Category: Women’s Role

Since time in memorial, the role that women should play has been widely debated in many societies. There are those societies that feel that the woman’s place is in the kitchen while other believes that women should forever be under the authority of men. Societies have changed and women have taken greater roles in societies. It is with this greater concern that some writers have come out of the closet and written on women’s roles in the society. Even in the 20^th century, it is not surprising to note that the roles that are assigned or predetermined to be played by women in society have remained the same with few women taking up the challenge to engage in the male-dominated fields.

Taking a closer look at the writings of Naula O’Faolain, in her autobiography “Are you somebody”, we are left with no doubt that the experiences that her mother went through greatly influenced her writing. Though O’Faolain spent her life single and died childless, she expresses her loneliness which to her is better than ending up like her mother. She has struggled with the meaning of love and confesses in her autobiography that she found it hard to have long lasting relationships. The writer clearly brings out the theme of family which seems to be intertwined with love. The Irish tradition portray women in the traditional sense of being subordinate to men and their role as having children in the family. This is clearly brought out in the autobiography through way the her father treated her mother which makes O’Faolain, hate the traditional perception of Irish marriages and therefore struggles with searching for the meaning of love in life. Her resentments caused by her childhood experiences makes her to continually involve herself with both men and women with the hope of finding the right partner and inevitably love but she ends up not getting involved with anybody. The theme of family in the autobiography “Are you somebody” shows the state that women were subjected to in the Irish community. Women had no equality in the society and were constantly abused by their husbands and their role centered more on bearing children with a good illustration being that the mother of the author had nine children even with her good education. To further stress my point, some people regard O’Faolain, as a bitter writer who expresses her feelings of growing up in an abusive family in her writings by the mere fact that she did not have children of her own and died unmarried. The role of mothers in O’Faolain’s writings is vaguely brought out through the way she expresses her loneliness. In her autobiography, O’Faolain writes that at one time she wrote to her mother telling her that she was lonely only for the mother to reply to her in a very unloving manner (O’Faolain 58). We can therefore say that women should be role models to their children so that their children would be greater people in the society, unlike O’Faolain’s mother who engaged in alcohol making her children including the writer wanted to despise her. Though not directly portrayed in the novel, O’Faolain seems to live the life of her mother in the novel. Her life is filled up with a long search for love (O’Faolain 24) which does not end well for she died a lonely person just like the way her mother’s life ended in alcoholism. The style in O’Faolain is the collection of her real-life experiences commonly referred to as a memoir.

Mary Wollenstonecraft is another writer whose writing draws attention to women’s issues. In the novel “The wrongs of a woman’s”, the character Maria, self educates herself when she is locked up in an asylum by her husband. She befriended one of the attendants of the asylum who agreed to bring her books which she studied (Wollenstonecraft 17). Bringing my point closer home, Maria writes manuscripts in which she advises her daughter who was taken from her by her husband. Mary Wollenstonecraft therefore clearly shows that women’s roles should be educating their children. However, Wollenstonecraft portrays society as regarding women as inferior by not educating them. Interesting to note is that she does not argue for women’s equality with men and perhaps this can be attributed to the time context her novels are written in. The time frame that her novels are written in does not coincide with the time that feminism move was rampant and this clearly illustrates why she still regarded men as having a greater degree than women in her novels. My subjective conclusion, therefore, is that the time frame in which a particular literary piece of work on the way society portrays women is written is dependent on the timeframe that particular novel was written in. Modern writers on women issues have taken a more direct attack claiming on equality between men and women while writers in the 18th century saw no need to equate men to women. However, both sets of writers are not comfortable with the way society has treated women throughout time.

The injustices that women were subjected to in the 18^th century as indicated in the novel “The wrongs of a woman’s” are clearly brought out in the novel when Maria is forced into an asylum by the husband on claims that she was mad (Wollenstonecraft 8). The novel however utilizes the third person narration together with the first-person narration. The combination allows the characters in the novel to address each other freely between the first person persona and the third person persona and thereby making it easy for Maria to tell her story through a narrative to her daughter. Thus, the combination allows Maria to relate to her daughter directly.

George Eliot’s “Silas Marner” has an interesting twist on how societies portray women. The book is written by a woman who used a male name to camouflage that it was the work of a woman and therefore needless to say that even in the 19th century, women were oppressed in society. Geoffrey Cass is a character in the novel “Silas Marner” and who longs to have children but is married to a woman who only had one child. Cass involves himself with another woman by the name of Nancy to escape the wrath of being tied to a woman who cannot have many children (Eliot 17). This clearly shows that women were being valued with the number of children that they could give birth to in society. In addition, when Silas’ hope and love are restored to him when he found Eppie, he finds it’s hard to discipline the child when the child starts to become naughty. This also shows women were the ones to take care of their daughters and sons and discipline them for the men knew nothing about disciplining children, which further illustrates the role of women in society. The style used in this novel is imagery where the behavior of Silas is compared to a spider, an insect and also, an ant.

In Joyce Carol Oates’s “We Were the Mulvaneys”; the narrator clearly introduces us to a cheerful family which has a common element that joins them together as the Mulvaneys. The narrator introduces the theme of the family in a clear manner and goes on to narrate how the family finally disintegrates following their misfortunes which started with the rape of their daughter, Marianne at a Valentine’s Day dance. In the novel, the narrator, Judd Mulvaney, tells us of how the family was widely known in the rural setting of New York but later on lost its status and its brightest moments after sad events started to happen to the family (Oates 15). The narrator tells us how the father felt defeated for failing to avenge when his daughter was raped and thereby settling to alcoholism. Judd tells us that Marianne was sent far away from the family after the mother realized that she had a duty to her husband bringing us to the shift in focus on the role of motherhood in the novel. It is sad to note that after the parents sent off Marianne, the family slowly fragmented with some of the siblings opting to live far away from home. It is when the mother committed herself fully to caring for her husband that she lost focus in the family. In Joyce Carol Oates’s novel “We Were the Mulvaneys”, the theme of the family stands out the most with regard to the way the narrator tells the story. Corrine’s character portrays a woman who is living her dream of being a mother to a happy family before the family falls apart and that’s why she could not believe that Marianne had betrayed her through her innocence and kept quiet about her rape ordeal. Through Joyce Carol Oates’s work, we get a glimpse of society’s expectations of women through Corrine’s character. The novel portrays women to be caring, warm and a woman who loves their children though she prefers looking at the husband at the expense of the child (Marianne) to maintain the family image. Therefore, the novel shows how women desire to be good mothers and a mother can only be truly happy like Corrine if they have a happy family. The style commonly used in the novel is the denouement, where the story unravels and unfolds right as the reader continues to read the novel to an end that seems calculated to a climax, in this case, the death of the father who shattered the family through his indulgence in alcoholism, Michael Mulvaney.

Relating Naula O’Faolain, autobiography “Are you somebody” to Joyce Carol Oates’s novel “We Were the Mulvaneys”, the striking similarity is that the two are written by people who experienced family breakups. For instance, “Are you somebody” is an autobiography by O’Faolain and in Joyce Oates’s novel; the narrator is Judd Mulvaney, who is the youngest of the Mulvaneys.

