memory model known as the Episodic Buffer. There are instances in which stored information in the long term memory is utilized in the process of working memory. Parts of the long term memory such as visual semantics, language and episodic long term memory operate and contribute to processing stimuli in the working memory. (source)

For example, a regular slot machine player would depend on their previous knowledge about slot machines such as a row of matching characters demonstrate a win. This indicates that they hold semantic knowledge on the characters which interferes with their visual processing. Another example is when playing card games, a player would actively respond upon hearing phrases such as “place your bets” and “bets are closed” in a language that is learned implicitly.

As mentioned, the central executive relies on previously encountered situations to make rational decisions. Consequently, in the middle of gambling activity, a player would also create solid strategies that are derived from their errors in past events.

Overall, the mechanisms of the working memory has a significant contribution to regulating activities such as gambling. Underlying features of gambling activities can be a source of abundant visual and auditory stimuli, and this factor can encourage an individual to a nonstop engagement towards gambling. The central executive controls incoming visual and auditory stimuli in the working memory and is an important system for crucial processes such as decision-making. However, with a reduced functioning of the central executive system, gamblers would eventually lead to problematic behaviours.

The Episodic Buffer that was proposed in the recent working memory model explains the relationship between the working memory and the long term memory. Although there is a connection between the two memory systems, it is not guaranteed that every processed stimulus in the working memory would be passed to the long term memory, and vice versa. For example, compulsive gamblers would not be able to access all their prior knowledge regarding the games unless there’s a presence of cues needed for retrieval of information.

There are many factors to consider on how compulsive gamblers were led to their current state. These factors can be derived from implicitly learned materials stored in the long term memory. There is evidence of links between implicit memory and involvement in gambling (source). Implicit memory is the cognitive system that holds unconsciously learned information. For example, after a series of gameplays, regular roulette players would already know how payouts work when the ball on the roulette wheel lands on a particular number. They may not know precisely how the learning occurred, but it can be observed on the skills that they exhibit.

There are many learning processes which can build implicit memory. One of them is associative learning which consists of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. First, classical conditioning involves two unrelated stimuli that are linked to create a response. For example, upon hearing the ringing sound of slot machines for the first time, the point of it would not be instantly recognized. After repeated exposure to the sound of slot machines, a player would be able to identify the sound as an indication of a win and they will react positively to the sound.

In classical conditioning, there is a phenomenon called discrimination. Discrimination occurs when a learned response does not occur upon presentation of a degree of stimuli inconsistent with the original paired degree of stimuli. For example, slot machine players would need to hear a certain sound for them to give a more positive reaction. That being said, they would not exhibit a greater positive reaction to the sound of a small win as compared to the sound of a big win. Compulsive gamblers who constantly play slot machines may show implicit reactions towards different sounds such as extreme negative reactions (e.g., damaging the buttons of the slot machine) in the course of a loss on their gameplays.

There is another phenomenon in classical conditioning known as generalization. Generalization occurs when an individual gives the same response for anything related to a certain category. For example, table game players would think that all table games are interesting and they would give a positive reaction towards other similar games. On the other hand, they would not show the same reaction towards slot machines as they are not accustomed to playing them regardless of their variety.

As a side note, compulsive gamblers may generalize that other activities are not as interesting as gambling. Thus, they would only attend to the activity of gambling in order for them to satisfy their needs.

Another type of associative learning is operant conditioning. Operant conditioning deals with rewards and punishments. Through operant conditioning, behaviours that are built through reinforcing rewards would reflect to the individual’s environment. (source) Gambling activities such as slot machines are tailored to issue rewards based on a variable-ratio schedule. Due to its unpredictability, gambling has the aspects of giving a sense of anticipation. Thus, for compulsive gamblers to get their desired rewards, they would keep on gambling without considering how their behaviours would reflect on the environment for the sake of searching personal contentment.

Under other conditions, gambling activities can be a source of punishment. Punishments act as restrictions for the occurrence of a behaviour. There are two techniques of punishment in operant conditioning: positive punishment and negative punishment. Positive punishments are carried out through the presentation of an aversive stimulus to restrict behaviour. At a certain point, compulsive gamblers would have to make major decisions in which they would need to step out of their limits, involving putting their personal properties on stake. During the coping stage, compulsive gamblers would realize that their addiction leads them to an unpleasant condition, which in the end would stop the problematic gambling behaviour.

