The human right awareness in the world has taken a quite interesting shape in the attempt to achieve sisterhood and recognize women rights as human rights. This has been a subject of debate and extensive criticism as it is perceived as having potential to “homogenizing the issues that might be different to different women. There is also the risk of universalizing feminist ideas that are practiced in the western countries and use them to solve the problems facing all women around the globe.
Societal development and political maturity of a society is currently appraised by the extent the women rights are being enforced. In my opinion, is support that women problems should not at all be homogenized or feminist ideas universalized because the problems of women are not similar around the world and different women take different course in addressing their problems.
The issue of women rights has brought about hot debates in the world especially regarding veil put by Muslim women and other issues like polygamy. As presented in this essay, the issue of veil which is a discursive issue in the world is discussed as described by Leila Ahmed.
Leila Ahmed tries to seek the discourse about women and gender in the Islamic has emerged and exploring what is the root cause of such debates in current worlds. She seeks from the debate whether the Islamic culture and societies are really oppressive to women. Te center of her concern was the discourse of veil where women in the Islamic societies were required to appear in veils and other clothing that are connected to the Islamic traditions.
The mail question that lingered in her mind is whether the issue of veil and the traditional clothing was meant to boost pure Islam favoring both sexes or otherwise. Ahmed first focuses on the gender pattern in the Middle East prior to the emergence of the Islam in order to gain ground to describe the Islamic doctrine on women that were practiced in the past. She describes how the Arab societies propagated the debates about women and gender within the Islamic societies that have become so prevalent in the world today.
She explores the issue of women and gender both in Islamic contexts, social and also the historical background. She conducts an extensive study of debates and ideologies about women within the Islamic societies and demonstrates how the debate is so prevalent in the current world. She advocated tat unveiling women could be a great step to transforming the social status of the Islamic societies.
His survey acted as a strong onset of the feminism within the Arab culture. According to Ahmed (23), Muslim men and women have expended a lot of effort in the attempt to discard the veil from their culture but others believe that the veil is important for feminist struggle. She demonstrates that the veil was a way used by the colonizers in order to promote their cultures in other territories forcing them to undermine their native culture. It is among other things a strategy of colonial domination in an area.
Some Muslim women in different part of the world demand it as their right to be allowed to choose whether to veil or not. The concept explored by Leila Ahmed is very vital and closely connected to the Inderpal Grewal’s “the regime of human rights”? According to Grewal (1), similar to Ahmed argument, oppression of women by global feminism comes in form of universalization and generalization of women issues and approaches.
This is oppressive because the women issues are not the same in all places in the world. There is very high correlation between the issues presented by Ahmed and that by Grewal because they both discuss issues related to women rights. They both argue that human rights are based on western notion that is generalized. The international organization present the western women as superior and they spill over their feminism notions to their third world counterparts without considering the cultural differences.
To achieve “a radical complexity in the practice of feminist politics” as termed by Grewal, women should be allowed to pursue their demand for women rights their own way depending on their culture. Homogenization and universalizing women problems deprives some women the right to deal with their issues the best way they can by forcing them to adopt the western culture.
Women oppression should not be homogenized or universalized because women in different countries differ in culture, politics or have social system that only suits their own problems. According to Ahmed, these are strategies to achieve western domination and erode the culture of women in minority communities.
Works Cited
Ahmed, Leila. “The Discourse of the Veil”. Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992.
Grewal, Inderpal. ‘Women’s Rights as Human Right: Feminist Practices, Global Feminism and Human Rights Regimes in Trans-nationality.” (PDF) Citizenship Studies 3, no. 3 (1999): 337–54
Women’s rights are probably one of the most frequently discussed issues all over the world. Presence or absence of women’s rights is appeared to be a strong indicator that helps to comprehend global well-being and humans’ prosperity. Lots of people think that women’s rights are a burning problem in countries, where religion has certain power.
If fact, many Muslim countries, where religion turns out to be law, women face lots of problems and misunderstandings. Rola Dashti is one of the authors, who concentrate on the problems, women of Kuwait face day by day. She underlines that gender inequality and women’s inability to vote should be analyzed, and certain changes should be made.
However, she is not the only author, who tries to pay the reader’s attention to problems any woman may face one day. Betty Friedan created a really magnificent work at the beginning of 1960s. It was The Feminine Mystique, the sparkle of national debates concerning women’s roles in society. If we talk about the rights of women in the modern world, the works of these very authors should be taken into consideration at first.
Rola Dashti clearly explains that in Kuwait, “the perfect role for women is to stay at home, raise children, take care of the house, and be subservient to their husbands – under the false pretence that this is dictated by religious requirements.” (Dashti, 2005) Those women, who do not want to accept these rules, have to be terrorized both socially and psychologically.