Frankenstein is a fiction novel by the writer Mary Shelley. The novel revolves around romance and love. Frankenstein creates a monster which makes him disgusted for the monster turned out to be ugly. Frankenstein makes the mistake of leaving the monster with the hope that the monster would not resurface in his life. He is mistaken to think that the monster would disappear after he abandoned it for the monster comes haunting Frankenstein through murdering his loved ones (Shelley 13). The monster feels lonely and alienated and asks Frankenstein to make him a female companion. When Frankenstein refuses the idea of creating a female companion, the monster gets angry and murders Elizabeth who Frankenstein had married. Through Shelly’s novel, women are depicted as companions for their male counterparts and this is evidenced by the monster avenging because Frankenstein did not create a female companion for him. Frankenstein also failed to create a female companion for the monster because he thought that the two monsters would procreate and there would be many monsters (Shelley 46). This further tells us that society views women as child-bearers and this becomes the value that is attached to a woman. A major theme in Shelly’s novel is relationships. It is through the loss of Elizabeth who he loved that Frankenstein finally decides to go on a mission to kill the monster (Shelley 19). Feminism is also evident in the novel where the females involved in the novel are suffering at the hands of the monster. Females in the novel are therefore submissive and rely on their male counterparts to rescue them for example in the case of Elizabeth who died for she was unable to defend herself from the monster’s wrath. The style in Shelly’s Frankenstein is in epistolary form for she has used letters written between Walton and the sister to tell us the story of the monster and Victor. The novel “Frankenstein” by Mary Shelly utilizes gothic style through the introduction of the monster to bring the horrifying experiences and therefore is very different from the others for instance Joyce Carol Oates “We Were the Mulvaneys”.

We also cannot fail to note that while the authors of these novels greatly featured family themes, romance and love, Joyce Carol Oates and Naula O’Faolain did not marry and had no children of their own though they portray the family as the center of love and care for the children.

In summary, the time periods that the novels were written do nothing to elude the fact that men are seen as superior to women. Taking the example of Mary Shelly’s work, all the characters who die at the hand of the monster are women. In addition, the daughter of the great feminist Mary Wollenstonecraft continues to depict women in her novel as passive and thereby projecting the way society has continually viewed women as lesser beings in comparison to men.

Just like O’Faoliain, Wollenstonecraft’s childhood experiences revolve around an abusive father who beat her mother and therefore not surprising to note that she took the role of challenging society’s commonly held beliefs of women. To my conclusion, the women who have taken up the role of writing on the role of motherhood in women’s writings have been directly affected through their childhood experiences. Their fathers used to abuse their mothers and as a result, these writers in conveying the information to all women in the world have also used the experiences to document their childhood life experiences. Yes, to some people, these women have conveyed their bitter feelings for not getting married and others may read their novels with the conclusion that they never had families of their own and therefore not in a position to write on the role of motherhood in society and the way society portray women. Nevertheless, these brave women have shown that society has a long way to go in accepting women and regarding them with dignity.

Works Cited

Eliot, George. Silas Marner. New York. Bantam Classics, 1981

Oates, Joyce Carol. We Were the Mulvaneys. The UK, E P Dutton (HB) & G P Putnam’s Son’s (PB), 1996.

O’Faolain, Naula. Are You Somebody: The Accidental Memoir of a Dublin Woman? New York. Henry Holt & Company, 1996.

Shelly, Mary. Frankenstein; Or the Modern Prometheus: Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1818.

Wollenstonecraft, Mary. The Wrongs of Woman, or Maria: New York, Norton: Ed. Moria Ferguson. 1975.

Introduction

The Ptolemaic reign has captured the attention of many scholars and historians because of its peculiarities. For instance, studies have revealed that the dynasty managed to control Egypt for over two centuries. They reigned from 305 to 30 BC. Historians indicate that the Ptolemies and their followers tried their best so as not to become Egyptians. In order to achieve this goal, people were encouraged to marry their immediate relatives such as sisters, brothers, or nieces. However, past studies have pointed out that, towards the end of the dynasty, some members intermarried with Egyptians. Alexandria was the empire’s capital city. The kingdom is believed to have emerged after Ptolemy I Soter succeeded Alexander the Great. Women played a significant role in supporting the religious and political goals of the dynasty. This discussion focuses on the roles undertaken by women.

Brief Summary of the Ptolemaic Dynasty

The Ptolemaic Kingdom was based in Egypt from 305 to 30 BC. The first Ptolemaic was known as Ptolemy I Soter. The emperor declared himself Egypt’s Pharaoh after the death of Alexander the Great. With adequate resources and massive power, the Pharaoh established a dynasty stretching from Nubia to Cyrene. Soon, the region became famous for trade and Greek cultural practices. The use of Pharaoh’s title was an ingenious move that made the rule recognizable in Egypt.

As indicated earlier, the first Ptolemies discouraged people from marrying Egyptians. However, the practice changed later when they began to associate with one another. Most of the people would eventually embrace Egyptian values, religious beliefs, attires, and styles. However, this kind of interaction led to numerous civil wars and conflicts. The kings who controlled the empire before its collapse encountered rebellion from the natives. They were also involved in conflicts with different foreigners, including the Romans. The kingdom collapsed after Egypt was conquered by the Romans in 30 BC.

Political and Religious Roles of Women of the Ptolemaic Court

Historians have shown conclusively that the Ptolemaic dynasty was characterized by diverse cultural and political attributes that differed significantly from those of the Egyptians. For instance, many Egyptians did not accept women rulers. Those who managed to occupy senior positions had most of their roles trimmed. However, the situation was quite different in Macedonia, where Alexander the Great came from. The culture had always produced royal women who performed a wide range of religious and political roles in their respective capacities. Ptolemy, I also came from the Macedonian culture. As a result, more women were expected or empowered to perform various roles in the Ptolemaic court.

With this kind of cultural influence, most of the Ptolemaic leaders were keen to give superior positions to women in an attempt to achieve specific objectives. During the same period, the first and second emperors were keen to maintain the structure of their families. With intermarriage between the Greeks and the Egyptians discouraged, it was easier for more women to take up diverse roles in the dynasty. Such religious and political responsibilities appeared to widen as the empire’s population increased.

Political Roles

Although history does not present adequate information regarding the true status of women in ancient Egypt, some archeologists and scholars have observed that the Ptolemaic Period managed to transform the existing attitude towards women in Egypt. On one side, such women were required to nurture and take care of children. On the other, women could take up a wide range of roles, such as engaging in trade activities and operating businesses. This position of women in the Ptolemaic community transformed most of the political roles in the court.

It is agreeable that Ptolemy I and II managed to produce powerful women who pursued various political objectives. The wives of different leaders, including those of the emperors, were allowed to be part of the kingship. They took up administrative roles, whereby they monitored the ongoing events such as wars and the acquisition of land. Some historians have argued that most of the women in senior-most positions were at the heart of the dynasty. Although they were supposed to receive instructions from different superiors, they were keen to implement them and ensure the dynasty was run smoothly. Another unique observation is that the Ptolemies did not control the manner in which the empire was ruled. This nature of the organization was quite simple, with royal women having adequate power to influence a number of issues.

With this kind of power, more women managed to focus on various policies with the aim of supporting the welfare of more people in Egypt. A good example was the role played by women in ensuring that every person was in a position to own property or inherit the land. The culture of Macedonia was replicated in Egypt whereby more women were able to embrace the power of business activities. This development explains why many analysts acknowledge that the Ptolemaic Kingdom transformed the lives of many Egyptians.

