For a long time, women have been fighting for equal opportunities in society. They have endured discrimination in education and employment, demoralization of verbal abuse, the pain of segregation and racism. It was at the height of the Civil war that most women considered the need for their freedom from various forms of oppressions. However, most organizations disregarded women by giving them low-class jobs while men took up the prestigious front line positions.
It is amazing that African American women played a significant part in influencing the Civil Right Movement. However, it is saddening that in history, no one remembers these women for their roles or very few of them receive honor and credit.
They worked tirelessly while risking their lives and those of their families. Also, their activism spirit made most of them earn a bad reputation in society. They sacrificed their energy and time in the fight for liberation. All these women had several things in common which worked for their advantage.
The role of women in the Civil Rights Movement started to change in the 1960s. During this time, women became more involved in program development and executions as well as other specific activities. However, they were still more involved in the hospitality and membership relations departments.
These women excelled in their departments even sometimes outshining men. This led to the Movement’s success. African American women worked tirelessly to fight racism and gain equality. They, therefore, showed a united front in their organizations by working closely with men but at the same time airing their dissatisfactions in the organizations.
In the course of their fight, some women gave up the fight and accepted to work behind the scenes and support the male leaders. However, some women remained adamant and refused lesser positions.
The lesser positions involved washing dishes, preparing food, typing minutes in meetings, moral support as well as occasional sexual gratifications to men leaders. The other group of women found these roles demeaning and hence fought for equal partnership alongside their male peers. These women were very certain that their contributions and ideas would be significant in building the Society.
Some of the greatest women activists were Ella Baker and Septima Clark. These women worked alongside men but confronted their style of leadership. They belonged to the older generation group of women activists. For example, Ella became the executive secretary of SCLC at the age of 57 in 1960; a position that was previously male-dominated.
Ella Baker was born in Norfolk, Virginia in November 1903. Her mother worked as a community health worker while her father worked at Norfolk-Washington ferry. She began her activism career immediately after graduating from Shaw University in Raleigh. During depression times, she worked for a WPA consumer education project in New York City. In 1938, she worked with NAACP where she recruited members and raised money in the South before becoming the National Director of branches five years later.
She fought for open-minded leadership of the movement. She disapproved the leadership style of the King and advocated for other people within the movement to have the opportunity to grow in leadership. This has led to the portrayal of Ella Baker as a leader who worked behind the scenes but very significant.
Another woman activist was Septima Clark. She also belonged to the older women civil rights leaders. Clark was born in Charleston, North Carolina in 1898. She worked in SCLC where she confronted the male staff and attacked any form of sexism in leadership. She previously worked as a teacher in Charleston public schools before losing her job in 1956 after the passing of a law by legislators prohibiting state employees from being members of NAACP.
Similar to Ella Baker, she attacked the leadership style of the King. She advocated for democratic running of SCLC by delegating duties. She also confronted other ministers in the movement who only believed that only the King could lead the movement. These ministers believed that if they expanded leadership within the movement, they would be demeaning the King’s leadership abilities.
Conclusion
Women have fought for equal opportunities since time immemorial. They have sacrificed their time and lives to achieve these. During the civil movement era, the women stood up, refused the backstage and fought for the positions previously reserved for men. Ella Baker and Septima Clark were the feminist pioneers of civil activism. Ella Baker confronted the leadership style of the King and asked for liberal administration. Septima Clark, on the other hand, confronted any form of sexism in the movement.
Reference list
Crawford, Rouse, and Woods Barbara. Women in the Civil Rights Movement: Trailblazers and Torchbearers. Bloomington: Indiana University Publishers, 1990.
There are a lot of outstanding women whose contribution into the life of simple Americans and the citizens of the whole world seems too little, however, looking at the general tendencies it appears that these women take very important places in the development of the social opinion. The role of women in the development of social relationships all over the world is a complicated issue.