However, she cannot agree to such distribution of the roles, and she calls upon all people to look again at the situation, connected to women’s rights, and provide all women with a chance to participate in the political, economical, and other spheres of life for better and safer future.
Betty Friedan points out that this very problem “has no name stirring in the minds of so many American women today.” (Friedan and Quindlen, 2001, p. 32) Without any doubts, women are victims of not fair system we live in. The point is that women have the only right to realize themselves through their own husbands, children, and homes.
With the help of Friedan’s work, we get to know more about the situations, our mothers and grandmothers could face, when they were young, and compare them to those life, modern women live. Of course, differences are noticeable: the women of 1960s got married at the young age and dropped their education in order to make the lives of their husband happier.
The life of women in Kuwait, described by Dashti, is almost the same even nowadays. More than 40 years ago, women started their movements in order to prove their rights to participate in the political life of their country, and only in 2005, women in Kuwait got the right to vote.
With time, women realize that their lives are incomplete, because they should think about their husbands and children only. Such lives seem to be a bit boring and incorrect. This is why women’s rights problems are such types of problems, women have to solve independently.
Of course, the works by Friedan and Dashti may help a bit to realize the core of the problem and choose the best way to achieve success. If women have enough words to say in order to prove their rights, if they are ready to demonstrate their powers and abilities, they can easily achieve the desirable goals and become free. It is quite possible that free women will get more chances, opportunities, and desire to make the lives of their children, husbands, and their own lives better and happier.
Works Cited
Dashti, Rola. “Can There Be Democracy with Marginalization?” Bitterlemons-International, 28 Jul. 2005. Web.
Friedan, Betty, Quindlen, Anna. The Feminine Mystique. W. W. Norton & Co, 2001.
The source is titled Alice Paul depicts the woman who championed women’s rights in a movement called the national women’s suffrage. Debra Michals is the author of the source Alice Paul. Although this work is deemed to be Debra’s work, she has cited several publications to come up with the completed document. The article was edited by Doris Michaels in 2015, citing several publications and articles, some of which date back to 1994.
The source Alice Paul depicts the numerous contributions that she and her fellow suffragists made to the new rights of women. Through such a publication, we get to appreciate the challenges and sacrifices that these great women of history had to endure for us to be able to vote (Gledhill & Heath, 2021). As edited by Debra Michals, the source is a short bibliography on Alice Paul, which denotes a short history of her early life, where she was born and raised, her education, and her contributions to the rights of women.
This is a secondary source because the information is explained by a person who was not present during the activities. Debra is using data from the museums to write down what she did not witness firsthand. Moreover, these are incidences in the 18th century, and no one from that century is alive now to tell the happenings. The writer is neutral since she is only interested in explaining the life history of Alice Paul. She gives a brief history of her life and the contributions she made as a women’s rights activist. For example, Alice Paul was born on January 11, 1885, in mount laurel; she went to college in Swarthmore and later went to England, where she studied social work (Debra Michal, 2015). She later founded the women’s suffrage movement, which championed the rights of women.
Women learn that they need to be bold enough and speak up for their rights no matter the circumstances they face. For instance, Alice organized parades and pickets, which demanded that women be granted the right to vote. In 1917, Paul and other suffrages began picketing the white house as they stood at the gates with banners asking the president how long they would wait for liberty. This is a credible source as it clearly illustrates the injustices women faced in their quest for equal rights. During the pickets that Alice organized for the white house, silent sentinels experienced physical and verbal attacks from spectators.
The second secondary source is titled the beginning of the feminist movement. The writer of this source is Kira Cochrane. The source was written on May 7, 2013. Kira Cochrane vividly makes us see the effect of women’s discrimination by mentioning a few women who took their lives due to this. She mentions Marilyn Monroe, who had lost her life due to an overdose, and Sylvia Path, who had committed as a consequence of the kind of treatment that women were being subjected to.
The source focuses on feminism, where the woman wants more to her identity and not the overstated feminineness, which was thought to be ideal for all women. Kira wants us to recognize the plight these women faced where they lived as though they had no identity. She shares these predicaments, some of which led to some taking their own lives. This source qualifies to be a secondary source since the writer talks about happenings that took place in her absence. She gives case scenarios based on other people’s writings who were present during that time.
The writer seems to be leaning toward the point that women needed an identity for themselves. She talks about feminism stating that it has been fifty years of the journey of feminine liberation. Kira seems to be in support of the woman having some sense of status in her life when she says a lot has changed, but another fifty years start now, suggesting that she wants more than there already is. Women learn that in times of inequality, they ought to raise their voices to be heard. For instance, the women at the ford plant went on strike demanding equal pay.