As Greeks, Ptolemy I and II were observed to have their wives’ portraits on different coins. This means that such women were powerful and capable of controlling various political issues in the kingdom. They could dictate which son was to become an emperor. They were keen to offer political decisions or contributions in an attempt to dictate the manner in which the kingdom was governed. Their capabilities and strengths made it possible for more women in the empire to pursue their goals.

During the reign of Cleopatra VII, many people acknowledged that the queen was politically powerful. She could issue commands and dictate the manner in which different territories were led. The sudden rise of Cleopatra has been described by many historians as a clear indication of the political powers and roles associated with women during the first Ptolemaics.

Ptolemy II is believed to have established a national cult that was aimed at honoring his wife by the name Arsinoe II. She was also the emperor’s sister. It was evident that Arsinoe II, as a queen, was a very powerful woman. She could make numerous decisions in an attempt to ensure the dynasty was successful. Her superiority and success as a political leader became a model for future queens in the dynasty. Some of these queens became rulers as regents or even in their personal rights. Some women such as Arsinoe II were observed to ensure their sons were placed on the throne in Egypt or Macedonia.

Ptolemy III managed to extend the dynasty by annexing different regions across Egypt. He used his position to build a temple in Alexandria known as the Serapeum. Berenice II, the king’s wife, was observed to engage in various conquests. It has been observed that she was a charismatic woman who made it easier for the dynastic to form strategic alliances with different regions in the country. Similarly, this king celebrated Berenice II by commissioning a work of art from a poet named Callimachus.

The fourth and fifth Ptolemies continued to portray the strengths of the dynasty. However, tendencies of ruin and self-destruction began to appear during the period. Ptolemy V became a king at a tender age. He chose to marry Cleopatra I, who would later become the first queen in a series of women bearing the same title. Despite being a powerful woman, most of her political roles were unsuccessful during the period. However, she managed to transform the dynasty’s leadership system. It was also during her reign when the empire lost most of its possessions and assets in foreign regions.

According to historians, the fall of Cleopatra marked the end of the political roles of women. After the collapse of the empire, scholars acknowledge that the positions of women changed significantly in Egypt that was now in the hands of the Romans. This change appeared to echo the collapse of the Greek culture in Egypt. A new order dominated by Rome had already been established in the region.

During the reign, royal women were honored through the use of cults. Such cults became powerful institutions that could be embraced by members of the kingdom. The emerging ideals were then integrated to become part of the Hellenistic cultural landscape. These royal cults appeared to occupy a unique political position in the dynasty. This is a clear indication that royal women had powerful roles and responsibilities.

The role of women played through coinage and cults in the kingdom made it possible for it to remain stable. Most of the people were encouraged by such cults to remain loyal to their respective leaders. Members of the society were required to respect and follow the teachings associated with these cults. The use of statutes in different cities and regions across the dynasty made it possible for more people to worship these cults. Consequently, the level of loyalty increased since more citizens were willing to support the agenda.

This argument shows conclusively that women played various political roles through their selfless ambitions and even after death. A similar process continued whereby future kings created cults of their respective royal queens. The death of such women became a new beginning whereby they managed to support various functions and activities that had significant political implications. Analysts and scholars have therefore acknowledged that some of the gains of this dynasty are attributable to the unique roles played by women throughout the period.

It is also agreeable that future scholars and archeologists should undertake more studies in an attempt to understand the roles much better. This happens to be the case because the achievements, governance structures, responsibilities, and attributes associated with the Ptolemaic are still being unearthed. This move will ensure more people are informed about the significant political roles played by both local and royal women during the reign of the first five Ptolemaics. This understanding can guide more researchers to explore a wide range of political attributes associated with this dynasty.

Religious Roles

As indicated earlier, Ptolemy II decided to create the cult of his wife. This move led to the statue of Philadelphus. It was evident that the strategy was aimed at legitimizing the religious attributes of the dynasty. The established cult encouraged the king to erect more statutes of Arsinoe in almost every temple. This approach made it easier for the leader to ensure every person in the empire followed the cult. Although this duty was intended to deliver political outcomes, it managed to establish a religious order that encouraged more people to remain loyal to the dynasty.

Arsinoe became a powerful religious image in the eyes of many individuals in Egypt. Similarly, these Greeks managed to support and focus on female deities. These goddesses were worshipped and believed to transform the lives and experiences of many people in the kingdom. The concept of syncretism emerged during the reign of the Ptolemies whereby royal women were seen as goddesses. This means that women were worshiped in what became cult-like following. The cult of Arsinoe was observed to become popular across the region. Consequently, it had to be followed by both men and women in the kingdom.

Women in the Ptolemaic court were required to worship such deities and encourage men to be part of the process. They were compelled to make appropriate contributions depending on their respective positions or economic strengths. This move was appropriate in an attempt to encourage more women to develop specific religious values. According to different analysts, this approach was embraced to ensure more people became submissive to the kings.

Although most of the chief priests in these courts were males, it was evident that some women were allowed to take up similar religious roles. Female priests were empowered to guide more people to worship various deities. The idea of priesthood, during the time, was observed to be passed from one generation to the next through hereditary means. This means that more women could take up religious responsibilities in the kingdom. This kind of practice continued for many years until the empire collapsed due to ineffective leadership and the intrusion of the Romans.

The eminence of royal women in the Ptolemaic Kingdom is something that has been studied widely over the past years. The society was able to create special priestesses depending on the targeted cult. This special role encouraged more women to pursue similar goals in order to support the kingdom’s religious agenda. This analysis shows clearly that the kingdom deified royal queens or women. This process led to the establishment of syncretistic cults that were supported by the kingdom such as that of Arsenie II.

Different leaders in the dynasty were able to institute Greek cults that were followed by different people. This approach was observed to encourage more priestesses to serve the royal cult. This move was embraced throughout the kingdom, thereby encouraging more people in Egypt to support similar practices. As a result, more women would be willing to support the kingdom than ever before. This achievement would be embraced in an attempt to establish new alliances across Egypt. The role of women in religious activities were embraced or developed in different societies. The support received from different kings explains why such religious functions increased throughout the period.

During various festivals, daughters of priests were required to design statues of specific mistresses. The next thing would be to perform various rituals and sacrifices depending on the nature or purpose of the festival. Such rites were executed to ensure the kingdom received adequate blessings and good harvests. The role of deities and gods were matched with the ones of the created cults. Every woman was also encouraged to participate in different religious functions. These prominent roles in the kingdom’s religious structure continued for several decades before it was captured by the Romans.

Conclusion

The reigns of the first Ptolemies succeeded because they were characterized by the inimitable attributes and practices borrowed from the Greeks. Following the footsteps of Alexander the Great, the first Ptolemy established a new dynasty that continued to support the powers and welfare of women in the society. More females were empowered to own land, engage in business activities, and pursue financial objectives. Women were guided to play significant political roles that made it easier for the Ptolemies to govern the dynasty. They could be part of various policymaking processes, address conflicts, and even promote the placement of their sons on the throne. After death, most of the royal queens were honored through the use of cults, thereby becoming centers of worship. Consequently, these cults played a major role in strengthening the population’s loyalty. Additionally, women of the Ptolemaic court had significant religious roles during the reigns of the first five Ptolemies. They were required to offer sacrifices and support the worship of special deities. Some of these women were able to inherit superior positions and become priestesses. In conclusion, these roles supported the dynasty’s religious pursuits and political obligations. Unfortunately, the collapse of the kingdom was followed by subsequent lose of such rights and roles.