It should be stated that almost all over the world women were limited in their rights up to a particular time. Each time period, each country and each epoch has its own woman who struggled for women rights. Jane Cunningham Croly was one of such women at her time. Being born in Market Harborough, Leicestershire, England, on the 19th of December 1829, Jane Cunningham Croly was the fourth child a family.
She has never been a dreamer as well as she was not “speculative theorist spinning impossible things out of the cobwebs of her brain” (Various 9), remembers her brother. Therefore, having no specific dreams and realistically looking in the future, the life of Jane Cunningham Croly has affected the whole British and American society as being born in one country she lived and died in another one.
The Nation’s First Syndicated Woman’s Columnist
Starting the discussion of Jane Cunningham Croly’s achievements, it should be stated that she was the first syndicated woman’s columnist in the USA. Additionally, she created the General Federation of Women’s Club and fought for equal rights for women. Her activities affected the life of the USA and her life was essential for British women (Jane Cunningham Croly).
The manner of thinking and expressing her thoughts made this woman known in New York. She was accepted as a journalist in one of the newspapers of New York and she proved that women are not limited in their views, that women can also be educated, speak about essential problems in the society, politics, economics, etc.
The problem of women inequality with men had been considered in the society and Jane Cunningham Croly was one of those who wanted to contribute to the movement, and her journalistic activity was that measure. Starting writing the articles about “fashion, beauty, social gatherings, drama, news, advice, and career for women” (Whitt 11) Jane Cunningham Croly further became the first woman who wrote the first syndicated column for women and who started to teach journalism at a college level (Whitt 11).
Why was it too important for a woman to have a syndicated column? It was obvious that having received an opportunity to write regularly on the pages of a respected edition, Jane Cunningham Croly received a chance to write about women, their problems and desires, their intentions and achievements. Stressing on the problem of gender inequalities, Jane Cunningham Croly managed to state that the problem existed.
Many women reading her column began to be inspired for actions, they knew that they were not alone in that world. Croly was encouraged to write about “dominant cultural norms such as lacing that rendered women frail and weak, as well as the inherent inequities in a legal system that did not guarantee women equal property ownership” (Roessner “No Sex in Labor” 21). Therefore, it may be concluded that the whole professional career of a journalist was devoted to equal rights of men and women.
Equal Rights for Women
One of the most famous phrases of Jane Cunningham Croly is “there is no sex in labor” (in Roessner “The Great Wrong” 178). Jane Cunningham Croly began to fight for women’s rights after she once was rejected to attend a male event.
This specific situation frustrated her and encouraged for creating the General Federation of Women’s Club (Roessner “The Great Wrong” 182). Many people considered her actions as the radical ones, however, it seems that she just acted in accordance with the needs of the time. Women were ready to have personal club, they were ready to be independent and free.
They just needed a leader and Jane Cunningham Croly was a great candidate for this role. Fighting for women rights, Jane Croly was sure that having equal access to education and professional careers are the most important issues which were to be considered. In 1887, trying to express the seriousness of her actions and intentions, Jane Croly wrote,
Women have come to the front, they have found the voice, they have associated themselves together and they have knocked at great educational doors until they have been opened to them… we have women in the majority as teachers, women who have won fame as preachers, lawyers, doctors and artists, women in plenty, who hold their own and support themselves and others in every avocation in life (Roessner “The Great Wrong” 184).
One of the main positions of Jane Cunningham Croly was that there was nothing a woman could not do. Such position was very important as having created the General Federation of Women’s Club she had to prove to the whole society and especially to men that women have an opportunity to be independent.
Speaking about the role of Jane Cunningham Croly in women’s movement for equal rights, it should be stated that this women gave an opportunity to others to believe in themselves. It is important for women to make sure that they are supported and Jane Cunningham Croly was that support, she was a leader.
The Founder of the General Federation of Women’s Club
The creation of the General Federation of Women’s Club was a reaction to the denial to give a ticket for a woman journalist to Dickens’s arrival. Such event was considered as the inability to recognize women as the part of the society, therefore, Jane Cunningham Croly decided to make a society to recognize her (King 68).