On the other hand, negative punishment is another technique of punishment in operant conditioning which decreases the occurrence of behaviour through omitting anything favourable. For example, there may be times when a gambler gets a streak of winnings and constantly receives rewards such as large amounts of money. However, as time goes by, the giving out of rewards is not permanent and would not occur for long periods of time.

Another feature of operant conditioning that drives motivation is its hedonic and motivational value. This concept describes the levels of desirability of towards a reinforcer with two main points, which determines whether they “like” (hedonic) or “want” (motivational) a particular reinforcer. (Source) This can be conditioned over time through repetitive stimulation and reinforcement such as a gambling activities particularly in strategy based card games giving an environment to make players feel that they are starting at ground zero with everyone else who is playing whom also have the same desire to take a chance to climb the ladder of risk with one another. This gives the player a measurable variable of how much they like the reinforcement of competing with others due to the stimulus of socializing through friendly banter and the ability to layout strategic exchanges with other players.

However, there is also a want that can be conditioned and measured within a player by reinforcing the near-miss effect when a player constantly feels as if they are nearing the desired result despite the amount of losses. That being said, a player is willing to work hard for that reward and the like becomes a want. This is a behaviour that can be observed through compulsive gamblers who are willing to go through the hurdles

As mentioned earlier, gambling follows a variable-ratio schedule, and rewards are only given out randomly. Research suggests that the psychological concept of reward uncertainty tied with gambling triggers dopamin

In 1960s, researchers were inspired by the invention of computer system and characterised STM as a computer with limited capacity which most verbal information is temporarily stored (Broadbent, 1958). Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) then introduced a Dual-Store Model that maintained the short-term memory’s capacity is limited and rehearsal for the retention of information is essential. However, Baddeley and Hitch (1974) disagreed with the idea that short-term memory was a unitary system and introduced a multi-component system, which was the three-component working memory model which comprises of two subsidiary systems, inclusive of phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad, and the central executive. Generally, working memory is defined as a restricted capacity system which allows momentary storage and operation of information for multifaceted cognitive tasks (Baddeley and Hitch 1974). It aids in the understanding of memory process in cognitive tasks and is a platform for thinking processes that involve temporary memory storage. The original model consists of three components, central executive which controls attention and manipulate other processes, phonological loop that retains speech-based memory, and visuospatial sketchpad that holds visual and spatial information (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974).

Phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad are subsystems that hold information passively while central executive is the main drive of the memory process (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974). However, the model did not describe on the effects of stored knowledge on the memory. Thus, a new component, episodic buffer, was added as an account of the relationship between long-term memory and working memory, integration of information from other components, and the additional storage capacity (Baddeley, 2000). Although Baddeley’s (2000) working memory model is known as most influential working memory models in modern psychology history, it might not be the most suitable modal in explaining humans working memory for three reasons, the validity of phonological loop, ambiguity of the memory capacity, the vagueness of episodic buffer and the compatibility of visuospatial sketchpad.

This essay will briefly describe basic concepts of each components in Baddeley’s (2000) working memory model and evaluate the components by examining whether the functions of each component is comprehensive. Firstly, phonological loop which is said to be the most well-developed component is not comprehensive in describing the implications of its functions. It should first be understood that there are two main constituents of the loop, phonological store and articulatory control process (Baddeley, 2000). Phonological store holds verbal and acoustic information temporarily until the information decay, which takes about 2 seconds, while articulatory control process functions to translate visual information to speech-like codes and to counteract the decay process of information by refreshing traces in the phonological store (Baddeley, 2000). Thus, it could be said that the decay of the information could be prevented by rehearsing the items; Rehearsal is essential to prevent information from fading. However, recent research found that rehearsal and decay have an ambiguous trade-off (Nairne, 2002). It is proposed that working memory would decay when the items are not rehearsed, and this is due to the time-based word-length effect which shows that words with shorter time for pronunciation are easier to be recalled (Baddeley, Thomson, and Buchman, 1975). Yet, Lovatt, Avons and Masterson (2000, 2002) found out that there was a reverse word-length effect from the outcome of the replicated experiment as the percentage of recalling lengthier words was higher. It is seemed that only particular sets of words could produce a positive outcome for the experiment, and the inconsistency of the experiment outcomes obtained by researchers may show that the theory is not significant. Apart from that, episodic buffer as a relatively innovative element in the working memory model is subjected to the uncertain validity due to the lack of sound experimental research.