Introduction

There is no doubt that the modern world has almost nothing in common with one of the Middle Ages. Everything has changed and it is especially important for those areas related to maintaining an appropriate level of health and removing causes of serious diseases that may significantly decrease the quality of lives. Speaking about the particular role of women in medieval medicine and its further development, it is necessary to say that women were supposed to fulfill a wide range of important tasks even though they were not regarded as full-fledged citizens in certain places.

Therefore, the Middle Ages can be regarded as a period that was very difficult for women who were or were not related to medicine. The activity of many women in non-urban areas was related to studying curative properties of different herbs and the ways that they could be used to help different patients including women in labor. Apart from that, a lot of women were working as midwives and nurses despite limited access to important scientific works written by Greek and Roman individual researchers (Ward 2016).

In the most difficult periods in history marked with uncontrolled growth of contagious diseases, nurses were supposed to fulfill duties usually performed by surgeons and other healthcare specialists even though they might be uneducated. Also, the works were written by some famous women who helped to extend the knowledge of systems of the human body. In particular, there was a need for substantial research on women’s reproductive system due to a lack of knowledge that caused quite high maternal mortality rates. Therefore, the role that medieval women played in the further development of practices helping to save the lives of common people is difficult to overestimate.

The Role of the Achievements of Women Nurses and Doctors

To begin with, such a sphere as medicine in the Middle Ages was closely interconnected with religion and supernaturalism even though assumptions supported by scientific evidence were supposed to refute allegations related to supernatural and mysterious reasons for many diseases. Speaking about medieval Europeans and their level of medicine, it is necessary to say that it was relatively weak because there was no justified knowledge of many systems of the human body.

Due to that, many diseases and disorders that modern researchers know a lot of things about were explained by the presence of supernatural powers and creatures that could torture sick people because of their sins or inappropriate thoughts. During that period, people were likely to have a strong faith in God. At the same time, assumptions that certain expressions and rituals could help to ameliorate the health condition of patients were quite common, and a lot of people used magic rituals in their work.

Nevertheless, one supporting church denied the possibility of using magic to help sick people. Speaking about medicine in the Middle Ages, it is necessary to say that these facts about the prevalence of religious points of view and endemic belief in supernatural powers help modern researchers to better understand difficulties that women living in the Medieval Ages had to face and the reason why their position in many spheres was not equal to one of the men.

Different religions and sacred texts that were regarded as the ultimate sources of wisdom contained fragments that worked against women and significantly limited their rights. For instance, believing that Eve was created from Adam’s rib, those who were supporting Christian faith were endorsing the opinion that women existed only to fulfill the needs of men and, therefore, they could not be trusted to do such serious thing as providing treatment.

Apart from that, women were seen as creatures having a strong connection with the supernatural world, and this is why many women who tried to swim against the stream and protect their points of view were defamed of sorcery and killed; the same happened to some men trying to refute religious arguments and prove the inconsistency of world view bridging the gap between the fear of God and magical thinking. Due to these things together with the lack of education facilities for women, the opportunities for women to mark places for themselves in the history books were limited. Nevertheless, their hard work in different spheres helped the entire humanity to consider the most common mistakes related to treatment.

About the Medieval Ages and the situation with medicine, it is necessary to say that not every man could acquire education due to endemic poverty and a lack of research conducted to understand the real laws of nature instead of assumptions related to the story about the creation of the world. Religious houses were the only centers where people could learn to read and write but women living in convents were less educated. Also, it is necessary to say that medicine in early medieval Europe was quite undeveloped and people studying medicine could rely only on Roman and Greek texts kept in religious houses.

Nevertheless, as it is clear from this fact, there were a few people who could have access to that knowledge because the majority of people were illiterate and did not know foreign languages. Being deprived of the right to extend knowledge and study the first works devoted to medicine and classification of diseases, people in small towns and non-urban areas were developing their ways to cope with some ailments.

Such a form of treatment as herbal healing was quite common in these areas and its popularity was constantly growing because there was no alternative for people who could not go to hospitals. Herbal healing was a sphere that was mostly developed by women but the latter often had to keep their activities a secret because of victimization (Moh’d Rousan and Al-Uzaizi 2016, 352). Due to the lack of money, many people were visiting local wise women who knew a lot of healing herbs and understood the way that they needed to be used to ameliorate the health condition of people affected by different diseases.

The herbal healer was an occupation associated with women although a few men were using these methods to help people. As for the ways that women used to gain knowledge related to herbs and their properties, it can be said that women of different generations collected it and then devolved this knowledge to their daughters and granddaughters. Speaking about the practical usability of such knowledge, it needs to be stated that herbs often helped to ameliorate the health condition of those who had diseases involving no threat to life. Nevertheless, serious diseases such as leprosy and Black Death could not be treated with the help of herbs.

At the same time, because common people in the Middle Ages had no access to professional medical help, the development of knowledge in the sphere of herbal healing was an important achievement as well. It may be stated that women related to herbal healing were supposed to be wise and people living in neighboring villages knew them well and treated them with respect. Despite that, their activity involved many threats because of the desire of the authorities to make all people live by religious assumptions. Due to that, a lot of women related to herbal healing in the Middle Ages were accused of witchcraft and then killed.

Apart from ameliorating people’s health condition with the help of herb repertory, there was another function that local wise women were supposed to fulfill – they helped women in labor acting as midwives. Unfortunately, there were a lot of difficult cases and complications during childbirth. Due to the lack of knowledge on numerous systems of the human body, herbal healers were unable to estrange certain problems, and maternal mortality rates were quite high.

Such an area as midwifery began to develop in the Middle Ages, and there were many reasons why the primary role in its development was played by women. In fact, due to certain biases against women, many male researchers believed that a man should not take care of a woman in labor due to a few reasons. First, it was believed that taking care of women during delivery was a practice that could assault men’s dignity and this is why it was inappropriate.

Moreover, the majority of people were religious and if a man was looking at a naked woman who was not his wife, that could not be regarded as an appropriate situation based on religious values. Nevertheless, there could be certain exceptions related to such practices. To become midwives in the future, little girls needed to start gaining experience since their childhood. To do that, they were supposed to be present during the birth of their brothers, sisters, cousins, and other family members and keep track of midwives’ actions.

Speaking about midwives and their position in medieval society, it is necessary to say that they were divided into a few groups based on their qualifications and level of expertise (Dooms 2015, 161). Those midwives who were known for their skills could be trusted to help women in labor belonging to the upper class and it was regarded as a lofty and challenging task for such specialists.

Speaking about the role of women in medicine, it is necessary to state that a lack of education for women and men’s unwillingness to let women fulfill important functions related to providing treatment were the reasons why female doctors were a kind of an exception to the common rule. Due to that, the majority of women engaged in medicine in the Middle Ages were working as nurses. First, it was supposed that nurses did not necessarily have to possess an extended knowledge on the human body to provide patients with the proper care; nevertheless, due to women’s persistence and willingness to study, medical education for women was becoming more and more available (Hood 2013).

Nurses were required to fulfill a wide range of tasks aimed at ameliorating patients’ health conditions. Speaking about the development of nursing with the lapse of time, it can be stated that by the end of the Middle Ages the situation with nurses and their duties has changed. Because of increasing poverty and extended propagation of terminal illnesses, doctors and nurses were facing quite a difficult period.