The role of this specific club in the development of the women movement cannot be overestimated. It is important to mention that it was the first women’s club on the territory of the USA. Women gathered there for many reasons, however, the desire to have common themes for discussion, to dwell upon specific topics, read literature and discuss such male themes as politics and economics was important.
Even though women gathered there to speak about literature, fashion, men and other women themes, it was important that such gathering was. Many women believed in their power. While the meetings in those clubs, women discussed their opportunities and expressed dissatisfaction. “The federation gave the women’s clubs national visibility and power and encouraged a trend that was already underway – the shift in emphasis from self-improvement to public libraries” (King 68).
Conclusion
Therefore, it should be concluded that the role of Jane Cunningham Croly was essential in British and American society. Fighting for women rights this woman managed not only to declare some freedoms for women, it is possible to see real results of her job. First, working as a journalist, she achieved free writing in the newspaper.
Having got the right to run personal syndicated column, Jane Cunningham Croly had an opportunity to express her vision of the place of women in the society. Second, this woman contributed to the development of women’s rights. She created the first Women’s Club which role was great. She made it possible for men and women to study on the equal basis as well as to get similar positions.
Once Jane Cunningham Croly was said that her writing in the newspaper had nothing different from male writing to which she replied that labor has no sex. Both men and women deserve to study the sciences they want to and to work in the conditions they require. Jane Cunningham Croly was a great woman of her time. She reminded men that women were not just the housewives, that they could take a deserving place in the society if they were given an opportunity to.
Generally, Jane Cunningham Croly shown the society that even though women were not given the spectrum of rights men possessed, it was possible to fight for personal rights and in this case it was possible to achieve the desired goals. Jane Cunningham Croly on her personal example showed that a great desire to achieve something could going to be rewarded if one tried to do it.
King, Kelley M. Call Her a Citizen: Progressive-Era Activist and Educator Anna Pennybacker. Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 2010. Print.
Roessner, Amber. “The Great Wrong.” Journalism History 38.3 (2012): 178-188. Print.
Roessner, Lori. “”No Sex in Labor”: Tracing “Jennie June’s” Views on Gender.” Conference Papers — International Communication Association: 2009 Annual Meeting, 2009. 1-26. Print.
Various. Memories of Jane Cunningham Croly, Jenny June. New Jersey: Kessinger Publishing, 2004. Print.
Whitt, Jan. Women in American Journalism: A New History. Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2008. Print.
Despite the fact that men and women have different body sizes, weights and heights, their brains are equally different. A woman’s mind could be better because it is flexible, faster and in most cases adjusts depending on the conditions or circumstances. A woman is a poor inventor. For instance, none of them has tried to apply for positions at inventing firms such as steam, telegraphing, machinery or patents.
In as much as a woman uses sewing, washing, ironing and knitting machines, none of the machines were invented by a woman. Women are also very poor in architecture. This implies that the man is superior when it comes to heavy use of the brain. At times, the problem is that there is bias and discrimination about the strength of the woman and no chance has ever been given to them to prove if the allegation is wrong. What the society believes about women brings them down and it is the reason why they have not had the interest to compete in some of these fields.
The cultures and traditions where we come from, for a long time, have deceived us that the place of a woman is the home. She has an obligation to ensure that her children and husband are fine at all times. At home, the family is as good as dead without the woman. When women are given chances to compete at workplaces, the best they can get is recruitment in the lowest offices and positions. In this case, she should be treated gently and with lots of love and care.
Most women are not allowed to exercise their freedom to vote. It is the work of their men to go select leaders on their behalf. In paying for labor, the woman has always faced injustice. Men are paid more than the women, which is of course unfair. In education, the rise of campuses for females only has shown how a woman has chosen to advance. In today’s civilized world, the woman should be set free to decide and depend on herself if she can.
Talent and interest, as compared to rights speak it all. After a lady trained using a piano, she may perform worse than a man who has attended no class. The woman was created in a delicate manner, and so for this reason, she is given a lower priority by the man. Therefore, this has nothing to do with their rights. A woman cannot endure pressure and strain, unlike in the case of a man. A woman needs cautious treatment and that is the reason why they are not allowed to compete with men since their chances of winning is minimal. Everyone should understand that the issue here is not that the man can perform better than a woman. Circumstances and chances force things to be the way they are.