Suggesting that working model has a role in consciousness and binding information from different storage, visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop, Baddeley (2000) postulated the possibility of a component, which is episodic buffer, would act as a medium synergising information across different component. It could act as the medium for integrating and binding information from different components (Baddeley, 2000). Despite it is said to be the connection between working memory and long-term memory, there is no clear explanation regarding how the subsystems work and coordinate simultaneously. This has led to a problem which is the inability to explain some findings such as the long-term memory’s effects on the immediate serial recall. Nobre et al. (2013) have also conducted systematic review on the past research from year 2000 to 2013 to examine the validity of the episodic buffer and have found out that some tasks fail to meet the experimental optimum conditions while some standardised tests lack of empirical evidence nor theoretical arguments in explaining the involvement of episodic buffer in the tasks. This clearly shows that the validity of episodic buffer remains a question. Notwithstanding it is being introduced as an integrating medium to all information from different components, it hardly explains the interactions between multiple component. In addition, Baddeley (2012) himself has also admitted that episodic buffer remains a debatable topic. Thus, the researcher should provide more insights on how it could help in explaining the interaction between all components. Furthermore, although visuospatial component is the often the least controversial, Logie (1995) argued that there is a need to further developed visuospatial sketchpad into specified separated components, such as colour, shape, objects and locations.

The current visuospatial sketchpad is said to be too simplistic in describing the complexities of how visual and spatial information being registered to one’s memory. The point is that visual and spatial information are not equivalent and thus probable have a separated system. To examine the visuo-spatial separation hypothesis, Sanada, Ikeda, and Hasegawa (2015) replicated Wood’s (2011) experiment, which the outcome showed that shape and spatial working memory capacities have commonly-shared limitations, and the researchers have obtained a similar outcome confirming that the storage system between shape and spatial working memory system is shared, yet it was also found out that the overlapping area is minimal. Hence, the separation of visual and spatial working memory hypothesis could be reasonable to allow a further expand on this area in the future. Other than that, the new working model does not address the limited capacity of the system. Working memory is said to be limited, and thus Nairne (2001) assessed the long-term memory span by replicating past experiments and the outcome has shown that participants are able to averagely recall 5 two-syllable words even when the researchers have added 5-minutes delay before participants were asked to recall the list they memorised. The 5 minutes delay is supposedly beyond the capacity of working memory. Had this is true, the average memory slots for one’s long-term memory capacity is merely five. Other than that, the experiment outcome might be influenced by the requirement of memorising items in a particular order, which imposes a limit on the memory capacity. It might not be suitable to assess the actual memory capacity. In conclusion, although it is true that Baddeley (2000) working memory model is influential in modern psychology field, it is not comprehensive in explaining the components, such as episodic buffer, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and the memory capacity precisely. Future research could be based on the working model to study the unexplained aspects of the working model to understand the model in-depth. Lastly, despite the controversies of the working memory model, the contribution of the working memory model in the field of study still needed to be acknowledged.

Human memory is a complex phenomenon which psychologists have been studying for years. Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) multi store model shows how memory divides into three different stores, sensory-, short- and long-term memory, which pass information from one to another using various methods. Baddeley and Hitch (1974) criticised the model for oversimplifying short term and long-term memory. Through the development of the working memory model, they claimed that short term memory is composed of three stores: central executive, phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad. In 2000 Baddeley added an episodic buffer which communicates between long term memory and the working memory model. This essay investigates the differences between short- and long-term memory, looking at evidence for aspects of their capacity, duration and coding.

Short and long-term memory have different capacities. Long term memories are thought to have an unlimited capacity whereas short term memories have a limited capacity of seven plus or minus two items according to Miller (1956). It is believed that the number of items the short-term memory can hold can be increased via chunking. Vaughan and Green (1984) studied pigeons to investigate the capacity of long-term memory. The pigeons were studied and appeared to have large long term memory capacity which is barely subject to decay. This study however is an animal study therefore is not ethical as animals cannot consent and cannot be generalised to humans, as a pigeon does not have the same brain as a human. However, this study is scientific and has contributed to our knowledge of memory capacity. A recent study using human participants was conducted by Brady et al. (2008) Participants were given five and a half hours to view 2,500 objects. They were then shown pairs of images and asked to state which they had previously seen. Results showed that participants had remembered thousands of images indicating that the capacity of long-term memory is very high. This study is ethical because participants all gave informed consent before participating . However, an issue with the study is that it does not reflect a real-life situation as it is not an everyday task to view 2,500 objects. Therefore, when generalising to everyday situations the study needs to be viewed with caution. Through these studies we can distinguish the difference between the capacity of both long- and short-term memory.