That period, hospitals in Europe were overcrowded, and there was a lack of specialists who were able to help sick people. Due to that situation, many nurses were supposed to fulfill additional tasks that were usually performed by chemists and even surgeons. As can be seen, the role of women living in the Medieval Ages in maintaining the health of the population and the development of newer ways of treatment is difficult to overestimate.

Despite the facts mentioned above, it cannot be stated that the role of women in the development of medicine in the Medieval Ages was limited to fulfilling practical tasks; in fact, there were a few famous women who made a significant contribution to the theory of medicine using both their own experience and knowledge reported by the first Greek, Roman and Arabic researchers in the field. Speaking about such women, it is necessary to remember Trota of Salerno who is believed to be one of the most famous health professionals in medieval Italy (Ray 2015).

This woman lived in the 12^th century and she became extremely famous due to her works devoted to gynecological disorders. As for the latter, it is necessary to state that such diseases affected a lot of women of different ages but there was a little knowledge on the reproductive system of women and the particular measures that could be taken to alleviate the pain that such disorders involved. About her personality, it can be stated that there are alternative ideas concerning her life expressed by different researchers.

Thus, some of the researchers denying women’s contribution to the development of medicine in the Middle Ages suppose that the works attributed to this person were written by a man who was a former slave. According to these researchers, since women were excluded from medical education, they also could not work on complex medical problems and were isolated from the practice. Women’s ability to provide medical care is doubtful to some because these women were both socially and politically limited from the opportunities men had during the Medieval era.

Another support for this argument is the fact that many names of the women who practiced medicine do not appear in books and archives; thus, the major part of the practice was still conducted by men, the researchers claim. It is acknowledged that women could learn from the practice performed by men, but they were only allowed to help their husbands or fathers in their business and not start their practice.

Therefore, neither the social nor the political atmosphere in Medieval cities was suitable for women if they wanted to treat others independently. Nevertheless, these claims do not seem to be consistent because gynecological diseases are described in great detail that is more likely to be known by women. In general, the works written by this woman touch upon a lot of topics that remain the most important problems related to gynecological health (Casey 2016).

Among other things, her works contain information on methods of treatment and observations connected with such disorders and conditions as an inability to have a child, dysmenorrhea, uterine hemorrhage, birth complications. Apart from that, Trota of Salerno was paying increased attention to questions related to aesthetic procedures and hygiene; in her works, there are a lot of recommendations for women who would like to restore youth and highlight remarkable features of their appearance even more.

Conclusion

In the end, it can be stated that contribution to medicine made by women was extremely important due to a wide range of tasks related to healthcare that they were supposed to discharge. The role of the achievements made by women who were nurses, doctors, midwives, herbal healers who marked the beginning of herbal therapy still used today, and independent researchers seems to be even more important if we take into consideration numerous challenges that these women had to address to have the right to join the medical community.

References

Casey, Abigail I. 2016. “Magic and Medicine in a Man’s World: The Medieval Woman as both Healer and Witch.” Ncurproceedings.com. Web.

Dooms, Marc M. 2015. “Rare Diseases and Orphan Drugs: 500 Years Ago.” Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases 10(1): 161.

Hood, Lucy. 2013. Leddy & Pepper’s Conceptual Bases of Professional Nursing. Hong Kong: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Moh’d Rousan, Laith, and Sammar Faiz Al-Uzaizi. 2016. “Farmers’ Knowledge Level and Training Needs toward the Production and Conservation of Medicinal Herbal Plants in Jordan.” Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 10(24): 351-359.

Ray, Meredith K. 2015. Daughters of Alchemy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Ward, Jennifer. 2016. Women in Medieval Europe: 1200-1500. New York: Routledge.

Spark, Ceridwen, John Cox, and Jack Corbett. 2019. “Gender, Political Representation and Symbolic Capital: How Some Women Politicians Succeed.” Third World Quarterly 40 (7): 1227–45. Web.

This article examines issues related to the growing role of women in politics. Various aspects that hinder the expansion of their active participation in the activities of the state are analyzed. Consequently, the authors seek to demonstrate by concrete examples due to what or what qualities women manage to gain extensive political freedom and power. It is worth noting that the thesis of this article is the desire to prove that the provision of a more significant number of quotas and financial opportunities can improve the state’s policy as a whole due to the active participation of women politicians. The result of this work is the discovery of several qualities and characteristics that successful politicians use in their activities to achieve positive results on an equal footing with men. The article’s authors use the examples of three female politicians who strongly influence the activities of their country to confirm their thesis. This resource will be helpful in my research, as it allows me to provide facts that several characteristics make it possible to strengthen the role of women politicians.

Andrew C. Baker et al., “The Progressive Era,” Mary Anne Henderson, ed., in The American Yawp, eds. Joseph Locke and Ben Wright (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018)

This resource describes various socio-political movements that became the basis of the Progressive Era. Particular attention should be paid to the issue of the development of the women’s movement. The authors consider various factors that allowed the suffragette movement to gain public attention. All this has led to the emergence of more rights and freedoms for women. The very activities of various public organizations began to be aimed at maintaining social justice. The author’s thesis is that each movement had its own goals and ideas about the structure of American society. In conclusion, statements are made that technological progress has become one of the foundations of the change and transformation of the country’s society. To prove the thesis, the author provides various historical summaries and information about personalities who influenced the formation of strong social movements. This resource will be useful for my research as it demonstrates various examples of the activities of women politicians in the era of significant socio-political changes in the country.

“Rankin, Jeannette.” n.d. House.Gov. Web.

This resource describes the biography and history of Jeannette Rankin’s political activities. In addition to the description, various memoirs of contemporaries and testimonies allow readers to judge the abilities of a female politician. Paying attention to the fact that she is the first representative of the United States Congress is essential. The politician’s activities dedicated to the expansion of women’s rights and freedoms are particularly noted. In addition, its pacifist policy aimed at limiting the country’s intervention in military conflicts during the First and Second World Wars is noted. It is worth noting that this resource is presented in the format of a historical summary, so there are no theses and conclusions. However, this article is of particular interest to my research as it allows me to learn many details about the activities of Jeannette Rankin. My work is aimed at studying the characteristics that allowed Jeanette to get the opportunity to participate in the policy of the state and significantly influence it.

Blackwell, Alice Stone. 1917. “Answering Objections to Women’s Suffrage.” The American Yawp Reader. 1917. Web.

This resource contains the author’s reflections on why women should have the right to vote. This article discusses various provocative issues related to how the suffragette movement affects American society. All this is presented in the form of reflections of various people. It is worth noting that this resource does not have theses and conclusions. However, the reader can trace the author’s intentions to demonstrate a particular idea. It is connected with the fact that various ideas were circulating in society then, which did not allow people to accept that women should have equal rights. To confirm this idea, the author gives various quotes and refutes some of them. This resource will be useful for my research work as it has significance in forming the idea that women should strive to acquire socio-political freedoms. Thus, this will become the basis from which it will be possible to trace the appearance of women politicians in Congress and other structures.

Wilson, Woodrow. “Excerpt from The New Freedom: ‘What Is Liberty?’” The American Yawp Reader. 1917. Web.