The source is ideal for the research as it notes the struggles that these iconic women of history had to endure for them to have equal rights as men. It depicts the horrors and misfortunes that happened to women as a result of discrimination against them.
The title of my first primary source is why women should vote. The primary source is an extract from a sourcebook on internet modern history. The author of the text extract is a woman known as Jane Williams. The primary source extract was created in the year 1915
The source is out to explain the importance of the woman to be accorded the right to vote because she is the household manager, and the well-being of her family depends on good leadership. The author says a woman must keep her house clean. This cannot be possible if she lives in a tenement house because she will depend on the city administration for proper living conditions. This is considered a primary source since it was written when the actual events were taking place. The writer of the source is recording experiences that are occurring during her present time.
The writer is inclined toward championing the rights of women to vote. She says if a woman is to fulfill her traditional responsibility to her children, then she must make use of the ballot. Women learn that the betterment of society begins at home, and therefore they should advocate for the implementation of policies that advocate for this. The writer denotes the importance of allowing women to vote, stating that since they are housekeepers, voting would help them improve the living conditions of their homes.
The people living in the current day and age are liberalized; they are not limited to the traditional housekeeping responsibility for women. Moreover, the women of today vote and can make influential decisions in society. The source is credible because it depicts the injustices the women faced by not being allowed to vote. The author says that the woman cannot be able to perform her duties well because she is limited because she cannot decide to vote.
The title of the source is equal rights for women. The source is a congress speech written by Shirley Chisholm. The author of the source is a woman by the name of Shirley Chisholm. The source was created on May 21, 1969, to speak on behalf of women and their equal right to all that was right for men. The main idea of the source was to fight for equality of women’s rights in all aspects of life. A woman ought to have the right to be professional just like a man.
The writer is inclined towards the support of woman’s right to equal share as the man, to be treated similarly as the man in all aspects of life, and not view them as emotional or weak. To be given equal opportunity to be lawyers, doctors, and managers, not just secretaries and librarians.
The speech by Shirley Williams is key in emphasizing the need for women to have equal rights as men. Shirley states that women need to be allowed to run for seats in congress because when they try it means that they have the confidence that they have what it takes. Also. She is advocating for women’s equality in places of work.
Women learn that they need to speak up for their rights when they feel discriminated against. This is seen as Shirley Chisholm speaks of the need to pass the equal rights amendment. She says that both men and women need equal rights and that no gender should be deemed superior to the other. Chisholm also adds that protection of one gender more than the other is a male chauvinist myth that is very outrageous and undeserving of respect.
This is a credible source because it depicts the general assumption about women’s abilities. She mentions that a woman is assumed emotional and therefore cannot hold professional positions of office such as being a lawyer.
The issue of equal education opportunities, as well as equity in job prospects, has been brewing for quite long in the society. Despite the admittedly positive effects, which feminist movements have led to, women did not gain all the rights that they were entitled to instantly – quite on the contrary, the fight for equity has been going on for centuries, and it still continues.
Although democracy principles have been established within the realm of education and politics in Europe and the U.S., women still suffer from lack of education opportunities and underrepresentation in government, not to mention the fact that female rights still remain a major issue in a range of states because of their cultural specifics. A closer look at the factors leading to gender inequality in education and politics will help find a viable solution to the problem.
Introduction: Fighting for Women’s Rights
Though in the 21st century, women have attained a major success in the fight for their freedoms, in range of states, basic rights of women, including the right to be educated and participate in the political life of the state, are infringed. The lack of equity in the specified areas affect women’s lives on range of levels, depriving them of the opportunities that they are supposed to be entitled to and posing a tangible threat to the rights of women all over the world. A closer look at the causes of the lack of equity will provide an insight on the possible methods of addressing the problem; herein the reason for the research to be conducted lies.
Women and Education: When Traditions Stand in the Way of Progress
According to the set human rights, which are currently considered the basis for a democratic state to be built on, both men and women must be provided with decent education opportunities; in other words, the students of both genders are to be allowed to attend a public school. However, in a range of states, including Iran (Rezai-Rashti & Moghadam, 2011), Brazil (Stromquist & Monkman, 2014), Japan (Lam, 2012), etc., even basic education for women is not considered necessary. Moreover, women face gender prejudices in education even in democratic states, such as the United States (England, 2010); according to the recent data, in 2007, only 80% of female college graduates and 47% of female high school graduates were employed (England, 2010, p. 153).
