When looking back at the events which took place in the XIX century, one can easily understand that the present-day rights and freedoms, as well as the modern highly developed structure of the society are the phenomena which can be easily taken for granted – and which should not be by any means. Indeed, it is almost impossible to believe that a couple of centuries ago the ideas of temperance were considered another potentially dangerous whim.
Unless the reformers of the XIX century established their idea of what principles the society should base on, the ideas of temperance and, consequently, women’s rights, antislavery and a number of other essential innovations, would have been established considerably later. Analyzing the objectives which the reformers pursued in their attempt to change the then social structure, one can possibly estimate the scale of the reforms and their impact on the society.
Among the most memorable reforms of that time, the innovations in the system of treating the convicts and the prisoners must be the reform that reflected the very essence of the XIX-century social ideas.
As Frank (2008) explains, the reform was opposed to the system existing in the XIX century and was aimed at changing the prisoners for the better rather than establishing an eye-for-an-eye atonement for their crimes. “Rather than punishing the prisoner through whippings, incarceration, or execution, prison reformers sought to improve the soul of the convict” (Frank, 2008, 4).
As for the education reforms, the aims of those who launched the process were a bit different. With the help of the latter, the reformers had fighting with poverty in mind.
Once the quality of education is improved, the competence and, hence, the wages and the well-being of millions of people is improved within a relatively short time period: “Educational reform aimed both to prepare children for life in an industrializing economy and to reinforce Protestant American culture; reformers also established new institutions to deal with the poor, criminals and the insane” (Boyer et al., 2009, 235).
However, the largest and the most impressive movement of all in the XIX century was the movement of tolerance. As Frank (2008) explains, “Reformers believed drinking led to a host of social evils, including poverty, crime, family violence and poor child rearing” (Frank, 2008, 4).
Therefore, the focus of the reformers was the way to drive the alcohol abuse to minimum. It is quite peculiar that the drinking problem was also considered the cause of poor working performance and, thus, the number one obstacle to achieving the increase in the industry development. With the above-mentioned in mind, it becomes obvious that the temperance reform was the key one in the early 180-1810.
Another significant reform, the successful campaign for women’s rights was also triggered by a number of factors. Despite the growing scale of the female labor force recruitment, the moral restrictions imposed on women were immense. Among the most prominent people who impacted the women’s rights reform, Angelina and Sarah Grimke must be mentioned.
With the help of Grimke sisters’ efforts, namely, the fact that they “assumed the public role of men” (Frank, 2008, 7), women employees committees finally appeared and women gained their support in the sphere of employment. Caused by the unfair and extremely harsh working conditions (Allan & DeLuzio, 2009), the movement finally gained nationwide scale.
Finally, the issue of slavery must be referred to as one of the greatest and the most significant achievements in the XIX century. As Armstrong (2006) says, “Many Christians, especially in the North, began to speak out forcefully about the treatment of American slaves” (119).
Despite the fact that some supporters of the reform had their own idea of what the whole change was about and considered that the African Americans were supposed to return to their native land, i.e., the African continent, after the reform completed its final stage, it was still obvious that the largest amount of people were guided by their most humane intentions when approving of the reform.
Therefore, it cannot be doubted that the reform which made the African Americans free and abolished slavery once and for all, considering it the pinnacle of the inhumane, was first of all caused by the reasons of humanity and tolerance.
Thus, together with the new idea of what the society is supposed to be like, new objectives emerged and demanded immediate actions to be taken. Obviously aiming at giving people new freedoms and opening a pool of opportunities in front of them, the reformers succeeded in their attempt to change the world for the better.
Even though the changes occurred at much slower pace than they could have, the scale of the events could not be overestimated – with the tremendous effects not only on the social life, but also on the economics and the financial state of the country, the innovations offered by the reformers completely proved their worth. Once making a successful attempt at reorganizing the society and reestablishing moral values as well as offering a more solid fundament for the society to base on, the reformers started a brand new era of the U. S. history.
Reference List
Allan, C. & DeLuzio, C. (2009). Women’s rights: People and perspectives. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Armstrong, S. (2006). 5 steps to a 5 AP U. S. history. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Professional.
Boyer et al. (2009). The enduring vision: A history of the American people. Stanford, CN: Cengage Learning.
Frank, L. (2008). Women in the American Civil War (Vol. 1). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
The Abbasid and Cordoba dynasties are some of the earliest Islamic dynasties which shaped the current Islamic culture that is popular in the Middle East, North Africa, and various parts of the world. These two dynasties came soon after the death of Prophet Mohammed. Naturally, it would be expected that socio-cultural practices of these two dynasties would be as similar as possible because they were both following the teachings of Prophet Mohammed. In his teachings, Mohammed explained how people should relate to one another and the role of both men and women in the society. It is intriguing therefore, which dynasties that came soon after his death had completely different views about important issues such as the role of women in the society.
In the modern Islamic society, women are yet to gain full freedom, especially in countries such as Saudi Arabia that is believed to be the center and origin of Islam. Women are still viewed as being inferior to men, and there are a number of things they are expected not to do primarily because they are women. Bouachrine (2014) blames this practice on Abbasid Dynasty and the impact it had in the Middle East and North Africa regions. It created a culture where women were denied their rights and were expected to take care of children back at home and to avoid active engagement in leadership and important socio-economic activities. A critical analysis of these two dynasties shows that they took completely different approach towards the issue of role and rights of women in the society. In this paper, the focus will be to compare women’s rights in Cordoba and Abbasid dynasties.
Understanding Women’s Right in Islamic World
A critical analysis of Islam as a culture and a religion shows that women played as important role as did men in its development at early stages. In fact, El-Cheikh (2015) says that it would be difficult for Prophet Mohammed to have founded Islam without direct help from women. Mohammed was once an employee of Khadija bint Khuwaylid, the women who later became his wife. Khadija was a successful merchant in Mecca. She was an elite figure in her society and it was her marriage to Mohammed that made it possible for the prophet to concentrate on the new religion. She was the first person to convert to Islam after Prophet Mohammed shared with her the encounter with Angel Gabriel. Khadija fought alongside Mohammed and even sacrificed her prestigious life and wealth to help Mohammed spread his new religion to the world. They both fled Mecca and were forced to settle in Medina.
Nusayba bint Ka‘b al-Anṣārīyya was another successful woman and a warrior who defended Prophet Mohammed with her own life (Brubaker, 2004). She is fondly remembered to have personally protected Mohammed at the Battle of Uhud where she almost lost her life. She sustained serious wounds during this war, but was successful in protecting Mohammed from the raiders. Mohammed himself talks fondly of her contributions towards the spread of Islam. When she died, she was celebrated and given a burial ceremony similar to that which would be given to a great military commander of that time. Her life achievements clearly demonstrated that women during the time of Mohammed’s life were just as powerful as men. Khawla b. al-Azwar and Ā’isha b. Abī Bakr were other very powerful women who participated in various battles primarily to protect Prophet Mohammed and to ensure that Islam was spread to the world.