A difference between long and short-term memory is that both have different time frames in which memories are held. Long term memories are thought to be held for up to a lifetime whereas short term memories are thought to be held for around 18 seconds according to Peterson and Peterson (1959). Within Peterson and Petersons (1959) study 24 psychology students were given the task to recall three letter trigrams after different intervals of time. Students were told to count backwards in threes until they were asked to recall preventing any rehearsal of the trigrams. After three seconds around 80% of the recall was accurate however after eighteen seconds it had decreased to 10%. They concluded that short term memory has a limited duration of around eighteen seconds. This study uses artificial memories therefore lacks ecological validity and the results cannot be applied to everyday memory. However due to the highly controlled laboratories the results have been easy to replicate for example by Murdock (1961). This therefore increases the reliability of Petersons and Petersons findings as the results are consistent. Furthermore, Bahrick et al. (1975) investigated long term memory using 392 students. Participants were given photographs from their high school yearbook along with a selection of names and were asked to match the name with the photograph. It was found that after 14 years 90% of participants were able to match the names to the faces and after 47 years after graduation 60% of participants could correctly match the name to the photo. This led to Bahrick et al. (1975) concluding that people can remember information such as names and faces for almost a lifetime. This provides evidence and support for the idea that long term memory has a duration of up to a lifetime. However, the sample Bahrick used was university graduates therefore this cannot be generalised to the general population as it lacks population validity. Although the sample lacks population validity the study has high levels of ecological validity, as it uses real life memories and does not rely on artificial memories therefore can be used to look at everyday memory. These studies therefore show how short- and long-term memories have different durations in which the memories are held.

Both short term and long-term memories are subject to forgetting. Short term memory forgetting is explained via the trace decay theory, where automatic decay and fading of a memory traces leads to forgetting, investigated by Brown (1958). Forgetting in short term memory is also explained via displacement which is due to it having a limited capacity therefore old information is replaced by new information. Evidence for this is provided by Murdock’s (1962) experiments. It can be argued that short term memory forgetting could be due to decay not only displacement and it is hard to distinguish between the two. Long term memory is explained via retrieval failure which is where memories cannot be accessed because the retrieval cues are not there. An example of this was shown through Baddeley (1975) who showed the importance of the retrieval cue context. Two groups deep-sea divers were asked to memorise a list of words, one in water and one on the beach. When asked to recall, half of the beach group had to recall on the beach and the other in the sea. The sea group were also split with one half recalling in the sea the other on the beach. Results stated that participants who recalled in the same context in which they learnt recalled 40% more words than the groups in a different setting. Indicating that retrieval cues are a cause of forgetting. The study lacks ecological validity due to the artificial nature of the study as it does not reflect a real-life situation. However, retrieval cues are useful as they are used during eyewitness cognitive interviews to encourage the recall of more information. These studies show how the process for forgetting for short- and long-term memory is different.

Long- and short-term memories are processed in different ways. According to Baddeley (1966) short term memories are phonologically coded whereas long term memories are coded semantically. Participants were split into four groups and each group was given either a list of semantically similar, semantically different, acoustically similar or acoustically different words. The words were shown to participants who were then asked to recall them in the original order. Short term recall was better with acoustically different words whereas after a twenty-minute break long-term memory recall was better for semantically different words. Suggesting how there are two distinct stores of memory short and long term, as each code’s different types of memories. This has led to further research, as Baddeley and Hitch (1974) used this research to develop the working memory model, therefore this study has great application . The study was a laboratory experiment as it uses an artificial setting therefore lacks ecological validity because the task is unrealistic and does not reflect everyday life. However, although this is an issue the study uses highly controlled variables and is highly scientific, meaning it can determine a cause and effect. This study is highly regarded and influential in the scientific world and therefore can be used to show a difference between coding within the two memory stores.