The immunity of a woman and physical strength is another factor. There are some deeds that only the man can manage because in one way or another, the deed will strain the woman’s physical ability. This issue is explained better in homes where the woman is a widow. Her children do not sleep hungry just because she has no husband; neither do here children fail to attend classes because of their father’s absence. A woman works hard to ensure that ends meet. This implies that a woman has not been denied her rights and neither has she been treated as inferior.
Women rights are freedoms which are institutionalized to all the females in the world who are of all ages and cultures (Moyn, 2010, p.3). These rights may be administered in a society through law, practices, culture, customs, behavior and believes. Women rights do vary from one place to another in the world in that in some places they experience minimal rights and freedoms while in others they experience most of these rights and freedoms.
In many societies of the world, the rights of women have been suppressed as compared to the rights of men. In most cases the rights of women which are mainly suppressed include the right to own property, the right to work or hold a public office, the right of receiving education, the right to vote and participate in politics, rights regarding to marriage and so on.
Due to the discrimination that was laid against them, women together with other humanitarians have struggled over the years to be treated with respect and as the equals of men within the society. As a result many women partnerships and organizations have been formed as Non Governmental Organizations which assist in the fighting of women rights.
These organizations are present all over the world and have achieved a lot in terms of earning women the rights which they are owed by the society. This paper will focus on the basic human right, women rights and finally focus on a Non Governmental Organization on women partnerships for rights and development of peace.
Basic human rights
Human rights are the freedoms which an individual is deemed to receive from the society, state and the entire world just by the mere fact that that particular individual is human is alive (Moyn, 2010, p. 8). These rights are universal hence they are applicable all over the world.
These rights are seen as general norms in the society and are supported by either national or international statutes or laws for their application. Although the term human rights are of recent origin, the ideology has been present since early civilization in the concepts of philosophy and natural law especially in the ancient cities of Rome and Greece.
The fight for human rights was strongly started in the 1970`s by socialists from Europe, United States of America and Latin America. It first emerged as a critique or resistance of totalitarianism and dictatorship political leadership regimes to support humanitarian, social and economical welfare of individuals and the society in the 21st century especially in third world countries (Moyn, 2010, p. 9).
The basic ideologies of the movement were developed after the end of World War 2 where they adapted the UDHR (Universal Declaration of Human Rights) that was formulated in 1948 by the UN general assembly.
The ideology of fighting for human rights has been present in the society for a long time now. In Europe the first evidence of fighting for human rights came out in 1525 during the signing of the Twelve Articles in Germany between the peasants and the Swabian League as a result of the German Peasant War where the peasants raised their grievances. Philosophers joined in too later on in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Examples of philosophers who fought for human rights included Thomas Piane, William Loyd and G.W.F Hegel. In the 19th century there was a great concern about the status of human rights with regards to slavery. This was because slaves were seen as if they did not have any rights or freedom and their sole purpose in life is to work for their masters.
As a result, a lot of philosophers during this period thought that it was a high time that slavery should come to an end. Among them was William Wilberforce who worked tirelessly to see ensure that slavery come to an end. His efforts bore fruits because slavery was stopped in Europe and North America during that time.
In the 20th century, many groups and movements have been established to fight for the rights of humans. Trade unions have been formed in almost all the countries in the world to fight for the welfare of workers. They have achieved to negotiate better pay for the employees, conducive working conditions and the abolition of child labor.
Groups which have been advocating for women rights have succeeded especially after women were allowed to vote and get education. There were also liberation movements which fought hard to ensure that their countries are free from colonial rule.
Currently, there are many movements, groups and organizations that work to ensure that human rights are respected all over the world with each continent having a unique body that ensures this. The human rights and freedoms which are being protected include the right to own property, the right to life, the right to liberty, the right to vote, freedom of speech and expression, freedom of movement and so on. At the moment there are new rights which have been introduced due to the dynamic nature of life.