Women and Politics: What It Takes to Become a Government Member
The same gender profiling issue occurs in the field of politics, unfortunately. Recent reports claim that the number of women. This lends a lot of credence to the theory regarding the persistence of gender profiling phenomenon within a range of modern political institutions all over the world (Fox & Lawless, 2011). The phenomenon is often attributed to the current cultural and societal norms: “Men’s dominance in political institutions that traditionally resisted women’s inclusion makes it difficult for women to embrace themselves as politicians” (Fox & Lawless, 2011, p. 60).
Conclusion: The Battle Is Not Over Yet
Despite years of fighting for female rights and gender equality, as well as the efforts of feminists all over the world, women still face gender discrimination when entering the domains of education and politics. Not only do women have to break the glass ceiling in their attempts to influence the politics of the state, but are also deprived of an opportunity to get the education that they deserve. By viewing the issue from several aspects, including cultural, economic, political and social factors, one will be able to locate the existing solutions to the problem specified. Thus, the information concerning the key factors affecting the issue and the means to remove these factors will be sought.
Reference List
England, P. (2010). The gender revolution: Uneven and stalled. Gender & Society, 24(2), 149–166.
Fox, R. L. & Lawless, J. L. (2011). Gendered perceptions and political candidacies: A central barrier to women’s equality in electoral politics. American Journal of Political Science, 55(1), 59–73.
Lam, A. C. L. (2012). Women and Japanese management: Discrimination and reform. New York, NY: Routledge.
Rezai-Rashti, G. M. & Moghadam, V. M. (2011). Women and higher education in Iran: What are the implications for employment and the “marriage market”? International Review of Education, 57(3), 419–441.
Stromquist, N. P. & Monkman, K. (2014). Globalization and education: Integration and contestation across cultures. Lanham, MD: R&L Education.
The practice of foot binding in China can be traced back to the Sung Dynasty that prevailed between 960-1280 AD, supposedly as an imitation of an imperial concubine who was required to perform a dance for the emperor with her feet bound, an act, which the emperor regarded as beautiful.
Later, the practice was already widespread in China. In some communities and social groups, it was made mandatory for young girls at the age of 3 years to have their feet bound. It was not until the 20th century during the end imperialism and the increasing western influence that the culture ceased to be practiced (Cummings, Ling, & Stone, 1997).
It was banned. Besides the painful ordeal that the girls had to go through, the practice left most women in their later stages of life partially and completely disabled (Wilson, 2013). In the past century, China has made remarkable progress in eradicating the practice of foot binding through persistent collaboration between the government and activist groups such as Anti- Foot Binding Society to promote women civil liberty so that the rights of women can be recognized an upheld.
Literature Review
The History of Foot Binding in China and how the Process was carried out
Foot binding is believed to have obtained inspiration from an imperial dancer named Yao Niang who the emperor ordered to bind her feet while dancing for him. The custom would later find its way to other parts of China and later enforced as a mandatory practice for all young girls upon reaching the age of three.
This process was painful for the young girls. Most of them found it difficult to dance and even walk normally. A small foot in ancient China was viewed under the same spectra of a tiny waist in the Victorian England. It was perceived as a height of the female gender’s refinement. The practice extended to the marriage sphere where it was used as a determinant of the marriageability of daughters. In this respect, the value of a bride was measured in terms of her feet size.
According to Amanda (2015), a bride who possessed a three-inch foot was deemed the most sought-after and thus referred as a ‘golden lotus’. If a woman had four-inch feet, she was also deemed reputable and thus labeled a ‘silver lotus’. However, if she had five inches or longer, she was dismissed under terms such as ‘iron lotus’ (Amanda, 2015).
To begin this process, the girls’ feet were plunged into a pool of hot water where their nails were clipped short. This process was followed by massaging of the feet with oil before breaking all the toes except for the big toe. The toes were then bound flat against the sole to create a triangular shape.
Subsequently, the girl’s arch was strongly restrained to bend her foot. Finally, the toes were bound in place using a strip of silk that measured about ten feet in length and almost two inches thickness. The wrappings were then briefly removed for two days to prevent any infection of the foot from taking place due to the accumulation of blood and secretions.
The girls would then be forced to walk for long distances to hasten the process of breakage of the arches. As time progressed, the wrappings were made even tighter and the shoes much smaller so that the heel and the sole could crash together. After a period of two years, the process would be complete where a deep cleft between the sole and heel was left (Amanda, 2015).
Foot Binding as a Violation of Women’s Rights
According to Appiah (2010), the practice was featured with suffering and debilitation of its victims. After the gruesome and painful years of exposure to the painful process, most of the victims were left with walking difficulties. Even more troubling was that innocent young children, as young as three years old, were caused to suffer excruciating pain. In this context, the victims were subjected to a poor quality of life labeled with deformity and disability (Appiah, 2010).