The role of women in the Islamic society during and soon after the death of Prophet Mohammed was similar to that of men. They were successful businesspeople like Khadija. They were successful warriors such as Nusayba, Khawala, and Aisha. They participated in important ceremonies in the societies in equal capacities as men. The society at that time did not in any way consider them as being less equal to men primarily because of their gender. El-Cheikh (2015) says that during that time, there was absolutely nothing that women were stopped from doing, that men could do. It was a society where people were considered equal irrespective of their Gender. In fact, Khadija, a woman, had so many male employees including Prophet Mohammed who helped her in creating more wealth for herself. It was normal in the society at that time. However, a lot of things changed when other dynasties came to power. The role of women and their rights in the society were redefined, making them less deserving than men. This change significantly influenced later Islamic dynasties. In fact, Bouachrine (2014) notes that modern-day Islamic women are yet to gain the full freedom that they enjoyed during the Prophet Mohammed era despite the civilization that has been witnessed across the world.
Differences in Women’s Right in Cordoba and Abbasid Dynasties
The Abbasid and Cordoba dynasties are some of the earliest Islamic dynasties that played critical roles in defining the Islamic culture that we currently have in the modern society. According to Brubaker (2004), although these two dynasties practiced Islam as the religion that defined their faith and socio-cultural practices, they had very different social practices. The Cordoba Dynasty was founded by the Ummayad Dynasty rulers who had been forced out of power by the Abbasid Dynasty. These rulers were forced to flee from the Middle East to Spain where they had to reestablish new kingdom. Their success in the foreign land saw them successfully develop a powerful and civilized Cordoba Dynasty. Back in the Middle East, the Abbasid Dynasty remained the unchallenged kingdom in the region. It established a powerful dynasty that spread Islam in the entire region. The new rulers of Abbasid Dynasty had strained relationship with the former rules of the region under the Ummayad Dynasty.
Bouachrine (2014) says that the Abbasid rulers did everything to trace and kill the former rulers of the region under Ummayad Dynasty, especially those who did not flee to Spain. These new rulers also introduced a number of changes in the social systems that were deliberately meant to stop the former Ummayad rulers from regaining power in this region again. Their strategy worked and the dynasty became very powerful. The current Islamic practices common in many Islamic nations, especially in Saudi Arabia and its neighboring countries, were defined by the Abbasid Dynasty. During this era, the role of men and women were redefined. The rulers believed that it was necessary to redefine role of both men and women as a way of creating social order in the society. It was this new approach that was embraced by these new rulers that created differences in roles and rights of men and women in the society. To understand the differences in women’s right in Cordoba and Abbasid dynasties, it is important to look at how women were treated in these two dynasties.
Women’s Right in Cordoba Dynasty
The Cordoba Dynasty was created by the Ummayad Dynasty rulers that were forced to flee Middle East after being overthrown by the Abbasid Dynasty rulers. When then came to Spain, they created a dynasty by defeating and then uniting small kingdoms to form Cordoba Dynasty. Spain was going through a period of civilization and this new Islamic kingdom did everything to promote it. According to Viguera and María (1992), the rulers of Cordoba Dynasty created an environment where other religious practices were tolerated. For instance, Christians and Muslims lived peacefully in this kingdom as they worked closely to ensure that the kingdom was developed. One of the most striking social practices common in this society was the role of women.
According to Ahmed (1992), it is believed by Ummayad Dynasty, whose rulers later formed Cordoba Dynasty was directly founded by the daughters of Prophet Mohammed. The rulers knew and appreciated the role played by many women such as Khadija, Khawla, and Nusayba in the life of Prophet Mohammed and in defending Islam at a time when people in Mecca did not want anything to do with this religion. As such, women in this dynasty were considered to be having equal rights as men. Given that Spain was in transition into a civilized society, women were allowed to take significant roles in this development. A study by Brubaker (2004) found out that in the education sector, women were at the forefront in championing for the education of both boys and girls. In fact, a number of women held position of professors, teaching both men and women within the society. In the political arena, women played very significant roles. They worked as copies and calligraphers of Islamic tests. They were also allowed to take part in important decision-making processes in the political arena. In this kingdom, a number of women became successful musicians, and poets. They had rights to own property and engage in various economic activities. The society had no cultural or legal requirement that denied women rights to engage actively in political, social, and economic activities.
Bouachrine (2014) says that the rulers of the dynasty allowed women, irrespective of their religion faiths, to be leaders in various spheres. Women were even allowed to be part of the military units because of the crucial role they played in defending Islam in the Middle East. The rulers knew that the best way of creating a powerful kingdom was to empower women and to eliminate any restrictions that would limit their ability to exercise their skills and talents. Women were allowed to take part in the religious activities in the kingdom. Although men were generally more active in the political and religious leaderships within this dynasty, it was generally accepted that women willing to play active roles in this positions had the right to do so (El-Cheikh, 2015). This freedom granted to women in this kingdom was unique given that at this time women were considered inferior to men not only in the other Islamic societies but also in many other kingdoms around the world.
Women’s Right in Abbasid Dynasty
The Abbasid Dynasty came to power after defeating Ummayad Dynasty in 756 AD. Bouachrine (2014) says that the dynasty was founded by a distant nephew of Prophet Mohammed. When the new rulers came to power, they came up with new rules that redefined the social order in the Islamic society in this country. One of the most important social orders that were created in this society was the position of women and their rights. The rulers deliberately created a system where women were considered inferior to men in all spheres of life. They were not allowed to hold any political or religious positions in this kingdom. According to El-Cheikh (2015), the rulers had a good reason of creating this new social order.
There was a fear among these rulers that the former Ummayad rulers might come back to power and overthrow them from leadership positions. They knew the history of Islam and understood that when Prophet Mohammed died, his daughters and other people- most of whom were women- took active roles in spreading the word. As such, women were just as entitled to leadership as men. The rulers particularly feared a possibility of daughters or granddaughters of Prophet Mohammed laying claim to the leadership of the entire Islamic nation that was founded by their father and grandfather respectively. They wanted to ensure that these daughters and granddaughters of Prophet Mohammed will not in any way find it possible to rise to the position of leadership in the kingdom.
A new social order was created where women were denied so many rights. They were not allowed to take any active role in the political and religious leadership within the community. From birth, women were considered inferior to men. In fact, the rulers introduced female infanticide as a sign of how worthless female life was in the society. Shatzmiller (1995) says that death of a boy child was as sad as birth of a girl child. Women were denied the right to own anything in the society. In fact, they were considered property of their husbands or fathers. Girls had no right to choose their husbands. In most of the cases, the father would marry them off to men of their choice, some of whom were very old. Wife battering was a common practice in the society and nothing was done to help protect women. The dynasty reduced the position of women to that of slaves. To the initial rulers of Abbasid dynasty, this system worked for them because chances of women rising to power and overthrowing them from leadership position were completely eliminated. However, the new social order redefined the position of Islamic women completely. Even in the modern Islamic society, women are still regarded as inferior to men, a position very different from that held by Khadija, the first person to become a follower of Prophet Mohammed.
Conclusion
Women’s right in the Islamic societies is an issue that has raised debate among scholars and human rights activists for decades. The Abbasid and Cordoba dynasties are two kingdoms that existed almost at the same time but had completely different approach towards women’s right although they were both based on Islam as a religion that defined their culture. While Cordoba Dynasty embraced women as people with equal rights as men, Abbasid Dynasty considered women inferior to men in all spheres of life.