This resource is an article from the election program of President Woodrow Wilson. Her idea is aimed at the fact that he sought to criticize the lack of support for traditional American freedoms. Thus, there was a goal aimed at implementing and reforming the system of interaction between the state and the population. Most of this resource is devoted to analyzing the idea of freedom and what it means for American society. The central thesis in Woodrow Wilson’s statement is the desire to revise the idea of freedom to meet the majority’s requirements. Wilson cites memories of Thomas Jefferson as one of the leading ideologues of maintaining democratic ideas to prove his opinion. This resource is essential for my research, as it is the primary transformation of American society. It is necessary to consider the impact of this policy on the appearance of more women in government structures. In addition, this resource serves as an important representation of how politicians imagined the ideas of freedom during the transformations of society.

Introduction

During the 19th century, women gained recognition and support for their rights, though mainly in the form of protests and petitions. Women’s suffrage was also a significant movement during the 19th-century era, with many women advocating for the right to vote and other fundamental rights.

Discussion

Although women faced much backlash, such as denying their right to have a similar payment as men, they continued to fight for equality and recognition. This is reflected in Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Frances Elizabeth Willard’s writings, which show their support for women’s rights and a desire for equality. Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Frances Elizabeth Willard were two of the most influential authors of the 19th century, as they wrote extensively on women’s rights and equality. Their writings were ground-breaking at the time and showed a clear understanding of the issues faced by women. Furthermore, they advocated for the right to vote and other fundamental rights, a novel concept in the 19th century. Their works have since become essential readings for understanding the history of women’s rights and have remained relevant even to this day.

Much progress has been made in terms of women’s rights and equality. Women now have the right to vote, pursue higher education, and take on leadership roles in business and politics. Despite this development, there is still a long way to go before full equality is attained because women continue to experience prejudice and inequality in many areas. It is encouraging to see that the ideas of Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Frances Elizabeth Willard are still relevant today and serve as an inspiration to continue striving for equality. The role of women in society has changed significantly since the birth of women’s rights.

Conclusion

Throughout the 19th century, women began to advocate for and fight for their rights, including the right to vote and other fundamental rights. Today, these rights are more widely accepted and respected, and women have made great strides in equality. Women can now pursue higher education and take on leadership roles in business and politics. Despite these advancements, women face discrimination and inequality in many places, and there is a long way to go before true equality is achieved.

Ancient Greece consisted of many small city-states, amongst which Athens and Sparta were the most prominent. Although these states had significant influence over ancient Greece civilization, they exhibited distinct social and political characteristics. The growth of Athens and Sparta led to the development of new ideas and suggestions about improving individuals’ living standards in society. Bruce (2019) explains that women in Athens and Sparta endured issues because they had minimal rights compared to men who lived independently. This resulted in inequality, condemnation, and demoralization of women because some societies believed that they were eviler than an enemy, weak, useless, and confused, therefore unable to conduct crucial activities (Bruce, 2019). However, despite the loathsome and biased perspectives, Athenian and Spartan females played vital roles in these two states’ history, though the exact ways in which they contributed varied based on existing social and political rules (Glassman, 2017). This can be seen by looking at family responsibilities, citizenship, education, and Athenian and Sparta women’s property ownership.

Marriage and Marital Obligations

Females from the two societies were second in command from the males, and men made decisions in all situations. Fantham et al. (1994) explains that young women were expected to abstain from sexual intercourse until marriage, arranged by their fathers and male relatives. Uncles and other men would assume the responsibility of taking care of females if the fathers had died or were absent. Aristotle writes, “if he dies without having made directions as to this by will, whoever he leaves as his executor bestows her upon whom he chooses” (“Aristotle, politics,” n.d., p. 2). Society disregarded single mature women and denied them provision and crucial roles in the city-state. Fantham et al. (1994) explain that after marriage, adult females’ roles included bearing children and carrying out daily household chores such as cooking and washing clothes. Xenophon Oik (n.d.) writes, “To the woman, since God has made her body less capable of such endurance, I take it that he has assigned the indoor task” (7.23). However, the financially stable husbands employed slaves to help their wives in the house. Athenian wives were expected to remain faithful to their husbands, but the contrary happened to their men (Fantham et al., 1994). Males freely engaged with courtesans, live-in lovers, and prostitutes and bore children. Xenophon Oik, (n.d.) asserts that “in case a man did not want to cohabit with his wife and nevertheless desired children he made it lawful for him to choose a woman who was the mother of a fine family and of high birth” (p. 8). Simultaneously, women who failed to preserve the family’s honor, such as committing adultery, would be banished from attending religious ceremonies. If a man realized that their wife had sexual relations with another person, they could kill the lover and would not be prosecuted (Seitkasimova, 2020). Athenian females could not move from one place to another or have sexual relations outside marriage because it was considered unethical and disrespectful; therefore, they would be punished (Xenophon Oik, n.d.). On the contrary, Pomeroy et al. (2002) explain that Spartan women would go anywhere and would have multiple partners even though they were married. This was allowed because it increased Spartan warriors’ population and fulfilled the females’ honor of giving birth. Additionally, it helped them to interact with people from different cultures and areas, resulting improved trade activities (Pomeroy et al., 2002). However, these women were denied the freedom of wearing jewelry or apply makeup. Athenian women worked without rest and were confined to their quarters when there was no labor outside the house (Fantham et al., 1994). Moreover, they would vacate their houses if a man occupied the home. These females lived a secluded life and competed for their husbands’ attention because they openly engaged with prostitutes and both gender slaves, including those in relationships. Athenian females were shifted from one man’s authority to another but were powerless to resist. On the other hand, Pomeroy (2002) explains that Spartan girls wore revealing clothes, jewelry as they went out to get involved with different boys. Therefore, the marital obligations and family responsibilities of Athenian women exceeded those of Spartan females.

Education

Athens was renowned as an intellectual center, and residents concentrated on academic pursuits such as philosophy, music, and art. Seitkasimova (2020) explains that Spartan was a military-strength area, and its residents believed in the power of protecting their space. Athenian females stayed at home and were restricted from going to the training grounds. Spartan’s young women went to schools and learned how to read and write (Pomeroy, 2002). This is because their education system emphasized the importance of schooling. “As soon as they can understand what is said to them, and send them to a school to learn letters, music and the exercises of the wrestling-ground” (Xenophon Const, n. d., p. 2). This enlightenment helped Spartan females realize the essentiality of preventing harm in their city; therefore, they engaged in sports, gyms, wrestling, and military training (Glassman, 2017). However, Athenian females did not attend education facilities, although some selected women would be taught inside the houses. The education given to ancient Greek women played a crucial role in developing both states. Seitkasimova (2020) explains that these females learned about good communication skills, taking quality care of their family, trading activities, and playing their community roles. Athens highly prized democracy and denied women many things because they believed that freedom could encourage them to practice adultery (Glassman, 2017). Therefore, husbands treated their wives as slaves, although the laborers had more rights than these females. For example, Athenian women worked without rest and were confined to their quarters when there was no labor outside the house, which helped them become active when performing various weaving activities (Fantham et al., 1994). These females lived a secluded life and competed for their husbands’ attention because they openly engaged with prostitutes and both gender slaves, including those in relationships. However, the women took advantage of their seclusion to learn new techniques of making different textiles. They could sell materials to other individuals and use the money to improve their living conditions. These trading activities enhanced the relationship of individuals across different areas and cultures. Additionally, Pomeroy (2002) explains that Spartan women joined education facilities and understood the essentiality of taking care of the home in their husbands’ absence. For example, Spartan men’s wives took charge of the family and businesses when they were away in battle. The soldiers would be away from home for long periods, similar to those who fought during the civil wars leaving the adult women in control. These females were involved in various activities such as putting up businesses and buying a property (Pomeroy, 2002). As a result, Sparta’s state’s economic status improved because of the establishment of big factories and industries.