The respectability of a woman was judged depending on the size of her feet. More surprisingly, the feet were used as a criterion for determining the marriageability of a woman. For instance, a woman with three-inch feet was considered to the most desirable while a woman with feet larger than five feet was denied respect and consequently subjected to discrimination by her fellow women. In fact, it is in this basis that most women held onto the custom for thousands of years (Lu, 2012).
A study by Cummings et al. (1997) revealed deformities among a sizable number of elderly women in Beijing because of foot binding. The deformities resulted in the women being prone to falling.
They struggled when rising from a chair. Moreover, the women had trouble in squatting, an essential ability they needed for toileting. Other deformities included a lower hip, neck, and femoral bone density that exposed them to the risk of fractures. Therefore, foot binding not only caused deformities in the victims but also resulted in severe lifelong disabilities, particularly in their elderly life.
This form of practice was initiated at an early age when the child was innocent. Thus, the victims had no right in deciding whether they wanted their feet bound. According to Hong (2013), this practice is evidence of the hegemonic control that men had over women’s bodies. In the better part of imperial dynasty ruling, the practice encouraged the perception of women’s bodies as a vessel for oppression, control, and exploitation.
For instance, most women who had undergone this practice could not walk for long distances. As a result, they were completely reliant on their husbands. Therefore, through the practice, women could not voice their oppression since this move would cause their husbands to abandon them. Nevertheless, women underwent this practice to impress men and become marriageable, again indicating lack of control and independence over their bodies.
What China has done in terms of guaranteeing Women’s Rights in the Past Century
In the late nineteenth century, the practice of foot binding began to gain recognition as a violation of women’s rights and thus a concern to the people of China. The practice began to get a negative connotation as a brutal, inhumane, and cruel act to those who had fallen victims. Consequently, it was labeled a violation of the rights of women (Geng, 2015).
With a determination to release the women from the sufferings and consequences endured because of foot binding, anti-foot binding groups were formed as a campaign against the customary practice. The first campaign groups in contemporary China were initially set up and run by foreigners such as the London Missionary Society who were involved in spreading the word in Shantou after successfully setting up an anti-foot binding society.
The group consisted of members who did not wish foot binding to be performed on their daughters. To become an active member of the society, people were required to sign a pledge with their affixed name in presence of their relatives as testimonials.
In April 1897, an English woman, namely, Archibald, sponsored an establishment in the city of Shanghai whose task was to dissuade the heinous practice of foot binding and encourage more locals to join in the fight against the practice. By the early part of the twentieth century, the anti-foot binding campaigns were being led by local Chinese leaders such as Suzhou, Zhenjian, and Wuxi.
The campaign would later spread other parts of China such as Sichuan and Guangdong as more people joined. Common for all the campaigns was the requirement that their members were never to bind their daughters and that their men would not be allowed to marry daughters who had their feet bound.
To be approved for marriage, young women less than eight years old were required to have their feet unbound. If more than eight years, they would be required to register with the society before being allowed to marry youthful men of members of the society. Soon enough, the societies had established branches in every provincial capital, province, and municipality with greater influence on the southern parts of China (Geng, 2015).
Role of the Chinese Government
After the Boxer Rebellion, the rulers of the Qing Dynasty were forced to show remorse over the issue of foot binding after pressure from the reformists. In the first months of 1902, an imperial edict that advised against the practice was issued. This announcement had a great influence in spearheading the anti-foot binding campaign because of the influence that was prompted by an imperial order.
Because of the increased awareness on the negative effects of foot binding on women’s overall health and quality of life, local governments in eighteen of China’s provinces promulgated stringent directives that banned the practice (Tao, Zheng, & Mow, 2004).
After the fall of the socialist Qing Dynasty in 1911, the Nationalist Revolution directed a ban on the practice of foot binding and even carried out regular inspections that resulted in fines against resistant parents who still practiced the banned custom. This move influenced a loss of the cultural prestige that was associated with the practice and consequently its demise (Rejali, 2014). A year after the Communist Party rose to power in 1949, the members too promulgated a ban against foot binding (Lim, 2007).
Conclusion
Foot binding was a customary practice whose roots can be traced back in the Sung Dynasty. Supposedly, the culture sought to emulate an imperial dancer for the emperor who was required to bind her feet to dance, a routine that the emperor found adorable and seductive. Soon enough, the practice would spread all across China to a point where it was mandatory for all girls to undergo the practice after reaching the age of three.
The practice of foot binding can be regarded as a violation against the rights of women. It caused pain and suffering to its victims, denying the women the right to quality of life, the right to making their choices, the right to independence, and the right to good health. The practice left most women deformed, disabled, and hence unable to walk for long distances. In the later part of the 19th century, foreigners through anti-foot societies began to spread awareness of the detrimental effects of the practice.