References
Ahmed, L. (1992). Women and gender in Islam: Historical roots of a modern debate. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Bouachrine, I. (2014). Women and Islam: Myths, apologies, and the limits of feminist critique. Lanham, MD: Lexinton Books
Brubaker, L. (2004). Gender in the early medieval world: East and west, 300-900. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Univ. Press.
El-Cheikh, N. M. (2015). Women, Islam, and Abbasid identity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Shatzmiller, M. (1995). Women and property rights in Al-Andalus and the Maghrib: Social patterns and legal discourse. Islamic Law and Society, 2(3), 219-257.
Viguera, M. J. (1992). Asluhu Li’1-Ma’ali: On the social status of Andalusi women. In S. L. Jayyusi (Ed.), The legacy of Muslim Spain (pp. 23-52). New York, NY: Brill.
Wagner, Sally Roesch. “How Native American Women Inspired the Women’s Rights Movement.” National Park Service. Web.
In this article, the author addresses the differences between the Euro-American and Native American societies and the role of women in them. According to Wagner, Matilda Joslyn Gage, along with other leaders of the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA), admired the Six Nation Haudenosaunee Confederacy and its political, social, economic, and religious superior positions. In particular, these women were inspired by female authority that existed in the Native American society and was absent in the Western one. For instance, women controlled their nations’ economies, had their own property, and were involved in clans’ decision-making. In turn, women in Western society were invisible to the law having no legal existence. Being married, they almost had no rights and were regarded as intellectually and physically inferior in comparison to men. This article is beneficial for the study of the women’s suffrage movement as it provides comprehensive examples of the difference between Euro-American and Native American women in a society that inspired the former to fight for equal rights.
Dhillon, Carla M. “Indigenous Feminisms: Disturbing Colonialism in Environmental Science Partnerships.” Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 6, no. 4 (2020): 483–500.
This article refers to the ability of Indigenous peoples to resolve environmental issues in partnership with the White community and the role of Indigenous women in this collaboration. As Indigenous governance presupposes the involvement of all people regardless of their gender and has strong traditions of Indigenous feminism, Native American women play an important role in the resolution of important issues. However, they do not make decisions – instead, the decisions are made by Indigenous men and white women while Indigenous women serve as a liaison between communities and officials. The article demonstrates the impact of Indigenous feminism on the Western society that initially aimed to suppress it and how this feminism is currently affected by western feminism as well.
Hill, Margo, and Mary Ann Keogh Hoss. “Reclaiming American Indian Women Leadership: Indigenous Pathway to Leadership.” Open Journal of Leadership 7, no. 3 (2018): 225-236.
The authors of this article examine Native American women leadership, addressing Indigenous people’s values that presupposed the dominant position of women who owned property were involved in decision-making. Regardless of multiple challenges, Native American women are proposed to incorporate a Native American Leadership Indigenous Pathway model to serve as a link between tribal and mainstream American values negotiating two worldviews in a unique manner. This article may be useful for the study of American women’s history as it describes the opportunities for historical Indigenous feminism in the present day.
“Who Was Excluded?: Women’s Suffrage.”National Park Service. Web.
This small article describes limitations related to women’s suffrage and the right to vote. In particular, it states that Native American women had no right to participate in elections along with White women due to the absence of citizenship or other discriminatory practice, regardless of their impact in this movement and authority in clans. This article promotes reflection concerning modern challenges connected with women’s political, economic, and social rights.
Cahill, Cathleen D., and Sarah Deer. “In 1920, Native Women Sought the Vote. Here’s What’s Next.” The New York Times. Web.
This newspaper article refers to the Native American Women’s Suffrage Movement that appeared after the 19th Amendment that allowed White women to participate in elections. One of the most well-known Native American suffragists, Gertrude Simmons Bonnin, continued to fight for the rights of Indigenous people attracting attention to not only inequalities in relation to voting but to harmful policies of the government that targeted Indigenous communities. The significance of this article is determined by the fact that it explains how Native American women who had inspired the Western suffragists were involved in the same movement.
Adamson, Rebecca. “100 Years After Suffrage, Native American Women Still Fighting to Vote.” Women’s Media Center. Web.
This article explains how Native American women who inspired the suffrage movement in the United States still cannot receive their full right to vote. In the late 1800s, the leaders of suffragists spent time living in Haudenosaunee territories, receiving an opportunity to observe the role of women in Native American society. However, even when White women received the right to vote, Indigenous women’s same right was highly restricted. Even in 2008, there were limitations that did not allow them to participate in elections. This article demonstrates how Native American women are still discriminated against and may initiate additional research dedicated to this topic.
References
Wagner, Sally Roesch, “How Native American Women Inspired the Women’s Rights Movement,” National Park Service, Web.
Dhillon, Carla M., “Indigenous Feminisms: Disturbing Colonialism in Environmental Science Partnerships,” Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 6, no. 4 (2020): 483–500
Hill, Margo, and Mary Ann Keogh Hoss., “Reclaiming American Indian Women Leadership: Indigenous Pathway to Leadership,” Open Journal of Leadership 7, no. 3 (2018): 225-236.
“Who Was Excluded?: Women’s Suffrage,” National Park Service, Web.
Cahill, Cathleen D., and Sarah Deer., “In 1920, Native Women Sought the Vote. Here’s What’s Next,” The New York Times, Web.
Adamson, Rebecca., “100 Years After Suffrage, Native American Women Still Fighting to Vote,” Women’s Media Center, Web.
The nineteenth century period witnessed a lot in terms of women involvement in political and other socio-economic affairs. They became increasingly aware of the various local, regional and international matters affecting them at large. Besides, their intense involvement in religious, philanthropy and other socially engaging activities like abolitionist movements, politics and utopia greatly exposed them to events surrounding their immediate environment. This essay analytically explores some of the conditions which helped bring about movement for women’s right in Great Britain and United States before the close of the last century. Moreover, the essay further attempts to investigate the most significant demand of these early women’s activists.
Abolitionist movement
To begin with, North American and Continental Europe women had already engaged themselves into charitable work which inevitably led into what was referred to as social activism. This took place as early as the beginning of the nineteenth century. Once they found their way into activism, the politicking spirit engulfed them by leaps and bounds. One of the key areas where women voiced their concerns was in the abolition of slave trade. Although both Great Britain and United States had declared slave trade illegal by the first decade of the nineteenth century, the reform and implementation process was considered to be taking place at a snail’s pace. In fact, in 1824, a woman activist, Elizabeth Heyrick vehemently differed with those supporting the slow and gradual abolition approach to slave trade (French & Poska 334). She decried foul by lamenting that more action than mere talk was needed to free the enslaved lot whom she asserted were not productive even to their masters while in that state of slavery. As this debate was picking up, more women joined hands and spoke in one voice calling for the end in this illegitimate trade. Surprisingly, the older lot who were equally against slave trade “was often uncomfortable with the overtly political nature of these women’s activities” (French & Poska 335).