Patients such as Clive Wearing (Baddeley, A. (2014)) who suffers from both anterograde and retrograde amnesia can be used to show the two separate memory stores. Antegrade amnesia is loss of the ability to form new memories. It is believed that the duration of his short-term memory is between seven and thirty seconds long. Whereas retrograde amnesia is loss of long-term memories, which means he has lost certain memories such as life events. Although he does not remember key career moments, he is still able to read and play music pieces. This indicates long- and short-term memory must be different, as Clive has not lost his full long-term memory however, he has lost all off his short term. Whereas if they were the same store, he would not have any memory. Case studies like this have allowed us to see a distinct difference between the two types of memory, which we would not have otherwise seen. However, they are unique studies so we cannot rely on them and generalise these findings to the wider population.

To conclude although there are some similarities between short- and long-term memories there are multiple differences with their duration, capacity and coding which provide evidence for them being two individual stores. The differences mean that we do not remember every sensation forever however, the items we need to remember in order to function (such as family and friends’ names) are stored for when we need them.

Understanding memory still has a far way to go, many theories and studies have been investigated on how memories are stored in the brain. Storing and retrieving memories is described as a process. Many models have been suggested on how the memories are organized.

As background, working memory occurs within a cycle. Memories begin by being encoded, then stored then finally retrieved. Encoding is the processing of information into the memory system, for example, by extracting meaning. The new information is then moved into storage. Storage is the information being placed in long term storage. Memories are also stored with a semantic process. This means that a memory is stored according to what other experiences and what the experience means to the specific person. This system is very personal as everyone experiences different things and believes different opinions. Lastly there is retrieval, which is the process of getting information out of memory storage. Retrieval from short term memory is that chunks of information are recorded in the way they were presented, like a pattern. Whereas retrieval from long term memory is more by relating information you are processing to a previous memory in long term memory.

One main theory is the multi store model, by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). They suggested that memory was made up of three parts: sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. If the memory is repeated then it enters into the long term memory storage. If the memory is not repeated it is forgotten or lost to decay or displacement. The strengths of this model is that it is a reductionist approach which makes it very easy to follow and allows it to be built upon. The theory is significant and has inspired lots of research on the storage of memory. However the reductionist approach also means the model could be over simplified. The process of short term memory to long term memory might be too broad, the transfer or memory could be due to more than just repetition. Research has already shown that there are many different types of long term memory, such as episodic memory.

Murdock’s study from 1962 looked into the serial position effect and how depending on where the word is on a list, the better the word will be recalled later. Murdock had participants listen to a list of words and then recall as many as possible in 90 seconds. The results showed that words at the beginning of the list and the end of the lists were those that were more likely to be remembered. These results show the idea of limited storage and duration, short term memory can only hold so much, so the middle words for example are displaced. More so, the first few words have been repeated to try and memorise the list and they have therefore made it into long term storage. This model gives no explanation to how memories are broken into these subunits within long term memory. This theory gives a baseline for memory.

Working memory theory is another model on the process of memory storage. By Baddley and Hitch (1974) built off of the Multi store model but with more focus on short term memory. Working memory is a term for cognitive process happening in the present, right now. They suggested that short-term memory is not a static store, but a complex and active information processor, made up of several dynamic subsystems. The working memory does not cover the whole process but only adds more detail to short term memory. They suggested that short term memory acts as a central processing unit, broken down into three categories to be able to function. The central executive, the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad. The central executive has the most important role. It has a role responsible of overseeing the visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer. It is also responsible for shifting and dividing attention. The phonological loop is the part that holds verbal and written material. Numbers and words can be repeated in the loop until stored or transferred. The Visuospatial sketchpad holds visual information and spatial awareness. This process happens inside of the multi store model. The information enters short term memory as usual but must go through these different parts before heading to long term memory. In 2000, Baddeley added in a missing piece between short term memory and long term memory, an episodic buffer. The episodic buffer holds information and allows it to be passed backwards and forwards between working memory and long term memory. Although the theory is better, it is not perfect. The first criticism is that this theory is not complete as it has a focus on only short term memory.

The working memory model makes several improvements from the multi store. It is much more realistic and detailed. The short term memory’s capacity now is not static and changes according to different variables. The working memory model also allows for multiple processes in short term memory at once, which is realistic as most people are dealing with multiple inputs, almost all the time. However emotions and biological impacts have an effect on the storage of memory which are not covered in either model. Neither model is detailed enough to be the foolproof explanation of memories in the human brain.