They would later be joined by the local Chinese people. The movements also influenced the prevailing governments, including the Qing Dynasty, to issue bans on continued practice of the act. Over the middle part of the 20th century, the Chinese government efforts to discourage the practice influenced the demise of the custom after it had lost its prestige.
Reference List
Amanda, F. (2015).Bound by Tradition. History Journal, 45(10), 22-28.
Cummings, S., Ling, X., & Stone, K. (1997). Consequences of Foot Binding among Older Women in Beijing.American Journal Of Public Health, 87(10), 1677-1679.
Hong, F. (2013). Footbinding Feminism and Freedom. Hoboken, NJ: Taylor and Francis.
Geng, Y. (2015). An Introductory Study on China’s Cultural Transformation in Recent Times. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
Rejali, S. (2014). From Tradition to Modernity: Footbinding and Its End (1839-1911) – the History of the Anti-Footbinding Movement and the Histories of Bound-feet Women in China. The Journal Of Historical Studies, 3(1), 2-8.
Tao, J., Zheng, B., & Mow, S. (2004). Holding up half the sky. New York: Feminist Press at the City University of New York.
Wilson, A. (2013). How the methods used to eliminate foot binding in China can be employed to eradicate female genital mutilation. Journal Of Gender Studies, 22(1), 17-37.
Both males and females in the society have unique gender roles which they play in the society. Although they have equal opportunities in life, the latter has historically struggled to assume a better position in a male dominated world. In spite of this, the case of the developed world is quite unique since women seem to be at the centre stage of development controlling more than 30 percent of businesses.
These developed economies are being transformed by females (Al-Ghazali & Sadi, 2010 pp.4-5). In Saudi Arabia alone, about 45 percent of the entire population is made up of females. This figure is a bit lower compared to that of the United States.
About 51 percent of the population in US is women. However, the Saudi Arabian disparity has been caused by the influx of several foreign male workers in Saudi Arabia leading to a lower female population. There are about 5.6 million expatriates in Saudi Arabia majority being men (UMUC Working paper, 2009, par. 7).
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia hosts about 23,000 businesswomen with a total of 62 billion dollars stacked in their accounts besides other resources.
By 2008, it was reported that a total of ten business executives who were women from Middle East made their record as among the best 100 bankers worldwide, indicating how women have not only excelled in conducting business, but are also great entrepreneurs and skilful in the business world (AlMunajjed, 1997 pp.141-143).
There are quite a number of business solution that have been adopted in the last five years to enable women have a conducive business environment that promises success. One of the compelling factors that will make Saudi women excel in business is education. Over 58 percent of university graduates are females.
In addition, the Saudi economy is still young and has a higher prospect of growth. Moreover, the Kingdom is well endowed with resources that are needed in any successful business environment. This has made the Saudi society to grow rapidly both in terms of capital accumulation and surplus investments.
Indeed, the aforementioned factors are great propellers for Saudi women who are planning to engage in entrepreneurial activities, including those who are in various businesses (Powell, 1993 p. 34). This paper seeks to extensively explore the various opportunities that women have for successful business operation in Saudi Arabia compared to United Kingdom.
The Public verses private sector
Both the public and private sectors play an integral role in building the economy of any country and Saudi Arabia is not an exception. While the public sector is run and managed by the government, the main players in the private sector are individuals who set up their own businesses and run them as private entities (AlMunajjed, 2009 p. 6).
Each of these sectors has unique merits and demerits. For instance, there are individuals who would prefer to be employed in the public sector largely due to job security and stable salary.
By the side, the private sector may also promise better salaries among other fringe benefits that come along with the job descriptions. The working environment may be enjoyable alongside flexibility at work which enhances creativity as well as skill development.
The Small Businesses and available opportunities
In spite of the existence small businesses in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, their variance has been remarkable over the past ten years both in terms of quality and number. This has also been the trend across the world (Zoepf, 2010 par.3). The private sector is steadily supplementing the public sector through spontaneous growth.
It is out of the small businesses that developed economies such as that of US have seen the light of day in economic progress. Moreover, small businesses have remarkably shaped the way business is done and as a result, the Saudi economy is experiencing growth mainly due to the existence and expansion of small businesses.
It has also been reported that small businesses are responsible for over 75 percent of new jobs being created (Heathfield, 2010). Similarly, the UK economy has been positively impacted by the growth impetus of small businesses. It is estimated that small firms are contributing significantly to employment creation.
Despite the enormous contribution of small businesses to the economy of Saudi Arabia, there are still several hiccups that demand to be resolved. It is imperative to note that the impacts of globalization is gradually injecting numerous changes in the small business world since the markets are now being integrated and also opened up to the world economy (Carter, Mason &Tagg, 2004 p.76).