They include the right to future generations which is concerned with the sustainable use of resources so that future generations can also enjoy them, the right to water to all individuals and lastly the gay, lesbian and transsexual rights which relates to the sexuality status of an individual.
These movements which have been established to fight for human rights have come into being as a result of inequality in the society (Moyn, 2010, p. 12). This is because over time there are some individuals in the society who have felt to be more superior as compared to others. This can be as a result of social status, power, sex, wealth or intellectuality. As a result they feel that they are superior to other individuals in the society hence they should have more rights. This has been the case in many societies in the world.
It is however sad that in some societies the trend is still going on. For instance in many developing countries women are viewed as the weaker sex in the society. As a result they are denied certain essential rights by the society which would have otherwise made their life to be better. Women have for a long time been denied the right to vote, own property, right to education, make decision in marriage and so on.
This is because the men are the ones who hold key position in the leadership of the community thus deny willingly women the right which they truly deserve. This has not been the case lately. Women have come together and stood strong to fight for their rights. They have achieved this by forming groups, organizations and unions. They have felt like a time has come when their rights should be respected and they should be treated equally as men (Hosken, 1981, p. 3).
Women Rights
Women have been struggling for a long time now to be treated equally as men. As mentioned earlier we have seen that the rights of women have been suppressed as compared to the right of men within any society. This has been a trend which has been going on for many generations now. In ancient Athens for example, women were not allowed under any circumstance to own any property including land. They were part of the family which was headed by a male member referred to as kyrios.
A woman before marriage was under the custody of his father or any other male relative and once she was married her custody was transferred to her husband. For an individual to be considered as a full citizen during that period, they had to own property. Since women were not allowed to own any property then, they were not regarded as full citizens. This leads to a decline in the rights and privileges that they received from the society such as civil and political rights.
In ancient Rome, a woman was seen as a minor who was under the care of her husband. She could not do anything according to what she felt or thought. Upon marriage all the property which a woman owned was transferred to the husband in accordance to the law. In Rome a woman could not hold a public office, become a tutor or be a witness of anything including a case.
Later on a few roman philosophers felt that men and women should have equal rights. This led to a lot of debate and might have been the beginning of fighting for women rights in ancient Rome.
As time moved on, women started to earn rights within the society. During the era before the introduction of the Qur`an women were not allowed to inherit any property in the event of the death of their husbands. However, this changed after the Qur`an was introduced and women were allowed to inherit the property of their husbands (Hosken, 1985, p. 5).
In addition they were also allowed to own property which they have earned, receive the full dowry that was paid by the husband and they also had a say in the event of marriage or divorce. As a result, an Arabian woman during this time was viewed to be of a higher status as compared to a woman in ancient Rome or a European woman during the middle ages.
Women realized even more rights during the middle ages especially in Europe. For instance, it was made into law by the British courts that before a man transferred any property he must have the consent of his wife unlike in the previous times when a woman had no say on such matters. It was also during this time that that the voice of women was allowed to be heard through the works of female writers.
From the 18th century onwards there was active fight for the rights of women especially in Europe and America. Many associations, groups and organizations were formed to fight for the rights of women is different parts of the world. It was during the late 19th century that women were allowed to vote.
This is currently a right which all women of mature age enjoy in the whole world. New Zealand was the first country to give women the mandate to vote at a national level in 1893 (Hosken, 1981, p. 6). Women felt that they should be included in the government and participate in the making of laws that govern their states.
Women also started to rebel against the laws which denied them the right to own property. As a result the United States passed a law which protected the property of a woman once she got into a marriage from her husband and the debts of her husband. She could also sell her property willingly when she felt like doing so.
In modern times women have felt that they need to have equal rights like men. Moreover, they also feel that the law should grant them special rights as women which will protect them from further oppression by men.