Women in politics
The anti slave trade activities was not the only point of concern that rose the eye brows of women from Great Britain. History acknowledges the fact there were women politicians even during the era of Queen Caroline affair. Women were drawn closer to this scandal in which the Queen was implicated. This growing women interest did not attract any attention from male politicians in Britain. Women were more or less considered to be home makers and were expected to play subordinate and supportive roles only. This debate on women’s rights extended to the floor of the British parliament whereby the conservatives preferred status quo while the liberals eyed for reforms on equal representation and rights (French & Poska 337). Unfortunately though, the reform bill presented to the British parliament did not receive unanimous backing and it failed setting the stage for Chartism. According to French and Poska (337), Chartism expounded that democracy in parliament was the most applicable strategy of improving economic, social and gender imbalance. Indeed, it is through Chartist movement that women secured a platform of exploring both their feminist and political ambitions.
Socialist utopia
On the other hand, it was not definite that all women would exercise due restraint and patience and wait for political reforms before their rights could be addressed. More radical women activists faced this concern head on through utopian socialism (French & Poska 338). The earliest utopian practices embraced by Saint-Simonians and Fourierists did not include the female gender in the leadership ladder. There were dubious claims that women were inadequate without the approval of men. This deceptive point of view was not only a disgrace to the womenfolk but also a setback to women’s wish of attaining equity. Consequently, splinter groups were formed culminating into movements to a free woman world.
Conclusion
When women entrenched themselves into politics and other social activities, awareness level in terms of rights went high leading to the formation of the various movements mandated to champion their concerns (French & Poska 340). In addition, the most significant demand of these early women’s group was lack of equity in socio-political and economic representations. French and Poska (341-342) elaborate that in spite of the mixed reactions women activists posed, majority were keen on equity on both gender on matters dealing with politics, culture, labour and social justice in general.
Work Cited
French L. Katherine and Poska M. Allyson. Women and gender in the western past: Since 1500, Houghton: Mifflin, 2006. Print
The history of the United States demonstrates significant progress of the nation, a desire to change and improve human lives, and a necessity to promote respect for past achievements and future discoveries. There are many important stages in the development of American society, and each century has its contributions and leading figures. In American history, the 19th century was rich in a variety of changes, and the Women’s Rights Movement was one of the most remarkable events. It touched fields like politics, economics, society, and even psychology, provoking a sense of self-esteem and power. In this paper, the peculiarities of women’s suffrage, its political and social background, and further reactions will be discussed to clarify the worth and impact of the chosen event. In the middle of the 19th century, the women like Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan A. Anthony, and Anna Elizabeth Dickinson began their fight for voices and rights, which made them great political and social leaders and resulted in a solid basis and inspiration for future female generations striving for equality and respect.
Social and Political Situation in the 19th Century
At the beginning of the 19th century, women did not have any political and social freedoms. They were dependent on their men and did not have an opportunity to change something. Having no legitimate rights, they had to perform the roles of housewives, including such common activities as mothering, cooking, gardening, supporting family moral purity, cleaning, and agriculture (Jiang 883). Despite the evident progress in such industries as textile, farming, and trade, women’s actions were determined by certain religious beliefs and moral authorities. Job opportunities were limited, and husbands usually made decisions instead of their wives (Shah). Although the situation for women seemed to the same regardless of their classes and income levels, divorces or unmarried women faced harsher conditions and severer requirements because of the lack of male protection.
Multiple debates continued because it was hard for the local people to identify the role of an American woman in society. On the one hand, a woman was defined as “neither a voter nor a holder of real estate” (“The Question of Suffrage in the South”). On the other hand, it was absurd not to call the “women of America… not citizens because they are not voters” (“The Question of Suffrage in the South”). Citizenship included the possibility “to be one of the body of a nation, and as a father defends his family, so must the government defend its people” (“The Question of Suffrage in the South”). In the middle of the 19th century, it was evident that women did not want to keep silent and pretend that they were satisfied with the offered living and working conditions. The first waves of feminism occurred between the 1830s and the 1840s.
Taking into consideration that the 19th century was characterized by a number of abolitionist movements and ideas, American women found it necessary to participate in various antislavery debates and activities. They relied on their religious backgrounds and promoted political and social ideologies (Levy 105). However, even at that period, women were divided into several groups. For example, some women believed that a woman’s place had to be in the domestic sphere and that the public arena had to be avoided by any means (Levy 105). There were also a number of women like Maria Weston Chapman and the Grimké sisters who supported anti-slavery reforms and promoted solidarity among the races (Levy 105). The situation changed when the Civil War began and took the lives of many men, making women starting working and supporting the development of the country. At that period of time, several attempts to protect women’s rights and votes were made from religious and political perspectives. Social freedoms were still unclear, and women had to take new steps to demonstrate how serious their intentions were.
Movement, Its Participants, and Suffrage
Women’s rights movements could be divided into two major stages: the first wave at the end of the 1940s and the second wave at the end of the 1890s. First attempts to promote and protect female rights were made in the spheres of education and employment. It was necessary for women to be heard and understood by the local powers and men, in particular. Further attempts took place after the Civil War when society was damaged by its consequences, and women believed that they could define their political rights and vote freedoms.
At the beginning of the movement, women did not want to continue living and being dependent on their men only. One of their initial goals was to break the cult of domesticity and reform the world (Jiang 886). 19-20 July 1848, was the date when the first women’s rights convention was held (“The Women’s Rights Movement”). It was organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton in Seneca Falls, New York (“The Women’s Rights Movement”). Approximately 100 people attended the convention (one-third were men) and listened to the first draft of a “Declaration of Sentiments, Grievances, and Resolutions” (“The Women’s Rights Movement”). Stanton et al. introduced this document as the intention to explain why “man was the only transgressor” and that “he had been guilty of injustice and usurpation” (137). As well as the Declaration of Independence, the Declaration of Sentiments presented a framework for women to express their grievances and hopes in regards to property rights, law equity, and education (“Stanton, Elizabeth Cady” 120). The movement with its goals and missions were formed, and it was hard to stop women who were aware of their rights and new opportunities.
The events of the Civil War stopped the development of the movement because all the citizens were occupied with the necessity to survive and protect their properties. Women and men of different races were united into groups to avoid the marginalization of social issues (“The Women’s Rights Movement”). The end of the Civil War raised a number of new problems, and the right to vote was one of them. In 1868, the 14th Amendment was made to ratify citizens’ rights and equal protection. In 1870, the 15th Amendment came into force, promoting the rights of black people to vote. However, not much attention was paid to women and their legally approved rights. At the same time, the role of American women underwent considerable changes because many men died during the war, and it was necessary to improve the labor force and find new sources of income.
The representatives of the women’s rights movement were not satisfied with the change they observed. Stanton and her friend Susan B. Anthony demonstrated their discontent with the Amendments because they excluded women’s suffrage (“Stanton, Elizabeth Cady” 121). The American Equal Rights Association (AERA) was established in 1866 to support voting rights for women and black men, then, the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) was created to focus on women’s rights only in 1869. In 1890, the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was formed on the basis of the NWSA and the AERA. There were many supporters of this organization and its ideas. Senator Pomeroy spoke in favor of female suffrage and offered Anna S. Dickinson, a famous antislavery orator of that time, to stump the state (“The Kansas Senators on Women’s Suffrage”). There were also many opponents to the idea of women’s suffrage, including Reverend Robert L. Collier, who believed that home is the only place for women (“Animated Debate Between Miss Anna Dickinson and Rev. Robert L. Collier”). Then, the NAWSA participants changed their position to prove not equality but differences between genders from a political virtue.