Land Ownership and Economic Status

Athenian ladies did not inherit property from their husbands or guardians. For example, when a father who had a son and a daughter died, the male would assume the inheritance. Additionally, if the female was an only child, and their guardian passes on, her husband or a close male relative took control of the property (Fantham et al., 1994). Moreover, a male relative took control of the property of a deceased man and married their wife. However, this was not the norm in Spartan society because adult females became heirs of their husbands’ or fathers’ belongings to embrace civilization (Glassman, 2017). The females were also allowed to choose and marry any man in society after their husband’s death, own property, and engage in trade. Aristotle writes, “nearly two-fifths of the whole area of the country is owned by women, because of the number of women who inherit estates and the practice of giving large dowries” (“Aristotle, politics,” n.d., p. 1). However, Athenian women were restricted from engaging in trade and possessing money that exceeded what the family needed to feed for five or six days (Seitkasimova, 2020). In addition, an adult woman who owned a slave was denied the right to sell them away or farm the land without authority from men. By contrast, Spartan females could also inherit land and wealth and married, or a male authority figure did not control widowed women (Xenophon Oik, n.d.). Athenian women were denied the right to speak in public places or get involved with political activities. On the other hand, Spartan females were outspoken and became leaders at one point. For example, these women belittled unmarried men above 35 years and were considered cowards in society. However, Athenian females became citizens despite the lack of freedom and democracy.

In conclusion, although women were denied certain rights in ancient Greece, the restrictions varied from one state to another. However, these women took advantage of society’s status to improve their living statutes and the family. For example, Athenian females’ marital obligations were to take care of the family and give birth to strong children. The women stayed in the houses and learned various textile-making techniques, which they sold and improved their livelihood. On the other hand, Spartan females enjoyed the freedom of going outside their homes and attending military training places to become physically fit. Ancient Greek women also played a crucial role in their states’ security because they encouraged young boys to join the military and protect the community. The education given to Athenian and Spartan women helped them to achieve different goals in life. For example, Spartan females understood the value of money and the essentiality of owning property, which allowed the cities to grow. In contrast, educated Athenian women understood the essentiality of trade, and they sold textile materials to other people, although there were limitations about the money they got. Moreover, Athenian women were restricted from inheriting property from their fathers or husbands. On the other hand, Spartan women would take their deceased father’s and husband’s possessions and own property in the state. Therefore, despite the community’s perception of ancient Greek women, they became productive and significantly contributed to Sparta’s and Athens’ civilizations.

References

Aristotle, politics. (n.d.).

Bruce, S. G. (2019). The dark age of Herodotus: Shards of a fugitive history in early Medieval Europe. Speculum, 94(1), 47−67.

Fantham, E., Foley, H. P., Kampen, N. B., Pomeroy, S. B., & Shapiro, H. A. (1994). Women in the classical world: Image and text. Oxford University Press. Web.

Glassman, R. M. (2017). The origins of democracy in tribes, city-states, and nation-states. Springer.

Pomeroy, S. B. (2002). Spartan women. Oxford University Press.

Seitkasimova, Z. A. (2020). Status of women in Ancient Greece. Open Journal for Anthropological Studies, 3(2), 49−54.

Xenophon. (n.d. a). Constitution of the Lacedaemonians.

Xenophon. (n.d. b). Oikonomikos.

Introduction

Stability in modern African society, its development, and improvement are fundamentally interconnected with women’s movements in the past. Due to this phenomenon, today, in the countries of Southern Africa, it is possible to observe the trend of successful modernization of states and the results of responsible leadership on the part of the government. Women played a unique role in the liberation of South Africa, and this moment was given to them through pain, sacrifice, suffering, and destruction (Apleni, 2012). Based on important and significant historical events, it should be noted that women played a vital role in the transformation of South Africa in the 20th century.

Analysis

Trade Unions (1948–1991)

Trade unions are notable organizations in South Africa. Their activity gave an extraordinary impetus for developing justice, honesty, and respect for women (LaNasa, 2020). In general, the persistent activity of the trade union women leaders allowed for achieving equality, respect, and work progress, as well as minimizing prejudices and biases towards “female inferiority.” The transformation did not occur immediately, but only after several decades; women were held in high esteem, they were paid a decent salary, and their work was recognized as almost as good as men’s.

Federation of South African Women (FEDSAW) (1954)

The goals of the FEDSAW organization in 1954 were to conduct campaigns against human rights violations and apartheid laws against non-white citizens of South Africa (“The federation of South African women,” 2020). Undoubtedly, some women representatives managed to succeed in their affairs, but only at the cost of their freedom and reputation. In this case, with the help of the FEDSAW organization, the transformation was successful only to a small extent. The role of women in this association was recognized only over time.

The Defiance Campaign (1952)

The women leaders of the Defiance Campaign in 1952 supported disagreement and dissatisfaction with the apartheid laws. It was probably one of the largest-scale nonviolent resistance in South Africa. Indeed, the Campaign’s activities have found a comprehensive response from the public. However, the political goals were not achieved due to insufficient preparation for quite obvious actions on the part of the Government and the armed forces.

Freedom Charter (1956)

The followers of the goals and philosophy of FEDSAW were South African nationals who created the Women’s Charter organization. In the same way, women actively and stubbornly fought to abolish laws that discriminate against women as full citizens of their homeland. Charter women subsequently played a meaningful role in the fight against apartheid, joining the workforce ranks and earning a more decent salary. This period was a kind of “golden mean” in the transformation of society, as the negative attitude towards women gradually softened.

The Anti-Pass Campaign (1956)

The Anti-Pass Campaign is a company that was aimed at abolishing official regulations for women of color; during the same period, a black belt symbol appeared, symbolizing the death of the Constitution. In 1956, thousands of women of various origins and skin colors marched through the streets to the buildings of Trade unions (Boddy-Evans, 2018). They demanded to repeal of the law on the forced eviction of citizens from the “wrong areas.” Nonetheless, it was the 50 years that laid the foundations for creating and maintaining more loyal living and working conditions for women.

The Sharpeville Massacre (1960)

In 1960, a new turn took place – the South African Government decided to extend the passing Act to women – an instrument of racial discrimination. The FEDSAW held a series of impressive demonstrations against the extension of the pass system to women. In the end, “Sharpeville” became the tragedy that most clearly showed that the ideology of apartheid is the road to death, not to live.

The Soweto Uprising (1976)

The Soweto Uprising in 1976 became one of the most notable in the history of the struggle against apartheid. The reason for the demonstration of young girls from the Soweto Students Action Committee was the order of the Ministry of National Education on the study in African schools of the language of white settlers – Afrikaans. The youth of Soweto still remember those moments that changed their lives for the better. Indeed, young girls were able to achieve the transformation of society, but to a small extent; the role of women has now become the most important in decision-making.

Women of Crossroads (1978)

Finally, the significance of the events in Crossroads from the 1970s to the 1990s should be highlighted. It was a period of heated debate between nationalists and socialists (Meintjes, 2011). Moreover, some female workers had to live not in the best conditions and away from white people. Due to the movements at this time, women leaders managed to draw the Government’s attention to the hardships and difficulties they had to face because of injustice (United Nations Centre Against Apartheid, 1978). Indeed, they deserved more for their efforts but received only the most modest awards.