These rights pertain to matters like consent to marriages, birth control rights, protection from discrimination on the grounds of their gender and protection from rape, sexual harassment and violence. In this respect therefore women have come up with non-governmental organization of women’s learning partnership for rights development and peace to fight and ensure that their rights have not been violated.
Women’s Learning Partnerships (WLP)
Women’s Learning Partnerships (WLP) is a non-governmental organization of women which was created after the fourth world women conference held in Beijing in 1995 to address the issues of women in the northern and eastern part of Africa (WLP, 2010). Currently the organization is found in all the continents covering almost all countries of the world.
The organization has got a huge network of participants. Its main aim is to empower women through training and participation so that they can take part in the running of affairs and assist in decision making to make their societies to grow socially, politically and economically.
This organization feels that the fight for human rights is related to the changes which are taking place in the world between traditions on modernity. In traditional setting women rights have been suppressed making women to be viewed as subjects of men. This organization therefore wants women to receive equal rights as men regardless of their age, background, class, race, education or religion. All this can be achieved through women participation in politics.
Political participation in women can be achieved through active citizenship and practicing of leadership by women. WLP achieves this objective by organizing workshops, seminars, training of trainers and forums where women are thoroughly trained. They also have a training manual for political participation which they give to their members for further review.
Participants normally include women from all around the world, men, students, media, other NGO`s and so on. This knowledge helps people to understand the need for giving women their rights and more so to respect women. Despite fighting for women rights, WLP demands equal rights to all individual without any preference on sex, age, race, religion or any other dividing character. It also embraces reforms in the family law and fights for human rights.
Conclusion
Women have been deprived their rights for many years now. That is why they have formed non-governmental organizations to fight for their rights over the years. As a result, they have been given right which they were denied before such as voting and owning property. They will however not stop until there is equality between women and men.
References
Hosken, F.P. (1981). Towards a Definition of Women’s Rights. Human Rights Quarterly, 3 (2), 1–10.
Moyn, S. (2010). The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History. Harvard, Harvard University Press.
Most educated people know that the 1930s in the United States are referred to as the time of the Great Depression characterized by economic recession and stagnation, Wall Street Crash, high rate of unemployment, a decline in GDP, and a massive slowdown in multiple markets and industries. This period is discussed from both economic and social perspectives. However, the latter usually explores the effect produced by the recession on the American society in general. This paper focuses specifically on the rights and roles of women during that time, exploring some of the most prominent events in terms of women’s rights.
A decade prior to the Great Depression was accompanied by multiple feminist movements that successfully fought and gained more recognition, freedom, and rights for the American women. However, the challenges of the economic recession threatened to move the feminist issues to the side while some other extremely harmful problems occurred. In order to push through more issues related to women’s rights, the feminists began to integrate into the sphere of politics which was easier due to the recently obtained right to vote. The creation of the 19th Amendment that created sexual equality in reference to voting symbolized the women’s victory and that is why many stopped fighting being under an impression that the discrimination was over (Moran par. 9). Moreover, the majority of women remained politically passive and indifferent, so the right to vote became a pointless privilege.
Having achieved one significant change, the feminist activists and suffragists faced a challenge for identifying another common problem to battle (Moran par. 9). As a result, many of the formerly active feminist groups disintegrated and started to join the anti-war movements turning away from the gender equality concerns. At the same time, the growing rates of poverty encouraged many women to look for employment where they faced another inequality being perceived as the rule-breakers stealing the work from men whose gender role made them the suppliers of the families. The pursuit of the workplace equality and the protection of women from unfair treatment by the employers were quite unsuccessful and slow due to the major division in the opinions (Moran par. 12). In other words, the female politicians and activists shared two clashing perspectives – pro and against regular employment and careers for women.
The main gender role of a woman during the 1930s was based on wifehood and childbirth, the occupations that were deemed incompatible with career-building and ambitions of any kind. This point of view was popular among both men and women, and that is why the chances of women to obtain workplace equality or be hired at all remained lean. Regardless of their employment status and opportunities and status, women still were overloaded with all the house duties. However, compared to the jobs of their husbands, those of the housewives did not go away. In fact, keeping a harmonious home and making the ends meet became much more difficult for the women as the incomes of the families decreased during the Depression (Ware par. 3).