Outcomes of the Movement
After the support from Kansas (not official), many other states began to reconsider their attitudes towards women as legal voters. Women suffrage was extended in such states as Wyoming (1869), Colorado (1893), Idaho (1896), and Utah (1896) (“The Women’s Rights Movement”). During the next several decades, the representatives of the NAWSA improved their nonpartisan positions and continued proving their voting rights and social freedoms. The West turned out to be more progressive and loyal to female interests compared to other regions of the United States.
However, it is necessary to admit that the success of the NAWSA was doubtful. If some states were ready to support and accept women as equal citizens of the country, in many places, the governments did not find it necessary to legalize their voting rights. As a result, many women, including the NAWSA members were arrested. New campaigns and parties were organized to demonstrate violent (as it could possibly be among women) attempts, including strikes, pickets, and debates. World War I influenced the progress of the movement, but women did not stop their activities and strive for justice by means of their patriotic intentions. They proved that they deserved legal rights as well as men already had. The final result was achieved on August 26, 1920, when the 19th Amendment was ratified, and all women got the right to vote (“The Women’s Rights Movement”). That year, more than eight million women went to their first elections.
Conclusion
In general, the women’s rights movement played an important role in the development of the United States. The events between the middle of the 1800s and the beginning of the 1990s proved that women possessed a number of good qualities that integrated not only housekeeping and babysitting but politics and human rights. Although the movement was not a single properly organized event or community, it was a serious attempt to change something and improve American society. Both waves of the movement had their distinctive features, but their leaders, including Stanton, Anthony, and Dickinson, followed their goals and never regretted all the decisions they made. The NAWSA, as well as other organizations, opened new opportunities for women, and the 19th and 20th centuries were known not only as the period when slavery was over but the period when quality and justice spread across the United States.
Levy, Valerie D. “The Grace of God Assisting”: Abolitionist Women and the Politics of Religion.” Nineteenth-Century American Women Write Religion: Lived Theologies and Literature, edited by Mary McCartin Wearn, Routledge, 2014, pp. 105-119.
Like any massive social confrontation, the struggle for the right to vote for women had opponents and proponents. Most often, such movement as suffrage has its leaders that encourage the people and express the general opinion. However, even famous people and politicians who advocated democratic rights in society expressed their negative opinion against the suffrage movement. The article “Discriminating Against Mother,” published in the Tulsa Daily World in 1918, presents comments from politicians and churchmen, which reflect the attitude of a large part of society towards women’s suffrage.
Main body
The article does not have a specific author as it is a collection of quotes from famous personalities of that time. However, the editor of this page has the role of a coordinator who sets the message’s overall mood. For example, in addition to the direct quotes, the newspaper contains questions in large font and offensive answers to them in smaller font, which are, in fact, a form of conveying opinion. For instance, “Who Profits Under Women Suffrage? – Not the Mother, nor the state, but those corrupt political influences which manipulate the controlled vote” (Tulsa Daily World 1918). In this way, the editor wants to influence readers and convince them of the harmfulness of suffrage. Moreover, the phrase “Protect the Family and Vote ‘NO’ on the Women Suffrage Amendment” occupies a significant portion of the page. () This phrase confirms the theme of the article, which is propaganda against allowing women to vote.
One can see only the article’s general point of view, since it does not have a specific author. However, it is clear and pronounced because all quotes from famous people and mentioned facts are directed against suffrage and its female representatives. For example, Bishop H. Vincent said about suffrage, “The instinct of motherhood is against it. The basic conviction of our best manhood is against it” (Tulsa Daily World 1918). Other famous people express similar ideas, such as Jefferson, Taft, Ruth, Cardinal Gibbons, and Rebbe Silverman (Tulsa Daily World 1918). The primary audience is white men, since only they had the right to vote and could decide women’s fate in a matter of voting rights.
The combination of statements that degrade the image of suffragettes and suffrage and quotes of leaders’ opinions is a way for the editor to influence the audience. This article is anti-suffrage propaganda, and authoritative statement must support false claims. Another way to get attention is the usage of large types for questions and the main message that grabs the reader’s attention. Thus, the newspaper’s appearance and its content are the editor’s ways of getting the reader.
This primary source reflects the features of the historical period of women’s struggle for their rights. For years, women have pushed for state and national consideration of the amendment to give them the right to vote. Even though in 1918, many men took the side of women, since some states’ government allowed women to vote, there was still strong resistance to the movement (Schuessler 2019). For this reason, one may note that a given source characterizes the time at which it was created. However, I disagree with the ideas that this article carries as it does not subject the suffrage movement to constructive criticism but mainly to biased opinions. For example, a statement that giving women the right to vote can harm government policy or that mothers do not have time to because they are too busy with children (Tulsa Daily World 1918). These facts are lies or manipulations of facts that are obvious to modern humans, but they may have had an impact in the past.
Therefore, this source is trustworthy as it reflects historical trends; however, the ideas stated in it are biased and not truthful. The article quotes the words of famous people, which are true, or at least coincide with their authors’ views. For example, Thomas Jefferson, one of the founders of the Constitution, believed that the duty of women is to take care of children, so they do not need political rights, which is generally reflected in the text of the Constitution (Hulen n.d.). For this reason, I believe that the source can be trusted. However, this fact does not eliminate the article’s bias, in which women’s suffrage is defined as harm to society, government policies, and women themselves. Therefore, I think that this article is not truthful, although its creators could have thought otherwise, since they were guided by a preconceived opinion against women’s suffrage.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the anti-suffrage article “Discriminating Against Mother,” published in the Tulsa Daily World, is an example of a reliable source. However, although quotes and ideas correspond to the reality of that time, they only reflect a part of reality that cannot be studied without a historical context. This article demonstrates the preconceived notions of women’s suffrage opponents and the false arguments they used against it. However, one can see that the given source is appropriate and logical for the climax of the suffrage movement, which had both supporters and opponents. Therefore, this article is biased but suitable for examining the history of women’s struggles for voting rights.
References
Hulen, Tara. n.d. “Thomas Jefferson’s Gender Revolution.” UAB Magazine. Web.
Lucy Parsons was a woman who stood up for social justice. She fought against the government for equal rights and urged people to think and be educated. She was a believer in anarchism and thought that it was the means to liberty and freedom. She advocated women’s rights and as long as there is a person who fights for humanity today, Lucy Parsons will always be alive in the spirit.