Products and services can now be sold not only within the borders of the Saudi economy but also in other destinations. Hence, the element of competition is in board and cannot be ignored at all. Both the legislators as well as policy makers are gaining more interest in the development of small businesses largely due to the impact of this sector to the economy.
It is also believe that small businesses in Saudi Arabia (SMEs) is the main channel through which the private sector can boast of investment. Throughout the kingdom, the small businesses, most of which are run by women, constitute over 90% of the private sector investment (Zoepf, 2010 par.5). As already mentioned, these small businesses have been deemed to be the major creators of employment in Saudi Arabia.
Consequently, poverty alleviation is being celebrated due to small business not to mention the ability of these businesses to foster growth and innovation in business culture and technology. In addition, it is through the small businesses that new products and services are being developed to meet the growing needs of the population in the entire Kingdom.
Further estimates indicate that over 50 percent growth in the entire economy is expected to be realized in Saudi Arabia in the near future and this will mainly be contributed by small and medium sized enterprises.
It is against this backdrop that women in Saudi Arabia stand a higher chance of developing and growing their business skills both now and in the future (Marlow & Carter, 2005, pp.47-53). Better still, they have a better chance to succeed as entrepreneurs in Saudi Arabia as can be seen by the numerous opportunities for growth.
However, the worry that dons the small and medium sized enterprises under small businesses is that growth and prosperity is still being hindered by the very fact that the basic tools required are not readily in place. The small businesses operated by women in Saudi Arabia can only prosper if the right tools and business mechanics are put in place.
For instance, these small and medium sized enterprise lack adequate funds and various means through which they can access credit facilities. Contrary to the UK, the credit facilities are adequate and small business can fairly borrow to expand on their businesses. Worse still, small businesses in Saudi Arabia also face stiff government regulations that require them to comply with numerous policies.
The red tape for foreigners is even tighter. Moreover, the ignorance on the relative importance and contribution of small business has led to lack of statistics on their market progress and hence, they mainly operate without the much needed figures for carrying out business decisions. This is a similar case with many developing economies.
Therefore, the success of women in small and medium sized business enterprises will aptly require government intervention. The support from government will equally demand the private sector to participate and cooperate fully. Large and well established enterprises in the UK are indeed making a mark in developing and supporting the small businesses over and above the government support which is already in place.
Furthermore, there is a closer private-public sector partnership in UK that has enabled a profitable working environment among small businesses. This is a similar case with Saudi Arabia although the ties between the two sectors are not very strong.
In UK, there is a practical working framework that entails policy formulation on the progress and needs of small and medium sized enterprises. There is a systematic approach through which the government of the day is working closely with small businesses to ensure that they grow.
In comparison to Saudi Arabia, it is a lot easier to seek funding from the public sector to initiate small business in UK. Business women in Saudi Arabia would reach greater heights if and only if there were clear policy formulations in the Kingdom that seeks to support them in their business endeavors
Nature of entrepreneurs for women in Saudi Arabia
The Saudi Arabian woman has been affected by quite a number of barriers in her attempt to excel in doing business in the kingdom. For instance, the cultural setback that requires women to be submissive and seek permission from their male partners before engaging themselves in any decisions is a major setback. In takes a long before they can embark on serious business while in some cases, the permission is not granted.
This has adversely affected the business merit of these women bearing in mind that they have to compete equally with their male business rivals in the market (UMUC Working Paper Series, 2009, par.10). Another cultural hindrance emanates from the fact that women are not permitted to drive in Saudi Arabia.
It is common knowledge that any business person needs to travel frequently and when this is not possible, then most business deals may go sour. Contrary to the UK case, women have the liberty to drive freely and conduct their own businesses. While consulting their male partners is necessary before making some decisions, it is not a mandatory.
Additionally, there are limited government programs that have been tailor made to reach out for women in small businesses. In UK, such programs are in place and women are in a position to expand their businesses with much ease (Omar, 2008, pp 34-37).
However, the major disadvantage in UK is that small and medium sized enterprises are not very common and are not necessarily given the best concern in the business world. The economy has grown by double digits and only those with adequate capital may enjoy starting and running businesses in UK (Al-Ghazali & Sadi, 2010 pp.6-9). In other words, it is cheaper to start and maintain a mini business in Saudi Arabia than in UK.
The role of gender
The challenge posed by gender when staring and running small businesses is not limited in Saudi Arabia only. Despite the fact that there is no evidence that segregate enterprise ownership along gender line, current statistics reveal that only 15 percent of all business units are owned by women in UK while the remaining half is owned by males (Marlow & Patton, 2005 p.48).