The major attempts to address the crisis undertaken by the political leaders resulted in a higher tension between men and women in terms of workplace equality and gender roles. This tendency occurred because the efforts of addressing unemployment were mainly directed at finding the jobs for men which often led to the displacement of women in a combination of questioning the very idea of working women. The division of occupations into “male” and “female” became sharper as men typically employed in mining or metallurgy proved to be unable to take over the jobs occupied by women (midwives, maids, clerical positions) (Ware par. 5).
Roosevelt’s New Deal programs continued to discriminate against women and supporting only the male job candidates and allowing lower wages for women workers doing the same jobs as their male colleagues. The Acts concerning labor standards failed to cover the areas where most women were employed – domestic work and agriculture (Ware par. 9).
The African-American and Mexican women, who used to dominate these fields initially, ended up in even harsher working situations as white women pressured by the dropping family incomes either refused to hire maids or started to look for domestic employment increasing the level of competition in the labor market. Overall, people of color (both men and women) were hit by the Great Depression in a much aggressive manner than the white citizens. Many of the jobs offered by the social support programs specified that they only targeted white candidates (Beach par. 5). Generally, the employment of women in the United States during the 1930s grew significantly; however these statistics only considered white women whereas the women of color continued to struggle for respect, appreciation, and tolerance.
Conclusion
The historical events described in this paper happened fairly recently, and this fact makes them rather unbelievable for the contemporary individuals living in the world where equal rights concerns are some of the most important social, economic, and political issues. The history of the 1930s is an illustration of the effect a crisis produces on a fragmented society making is even more disintegrated. In the US of that time, Americans seemed to neglect unity and togetherness. Instead, they preferred to stay divided into multiple communities each competing for better conditions.
Works Cited
Beach, Justin. Limits to Women’s Rights in the 1930s. 2016. Web.
Moran, Mickey. 1930s, America – Feminist Void? n. d.
Ware, Susan. Women and the Great Depression. 2016. Web.
Mary is a 33-years-old, middle-class woman from the mid-18th century U.S. Her husband works for a local government organization. Her life is not easy; she has to take care of her five children and do all the housework, which never seems to end. Her husband drinks much alcohol, and often subjects her to sexual abuse. However, her beliefs are compliant with the mainstream beliefs about women of her times.
Louise is a 26-years-old, lower-class woman from the mid-19th century U.S. She is divorced; her husband abandoned her when she had a miscarriage after he beat her, and she had to return to her family, where she was unwelcome. She works for a textile factory in terrible conditions. However, she is literate; she is also a more radical adherent of the movement for the women’s rights. She supports the Declaration of Sentiments and believes that women deserve not only the right to vote but also many other rights.
The Dialogue
Mary. I don’t understand what you’re saying. How should it be possible for women to vote in elections? Politics is the sphere of men; we know nothing about it! Females’ brains are made for simpler things; it has been so for centuries. We must look after the house and raise children! If we don’t, who will? My husband is always busy at work, and he also has to visit public events like meetings! Even if I could read about politics, where would I get time for my chores?
Louise. Of course women should be able to vote in elections! Men and women were created equal (Halsall, 1998); why can’t we take part in politics? Men usurped this sphere of life and hold it tightly, which does not allow us to protect our rights! I think that our half of the humanity must also be represented in politics. It also should be recognized that we play a crucial role in the future of humanity; we parent our children (Peltzman, 2006)! As for the time – well, some men could pay more attention to their kids, especially boys. Children need fathers, too!
Mary. What you are also saying is that women should have the rights to own property, too, as well as the wages they earn at work. While I can agree with the second claim, the first one is very doubtful. How can a woman own property when she cannot run it properly? I can’t imagine myself deciding what to do with my house, or choosing a different place to live. My husband, however, works for the government; like the rest of men, he knows this issue much better than I. Doesn’t it mean that men should always run property?