Thinking
She was dubbed more dangerous than a thousand rioters by the Chicago Police department. She was a truly remarkable woman and full of revolutionary ideas. She believed that education was necessary in every person’s life and only then they could make proper decisions about the world. She was against campaigning for elections because she thought that people should earn their votes through their ideas and their standing and not by begging people. She was against racial discrimination and carried out protests that focused on social justice. Her main idea was that a government oppressed the monitory and that anarchism was the way to fight back. The government back in the day was not as democratic as it is today because it did not include everyone in the right of passage called The Constitution of the United States. If we observe up till now the original documents with words such as “man and his liberty…” and “all men created equal..” are still unchanged in major documents. The Equal Rights Amendment has been to congress several times and never passed. Her basis of anarchism was that people should think for themselves before following a superficial and unjust law. She believed that people should research and prove the wrongs right otherwise there would be no human development.
Anarchism
Lucy Parsons believes that people are “governed best when [they] are governed least.” She believes that anarchism is liberty that allows human progress. She believes that in anarchism a person has complete freedom to think, to progress, and to investigate matters. Unlike democracy or any form of government where the majority rules, anarchism is for everyone and not just the majority. Nothing is set in stone; everything can be investigated and proved false with the right evidence. Her principles of anarchism are a way to guarantee human progression and not be bound by laws that are unfavorable and biased. Her idea of a government was false because it bound people to the majority’s decision – a majority that would often crush the lives of the minority. She criticized laws and legal documents such as the constitution because they were accepted by everyone without any objections. The constitution at the time was not in favor of African Americans or women. The only person that the constitution looked out for was the white male. She thought this kind of business was a threat to human development and that it should be investigated thoroughly to reach a better answer. She said the government caused people to think, act and judge others in a certain way because of the restrictions it creates. People judge if something is good or bad according to the law without ever thinking if the law is even justified, to begin with. Henceforth, anarchy was the best option to freedom, not a government.
Issues
Lucy Parsons fought for women’s rights along with every other type of social justice. At the time women were not allowed to vote, they were paid lower wages if they worked and barely had any rights or rights equal to ones guaranteed to the white male. She said that the only way they could vote and represent their ideas was through a man and that she didn’t trust men enough or have enough confidence in them to even ask of such a thing. She said that all these issues affected women’s lives greatly and needed to be fixed because women are equal to men. If she would have been alive when Alice Paul started the Equal Rights Amendment she would have stood in the front of the rallies. She thought that it was unfair that women were paid lower wages and that every time wages needed to be reduced they took away the money from women and not men.
Today
There is many of Lucy Parson’s type of people today. If we are observing the 20th century Alice Paul is the best example. She wanted the constitution to be amended to say that men and women are equal in all aspects. The amendment went to congress several times but each time it was unapproved because of a few votes. Any woman who stands up for herself, any man who stands up for himself and fights for his ideas and doesn’t blindly accept the law is a Lucy Parson. If we understand that governments all over the world have flaws and shouldn’t be followed blindly we are the followers of Lucy Parson. Any person who feels that every human being should have equal rights and should be just is Lucy Parsons. Back in the day, the issues concerning Lucy Parsons were the government and human rights. Today the same issues are still present except they are a little different. Women in underdeveloped countries still have no rights. Kids are sexually abused and molested all over the world. Racism is present everywhere. The majority still manages to oppress the minority in some parts of the world. People are still deprived of education. As long as there are people out there who fight these causes even in a small way, speak up against them, and are involved in being proactive Lucy Parsons will always be alive amongst us.
Feminist discourse aims to discover why women become subjects to a great deal of oppression. Even in instances when women are given rights, they are often not on par with the rights granted to their male counterparts, which creates a vicious circle of struggling to attain more rights, which, again, do not meet the desired standards. In the Islamic context, the oppression, marginalization, and silencing of women have deep roots in religious history, with Sharia being the primary source of both law and ethics regarding the treatment of women. However, modern feminist research considers the treatment of women in the Muslim tradition from a negative standpoint, specifically, forcing submissiveness and mistreatment (Shizleen, 2018).
The complete experience of women in Islam is veiled by myths and misconceptions that have embedded into the feminist narrative and fail to be addressed time in time again (European Network Against Racism, 2016). Even though Muslim women do experience severe limitations that hinder their equality of opportunities, the Islamophobic agenda significantly influences their lives, leaving limited capacity to express one’s religious and traditional values freely. In addition, what many fail to recognize is that the current rights given to Muslim women are just ‘rights,’ and with the pressure from the Islamophobic agenda, they do not guarantee equality.
The Religious Context
In the Islamic religion, men and women are considered morally equal in God’s sight and are expected to fulfill the same duties of prayer, worship, faith, fasting, and pilgrimage to Mecca. As mentioned in the Quran (3: 195), God said that he would “never fail to reward any worker among you for any work you do, be you male or female – you are equal to one another.” According to historical records, Mohammad himself consulted women and took his opinions into consideration. In addition, at least one woman, Umm Waraqah, was made imam over her household. Women were allowed to pray in mosques unsegregated from men and, in the early Islamic period, were both instructors and pupils seeking knowledge and education.
Notwithstanding the principles of equality of men and women in Islamic tradition, women’s low status should be attributed not to the ideals set in the Quran but to the cultural norms of the patriarchal society (Abu-Lughod, 2013). As a result, the improvement in the women’s position became a significant problem for modern reforms embedded in Islam. Under such norms, women were greatly restricted in terms of education, seclusion, veiling, polygyny, and concubinage, which were intended to be limited by Islam and not facilitated.
Modern Developments
The Quran is considered the sourcebook for the Islamic principles and values; although, it does not constitute a comprehensive codebook. It replaced, changed, and substituted earlier tribal laws with such practices as the infanticide of females, the poor’s exploitation, murder, fornication, and adultery (Esposito, 2016). The majority of the reforms brought by the emergence of the Quran include regulations or moral guidance that limits and redefines the existing practices, with slavery and the status of women being the most prominent examples.
Even though slavery was not abolished, slaveowners were asked to allow their slaves to earn freedom. Forcing women slaves into prostitution was condemned, and women became entitled to their dower in marriage, where polygamy became restricted (Esposito, 2016). In addition, the Quran established an ethical norm of giving women rights of inheritance in a patriarchal society that used to limit it only to the relatives of male sex. Therefore, the establishment of the Quran as the religious ‘guidebook’ by which the Muslim society shall live significantly reduced the mistreatment of vulnerable members of society, although not eliminating it altogether.
The modern legislation of the Arab world regarding women’s status has undergone further changes. According to Nasir (1990), “far from being a subordinate and powerless follower of the man […] the woman under Islam, whether she is Muslim or not, has the last word, and the ultimate power to choose her life-partner. She enjoys full autonomy as far as her property is concerned, and is the beneficiary of securities that must be the envy of her western sister” (p. 2). These findings suggest that there has been significant progress made toward ensuring the rights of Muslim women, although not necessarily their equality.
A critical difference between the traditional practices and the current codes is the tendency of newly-developed standards to adhere to different law schools instead of focusing on one (Long-Bas, 2015). Examples of the modern principles of women’s rights include the minimum age requirement for marriage, the guarantee of a proper dower in all marriages, adequate compensation, and more (“Islamic family law: Egypt, Arab Republic of,” n.d.). However, Nasir (1990) makes it clear that awarding the abovementioned rights to women does not guarantee their equality to men in the Islamic tradition. The Quran clearly states that men are to be the protectors and maintainers of women because Allah gave them strength over the other and because they support them from their means (Quran 4:34). Thus, a righteous Muslim woman is devoutly obedient, which, by default, makes her unequal to a man.