Women Organizations

Furthermore, organizations such as ANCWL, Black Sash, and others have played a unique role in the transformation, development, and modernization of South Africa. Each of these political groups, certainly, opposed chauvinism and discrimination, as well as oppression on gender, national, social, and other grounds. It should be remembered that these associations helped to protect and promote women’s rights both within the particular region and beyond.

Conclusion

In conclusion, there have been many women in the history of South Africa who have made a significant contribution to the transformation of society, State, and Government and the struggle for gender equality. Primarily, women took an active part in the confrontation against the apartheid regime. For the most part, achievements in gender equality and justice result from many years of joint efforts from public organizations in the countries, such as FEDSAW, Freedom Charter, ANCWL, and many other associations.

References

Apleni, L. (2012). Women’s role in the transformation of South Africa. Polity.

Boddy-Evans, A. (2018). Women’s anti-pass law campaigns in South Africa: What happened when the SA government tried to force women to carry passes. ThoughtCo.

The federation of South African women (FEDSAW) is founded. (2020). South African History Online (SAHO).

LaNasa, P. (2020).The rise of women’s trade unionism in South Africa. South African History Online (SAHO).

Meintjes, S. (2011). The women’s struggle for equality during South Africa’s transition to democracy.Transformation Critical Perspectives on Southern Africa, 75(1), pp. 107-115.

United Nations Centre Against Apartheid. (1978). The effects of apartheid on the status of women in South Africa. The Black Scholar, 10(1), 11–20.

The mid-1900s was a time of tremendous social change as women began to gain some real freedoms. Until the 1960s, women remained primarily confined to the house and within a specific ideal, held by both men and women, regarding a specific conception of ‘femininity’. With the success of the Civil Rights movement and other events taking place during the 1960s, women began to find their voice and assert their right to be heard. The films produced in Hollywood during this time reflected and led to new ideas concerning the proper role of women in society. Films such as “Singing in the Rain” produced in 1952 and “Funny Girl” made in 1968, reflect how thinking had changed regarding women during the intervening years.

To establish a base knowledge of the prevalent ideals regarding ‘proper’ female behavior in 1952, it is helpful to compare the two female lead characters Kathy Seldon and Lina Lamont. Lina is physically imposing, headstrong, powerful, famous, independently wealthy and influential, demanding that her voice be heard. This is compared to Kathy Seldon, who first appears in the picture as a completely respectable ‘regular’ girl, in white kid gloves and proper hat.

She is intelligent and, as the film proceeds, demonstrated to be vocally talented and sacrificing when the opportunity arises for her to save a friend, “the important thing is to save ‘The Duelling Cavalier’.” Although she is mortally hurt and furious with Don when he orders her to sing at the grand opening of “The Dancing Cavalier”, she is rewarded for her obedience even as Lina is disgraced for her headstrong insistence.

Many of the characteristics Lina displays in 1952 are also important elements of Barbra Streisand’s character, Fanny Brice, in 1968. Like Lina, Fanny is somewhat brash in that she comes from an uneducated and unrefined area of the city, she is headstrong and determined to do things her way and she is loud, insisting that men hear her. Both Lina and Fanny are even aggressive toward pursuing the man they want – Lina tells Don he can’t be in love with Kathy because “everybody knows you’re in love with me” and Fanny admits “this would have been awfully embarrassing had you reacted any way other than what you did” on her unexpected arrival on board his ship to Europe.

However, where these tactics only serve to bring Lina to her own destruction, they are precisely what gain Fanny her success, aided by a keen intelligence and a loyal heart, demonstrating that society had come to accept these attributes in a leading lady.

The degree to which these changing concepts of the feminine were accepted can be found in a comparison between the more traditionally feminine Kathy of 1952 with the bolder and louder Fanny of 1968. Both women have beautiful voices, a self-driven ambition to succeed and a truly kind and nurturing heart. The differences between them can be seen particularly well in their responses to men who tell them to sing. Kathy, ordered to sing for Lina by Don, tells him, “I’ll do it Don, but I never want to see you again, on or off the screen” and then proceeds to sing beautifully for the false star. This is contrasted with Fanny’s confrontation with Ziegfeld regarding the bridal number finale.

She does her best to express her opinion, but when he doesn’t listen to her, she appears on stage on opening night as a pregnant bride, putting an ironic twist to the words Ziegfeld told her to sing “as they were printed” that changed the production into a comedy. Her failure to live happily ever after as Kathy does is less the fault of her actions as it is a failure on the part of the male lead to change his definitions of ‘masculine’ in response to the changing definitions of ‘feminine.’

Don Lockwood is seen as the ideal man of the 1950s in that he plays one in his films. He is well aware of his role as a man, careful of women but gently asserting himself as the superior. Confident in his ‘manliness’, he is also capable of opening himself up to his friends, as is seen when he runs to Cosmo after his first encounter with Kathy. Don admits his insecurities to Cosma freely when he tells his “keep telling me that [that he’s good] from time to time.

I feel a little shaken.” Don is also able to allow Kathy to help him save his career despite the sacrifice she’ll be making thanks to this confidence. This is significantly different from Nick Arnstein’s position in 1968. A full-time gambler, Nick’s masculinity depends literally on the luck of the cards and is easily threatened by the more stable and lucrative livelihood earned by his wife. At the same time, his ability to be a successful gambler is threatened because of the spotlight on his wife’s personal and public life. He has no one to confide in and cannot make himself vulnerable in any way to his woman, even if it is the only means by which he can save himself.

In conclusion, it appears while women gained power and voice in the world outside of the home, men began to feel more threatened by this freedom and more pressure to maintain a superior status. The idea that women’s voices were becoming more acceptable is seen in the way that many of the unacceptable, unfeminine attributes condemned in Lina’s character are prized in Fanny’s character 16 years later.

At the same time, Fanny’s character managed to retain many of the more favored attributes of the ideal feminine demonstrated by Kathy. Fanny’s failure to find the kind of everlasting love and career happiness hinted at in Kathy’s story is the result of Nick’s inability to compete with her for head of household, a concept of masculinity supported by Don. However, Don had the added ability to confide in friends and females because of his security in his masculinity, something Nick never had.

One of the cultural artifacts that denote the life of women in Ancient Egypt is the sculpture under the title Nefertiti Bust. It is a life-sized 47-cm high bust of the queen of Egypt, Nefertiti, who was pharaoh’s wife and lived in the 13^th century BC (“The bust,” 2022). The artifact is currently displayed at the Egyptian Museum of Berlin. Due to the high social and political status of the queen, this cultural artifact might have served as a commemorative or burial attribute. Commonly, bust sculptures in Ancient Egypt were “assigned to the realm of private ancestor worship in the domestic sphere or in the context of burials” (“The bust,” para. 21). However, it indicates the high status that a woman could obtain in ancient Western civilizations, where she could perform as the head of a state.

The sculpture has a significant cultural and historical value due to its indication of the appraisal of the figure of Nefertiti by society. Moreover, in the context of history, this artifact is invaluable because it was preserved in a very good condition, allowing for examining the materials ad techniques used meticulously to create this masterpiece. The professionals working on the artifact noted that the paint looked as if freshly applied. Therefore, apart from the cultural and historical importance, the bust has an artistic value as a fine example of sculpturing mastery. It might be relevant to expand the discussion of this artifact in the context of women’s role in ancient Egyptian politics.

Reference

The bust. (2022). Web.