Furthermore, there is minimal statistical evidence on the growing number of women engaging in self employment through small and medium sized enterprises.
For the past two decades or so, the increase in small business among women in UK has been small. Self employment among women has more been stagnant than growing and this has posed more concern on whether small and medium sized enterprises are well placed as alternative sources of employment especially among women (Madhi & Barrientos, 2003 p.112).
Comparatively, Saudi Arabian case has been one of the growing patterns in small and medium sized enterprises. As already noted the economy is still young, resources are abundant and in spite of lack of structured government support and funding, Saudi economy still provides the best opportunity for growing small businesses. It should also be noted that the very small businesses heavily depend on the immediate population.
The Saudi population is indeed an asset and impetus to the growth of its small business portfolio. Further research conducted in UK reveals that the likelihood of women becoming self employed is lower than men beside the bare fact that their business skills differ significantly from men (Business.com, 2010 par. 1). There seems to be a completely business platform and ideals in UK compared to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Khan, 2010).
For women who engage in small businesses as part of self employment, they mostly take part in traditional occupational sectors that have been known for ages like finance and education.
By the side, there are those who work on part-time basis. From this perspective, it is definite that gender has influenced women participation in small business both in UK and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and so it may not necessarily be a determining factor when carrying out comparative advantage between doing business either in UK or Saudi Arabia (Johnson, Sear & Jenkins, 2000 pp.55-59).
Being a social construction, gender is largely pinned to ether masculine or feminine characteristics. Right from the perspective of gender, stereotypes emerge such as the one that ascribes to the inability of a woman to manage personal business well without getting assistance from a male person.
For this reason, there are myriad of professional organizations that have been set up to act as custodian for women enterprises especially in Saudi Arabia. These organizations are managed professionally to assist in uplifting the level and expertise of women involvement in small and business enterprises without being sidelined by gender and other cultural stereotypes.
Role of small businesses
The role played by small and medium sized enterprises in the Saudi economy has been given much importance than in UK. The Saudi government believes that its economy would only grow if the small business are recognized and supported (Coleman, 2000 pp.38-40). For women, this must be a real impetus for growing their businesses in Saudi Arabia than in UK.
To begin with, small, and medium sized enterprises have significantly lowered the rate of high unemployed which was once being experienced in the economy. It is worth to note that large scale enterprises do not have the capacity to employ the growing population.
It is only through the creation of small businesses that unemployment can be brought down by double digits. Moreover, the small and medium sized enterprises are also easy to start and administer in comparison to large scale business establishments. Small capital is required and the legal requirements are also minimal.
For small and medium sized enterprises under the umbrella of small businesses, they have limited liability and therefore they can remain vibrant in the market in spite of the dynamics. Nonetheless, securing sufficient funding for these small businesses is still a hurdle especially in Saudi Arabia.
Moreover, they have weak capacities that delay expansion of their working capacities. Women in Saudi Arabia are more likely to succeed in small businesses there bearing in mind that up to 92% of businesses there are made up of small and medium sized enterprises, a practice not common in UK (Federation of Small Businesses, 2002 par. 3).
Although the small businesses are major drivers of the Saudi economy, their overall contribution to the GDP stands at only 33%. It is against this backdrop that the government has initiated the ‘kafallah’ program to assist in the process of financing small and medium sized enterprises in the Kingdom. For women aspiring to start small businesses in Saudi Arabia, they have a higher chance of succeeding with a shorter time than their peers in UK.
Successful business women in UK
In spite of the gender and other cultural factors working against the success of women in small and medium-sized enterprises, there are those female personalities who have made a mark in the business world in UK and around the world.
One such successful woman in UK is Deborah Meaden. Although she is perceived to be highly entrepreneurial, Meaden is most likely to have crafted her business skills and ideas from the male dominated society without the fear of being outwitted.
She had a business mind from the early stages of her life and would settle for nothing less than her own run enterprise. She started off with the importation of glass and ceramics barely at 19 years (Burke & Davidson, 2000 pp.38-42). She has grown her business empire by leaps and bounds. In one of his latest establishments, Meaden started a marketing research company having gained vast knowledge in marketing from her previous business outfits.
Conclusion
In recap, it is vital to note that the Saudi Arabian economy is well placed both in terms of resources and human capital required to start small and medium-sized enterprises. The striking difference between the two economies namely UK and Saudi Arabia is that the latter is still in its growing phase while the former seems to be static especially in the growth and expansion of SMEs.
It is against this background that women who engage in small businesses in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia have a higher probability of excelling than those in UK.
Additionally, small and medium-sized business enterprises remain to be major contributors to both Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and overall economic growth in developing and advanced countries. It is only through the public-private sector support that small businesses will ever grow to meaningful levels.
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