The Barriers of Islamophobia
Considering the deeply-embedded issue of inequality within the Islamic patriarchal society, the bias and misconceptions of Islamophobia limit the opportunities of Muslim women to reach equality. Throughout history, Sunni researchers have taken excursive views on how they can interpret the Quran and the sayings of Prophet Muhammad, which resulted in the creation of the four approaches of legal thought (Elbasnaly & Sanders, 2020). Among the strictest are the Hanbali schools, the Saudi’s ultra-conservative Wahhabism and Salafism variants, which women’s rights in the eyes of the law where Sharia is practiced and enriched. Such schools of thought that significantly restrict women’s rights in Islam led to the emergence of negative attitudes toward the religion in general, which fail to consider the positive aspects.
The focus on women’s invisibility in Islam limits attempts to empower women in Muslim societies. Through the lens of Islamophobia, all societies that live under Sharia law are seen as the same, with women being subjected to the same levels of oppression. For example, in Saudi Arabia, women have become one of the most adamant fighters for their rights in the country, using all available methods, such as the media, to speak publicly of their mistreatment and the need to be awarded more rights. An instance of such success is the overturning of the ban on women’s driving in 2018, thanks to the Women2Drive campaign (Göl, 2018).
In addition, the example of Noor Tagouri, the first woman wearing a hijab in Playboy, shows the breaking of social limitations of Islamic patriarchy (Shapiro, 2016). However, conservative clerics disagree with the social reforms and newly-attained freedoms, pointing out that they erode cultural boundaries between men and women. The proponents of Islamophobia underlined the opposition of conservatives, thus suggesting that a Muslim society can never reach equality because of Islam’s deeply rooted inequality.
Islamophobia, therefore, dehumanizes Muslim women and denies their agency and accomplishments. Through the sole focus on the disadvantages of Islam and the limitations that it imposes, Western Islamophobic views ignore the political and patriarchal structures that enable women’s oppression. Activists are being silenced while the new and improved regulations are disregarded (Göl, 2018). Such an approach significantly reduces the success of feminist movements aimed at empowering Muslim women on their path to attain equality (Shaarawi, 1990). The urgency of gender equality in Islam is high at the moment; although, it is imperative to recognize the difference between granting rights and having equality.
Discussion
Because Islam and its principles are continuously being used against women and their rights, the current feminist movement must engage with the religion to clarify any misconceptions and misunderstandings. Importantly, since the majority of Muslim women aim to act in accordance with Islamic teachings, the understanding of religious principles is important for their liberation (Seggie & Neisler, 2010).
The cases of framing and stereotyping, such as the Homeland Season 4 campaign, reinforce the long history of Western media and the public misinterpreting Islam, contributing to Islamophobia (Karim, n.d.). In the campaign poster, the main character is seen wearing a red headscarf. In contrast, the rest of the women surrounding her wear burqas, implying that their covered appearance leads to their emphasized passivity (Karim, n.d.). The popularization of the stereotypical interpretations limits the opportunities to advocate for gender equality in Islam and through the means of the religion itself.
Considering the issues expressed in regard to the rights of Muslim women within their faith, significant attention should be given to the separation of religion and government. The solution offers great advantages to either party: while women can be given full rights and freedoms that guarantee equality, the critics of Islam can no longer equate state policies in Muslim societies to religious dogmas. Although achieving this is easier said than done, the starting point was marked by the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women in 1979, with all Arab countries signing it, with significant reservations (Kharroub, 2015). As long as Arab countries continue imposing discriminatory practices against women, Islamophobic individuals will have the grounds to continue dismissing the positive aspects of the religion for women, which defeats the purpose of Muslim women’s liberation and equality.
Conclusion
Muslim women have rights, and some of such rights, especially property and monetary, exceed the ones awarded to women in Western societies. The religion of Islam implies the equality of men to women, with individuals of both genders being viewed the same in the eyes of God. However, the main challenge lies in the misconception of the religion as oppressive while it is the patriarchal structure of Muslim societies that is oppressive.
Any rights that women are given are just opportunities, which do not grant equality per se. The Islamophobia prevailing in the Western world adds to the problem – the misconceptions and misinterpretations of the religion limit Muslim women’s capacity to fight for their equality. Therefore, there is a need for the complete reevaluation of Islam’s treatment in the eyes of the media and the public for Muslim women to have the support they need to have equal rights to men.
References
Abu-Lughod, L. (2013). Do Muslim women need saving? Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Karim, M. (n.d.). Framing Muslim women: The problem with Homeland’s season 4 campaign. Web.
Long-Bas, N. (2015). The status of women under Islamic law and under modern Islamic legislation. By Jamal J. Nasir. Journal of Law and Religion, 15, 499-502.
Nasir, J. (1990). The status of women under Islamic law and under modern Islamic legislation. Graham and Trotman.
Seggie, F., & Neisler, G. (2010). Perceptions of female Muslim students who veil: Campus religion climate. Race, Ethnicity and Education, 13(1), 59-82.
Shaarawi, H. (1990). Pan-Arab feminism. The opening speech. In M. Badran & M. Cooke (Eds.), Opening the gates: A century of Arab feminist writing (pp. 338-340). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Shapiro, R. (2016). Noor Tagouri becomes the first woman to wear a hijab in Playboy. Huffington Post. Web.
Shizleen, A. (2018). Muslim veiled women and religious discrimination: A strength perspective. Web.
The history of women in the United States is filled with trailblazers in the struggle for equality. Historians describe two feminism waves: one in the 19th century that grew out of the anti-slavery movement and another wave in the 1960s and 1970s. At the end of the 1800s and the beginning of 1900s, women’s organizations and women struggled for social reforms, to gain the right to vote, and for diverse political and economic equality (Kumar, 2017). From suffragists such as Elizabeth Stanton striving for their voting rights to Hillary Clinton being the first lady to be recommended for the presidency by a key party, females have significantly fought for equality throughout the history of America. While they have achieved significant success and suffered some setbacks, progress continues to be made. This essay describes the aftermath of the progression of women’s rights from 1900 to 1975.
The aftermath of the aforementioned era saw women engaging in politics in various places that they had not considered. After the progression of women’s rights, new notions broke down the impression that females exist in a different world from men; ladies needed not to be enfranchised to practice political power (“Interchange,” 2019). First, President Ronald Reagan swore in Sandra Day O’Connor to work in the Supreme Court in 1981. Sandra as the first woman to be chosen for this position served for twenty-four years and retired in 2006. Regarding riding on the Space Shuttle Challenger, Sally Ride was named the first American woman to fly in space in 1983. In 1984, Geraldine Ferraro, a US Democratic representative, was selected as the running mate of presidential nominee Walter Mondale. The selection made Geraldine the first female nominee of the vice president’s position by a major political party. Moreover, President Bill Clinton, in 1993, nominated and swore in Janet Reno as the first woman attorney general in America. President Clinton also swore in Madeleine Albright as the country’s first female state secretary.
On 4th January 2007, Rep. Nancy Pelosi became the first woman to be chosen as the House speaker. She reclaimed the title in 2019, making her the first legislator to be in the office twice in over fifty years. Sarah Palin, the Alaska Governor during this era, became the first Republican female to run for the seat of vice president. To top it all, Hillary Clinton received a major party presidential nomination in 2016 (Teele, 2018). However, she lost the Democratic election to Barack Obama. Recently, black women celebrated when Kamala Harris became the first US female vice president. As a Black American, Harris had served as an attorney general in California since 2016. Before her selection as Joe Biden’s running mate, Harris’s presidential bid had been unsuccessful.
Furthermore, there have been changes in various legislation since the progression of the women’s rights movement. In 1984, the Supreme Court banned sex discrimination in all-male groups’ membership, such as rotary clubs. In the same year, the state of Mississippi ratified the 19th Amendment, giving women a right to vote. In 1986, the court stated that the work environment can be professed as abusive or hostile because of discrimination on the grounds of sex. In addition, Bill Clinton signed the Violence against Women Act in 1994, which provides funding for support programs that assist victims of sexual assault, rape, and other gender-related violent acts (Teele, 2018). Finally, the US military removed the ban against females serving in combat roles.
To conclude, although women had obtained the right to vote by 1975, most of them felt that they had not achieved enough with regards to politics and social and economic reforms. Therefore, advocates pushed for legislation that protects women from discriminatory workplaces and communities. Moreover, women began vying for higher political seats, including the vice president position. The swearing-in of Kamala Harris, in 2021, as the first Black vice president of the United States, together with other political milestones, shows that women are progressing their reinforcement in terms of democracy, political power, and anti-discrimination.
Kumar, D. (2017). Participation of women in politics: Worldwide experience. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), 22(12), 77–88. Web.
As with any other society in history, women constituted a vital part of the population in British colonies in North America and, later, of the independent United States. Yet the recognition of their crucial role manifesting in the same social, economic, and political rights that men enjoyed was not quick to come. Throughout American history, women had to proclaim, assert, fight for, and defend their rights, using a broad array of methods available to them.
Finding and supporting intellectual foundations for their claims was always important in this struggle, which is why feminist goals and arguments always evolved with time. From the property-owning women of the late 18th century to the proponents of the women’s liberation in the 1960s, women always succeeded in using the influential political theories of their time to eventually make feminist agenda a part of everyday American reality.
Women’s striving for social and political rights became clearly manifest in the young republic since the first years of its existence. As early as 1778, Hanna Lee Corbin asked her brother, a prominent Virginian revolutionary, why taxpaying women did not enjoy the same political rights as men. The fact that Corbin expressed her goals in a private letter rather than a public petition indicates how unsure the early American feminists felt about asserting their rights.
Still, it made a valid argument in favor of women’s suffrage, since: according to the republican political theory of the time, voting rights belonged to economically independent taxpayers. The new United States Constitution did not recognize this argument – although the Declaration of Independence began with the premise of universal equality, the world “equal” did not appear in the Constitution before the Fourteenth Amendment’s Equal Protection clause.
Some of the early state constitutions, on the other hand, were more open-minded. In New Jersey, unmarried women meeting property qualifications could vote from 1776 to 1807. Thus, the early American feminists already successfully used political theory to advance their cause.
While the early successes of American feminism were local, a national movement for women’s rights soon emerged as well. In 1848, prominent feminists organized the first national convention for women’s rights in Seneca Falls, NY, to discuss “the rights, roles, and relations of women and men.” While there were organizations and events dedicated to the women’s rights both before and after Seneca Falls, the convention signaled the beginning of a formal women’s rights movement on a national stage.
It adopted a Declaration of Sentiments to assert women’s dedication to achieving equality with men and modeled it after the Declaration of Independence – yet another example of well-crafted political rhetoric designed with references to the values shared by most of the nation.
As time marched on, the methods employed by women in the struggle for their rights became more decisive. The earliest proponents of female suffrage, such as Corbin, expressed their wishes in private, and while Seneca Falls Convention was undoubtedly a public event, it was still overshadowed by the national debate on slavery.
The feminists of the early 20th century, on the other hand, adopted a more energetic and militant approach to the pursuit of their goals. Whether participating in the temperance movement, establishing and maintaining settlement houses, or marching on the cities’ streets, the women struggling for their rights often occupied the forefront of the nation’s attention.
It is no coincidence that “saloon-smashing temperance crusaders [and] marching suffragettes” of the early 20th century are among the first images that come to mind when discussing the history of women’s rights in the USA. The 19th century laid down the groundwork for the future advances, but it was the more militant first wave of feminism that eventually won female suffrage in the Nineteenth Amendment.
Several decades after achieving the long-sought voting rights, women’s movement emerged with renewed vigor and energy in the 1960s and 1970s. If the first wave of feminism managed to make suffrage a prominent political concern, the second wave was even more far-reaching and left an impact on every aspect of private and public life.
It also continued the tradition of using advances in political theory to support women’s cause. On the one hand, the National Organization for Women (NOW) adhered to liberal feminism and sought to improve women’s status within the existing social, legal, and political framework. On the other hand, the more radical movement for women’s liberation aimed for structural changes and was skeptical about conventional politics as the means of achieving them.
Just as NOW was based on the centuries-old tradition of American liberalism, women’s liberation, with its focus on raising gender consciousness, came from the New Left and bore some similarities to Marxist political theory – at least in language and concepts, if not always goals. To summarize, while liberal feminism continued the old tradition of seeking legal equality, the notions of women’s liberation sought to challenge the cultural foundations of this inequality as well.
With the passing of time and thanks to the women’s restless effort in promoting their cause, many considerable accomplishments of the second-wave feminism have already become a part of everyday American life. The struggle for legalized abortions was one of the central elements of the second wave’s agenda, and now their legality throughout the USA is a matter of fact and a part of the normal legal landscape.
Institutionalized discrimination is far from being done with, but there is a general belief that it constitutes a problem to be addressed rather than a norm. Just as the voting rights were normalcy rather than a privilege for the women of the 1960s, the reproductive and social rights won by the second-wave feminism have already become a part of the everyday American life rather than the groundbreaking advances they were several decades ago.
As one can see, the US movement for women’s rights spans through the entire history of this nation and has always spearheaded its cause with skillful use of influential political theories of the time. As early as the 1770s, female Americans aspired for suffrage and pointed out that property-owning taxpaying women had as much right to vote as their male counterparts.
The Seneca Falls Convention, with its Declaration of Sentiments, signaled the beginning of the formal and organized struggle and provided a rallying cry for women on the national level. The first wave of feminism, with its more public and militant approach, eventually succeeded in winning female suffrage by 1920.
The second wave followed it several decades after, this time focusing on socio-economic and reproductive rather than political rights and contrasting the traditional liberal feminism with the leftist movement for women’s liberation. By the end of the 20th century, many achievements of second-wave feminism, such as the right to abortion or affirmative action, are already firmly integrated into mainstream American life, and what was a groundbreaking achievement earlier now constitutes a part of everyday life.
Bibliography
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