Louise. No, not really. Of course, most men can run property better than most women, because they are better educated and have much more experience in such matters. But that does not mean women cannot own and run property if they have some experience and training. Besides, being deprived of such rights means that men virtually own us, and we cannot live without them, cannot make decisions about anything substantial in our lives without them telling us what to do!
Mary. And how can we do that? How can we decide what to do in our lives, apart from being a housewife? The women’s place is in the house, has always been! We can only do the simplest work; we cannot have a good job because that is the men’s domain, and they have the necessary training to do it. We women do not have the education that a good job would require. We cannot go to college, and many of us do not even know how to write!
Louise. Exactly! Now you have outlined some more problems that prevent us from becoming our own mistresses. We cannot even study! That is why we can’t do work that is intellectually harder. What you are saying is that women are made for simpler things. Does that mean we are more stupid than men just because of our gender? How can you even know that if women were never given the chance to go to college or university? I say, let women do so, and we will prove ourselves! We will show that we can do well even in law and medicine, the most prestigious professions that are forbidden to us (Lerner, 2005, pp. 38-39)!
Mary. And the final issue that you mentioned, our intimate life. I cannot even imagine how a decent woman can talk about such things in public!… However, I must admit that there are problems. My husband is always beating me and does whatever he wants and whenever he wants to me. Although it is my duty to help him, or else he will sink into masturbation, which is, they say, worse for men than alcohol and tobacco – I don’t want him to become a cripple (Barker-Benfield, 2014, p. 128)! But he could certainly do everything in ways that are less painful to me. I am so tired after the full day of housework, and he just comes and rapes me. And, on the contrary, when I want something, he is almost never willing.
Louise. Masturbation is certainly a bad habit, but why must we let our husbands use and abuse us? We are people, not merely toys! So you are right when you say men shouldn’t abuse us. In fact, I think they shouldn’t be permitted to! But it they are allowed to do so by the law (Halsall, 1998) – isn’t that unjust? Isn’t that unfair towards women?
Mary. Yes… yes, I think it is.
Louise. See? I think we have much more in common than you might initially believe.
References
Barker-Benfield, G. J. (2014). The Horrors of the half-known life: Male attitudes toward women and sexuality in nineteenth-century America. New York, NY: Routledge.
Lerner, G. (2005). The majority finds its past: Placing women in history. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
Peltzman, B. R. (2006). Managing literacy, mothering America: Women’s narratives on reading and writing in the nineteenth century. History of Education Quarterly, 46(4), 663-665. Web.
The western world in the era of colonialism was characterized by patriarchal values and the new world acquired these features as well. However, the development of New France was quite distinct due to peculiarities of the gender roles in the North America and France. The need to encourage people to live in new settlements also led to quite a specific attitude towards women in the area. 1 These two factors resulted in the development of the society where women enjoyed a wide range of rights and were rather empowered. Nevertheless, even this empowerment was limited and had the other ‘darker’ side. Women were confined to unpaid domestic labor, sexual abuse, domestic violence and so on.2 It is necessary to note that various factors affected the way gender roles were distributed in New France. This paper explores the way the gender roles developed in the area with a particular focus on race and class.
Native Americans and the French Law
Native Americans had the societal order that was very different from the European tradition. Thus, Native American females enjoyed equal rights with men.3 For instance, in the 17th century, Europeans reported that a Native American man could promise something, and if he did not do it, he could simply say that his wife did not want him to do that.4 Apparently, women took the prominent part (and often had equal rights) in the decision-making process. They were respected in the communities as they also participated in the fur-trade. Native American females were often mediators and interpreters between Native Americans and Europeans. Of course, women handled domestic issues. They were also mainly involved in making clothes, preparing food (including preparing supplies for winter).
As far as French women of that period were concerned, they enjoyed few rights. However, they were still more empowered than, for instance, British women. Thus, the Catholic Church propagated patriarchal values. Females did not take any part in the political as well as social life of the country.5 Those pertaining to the higher and privileged classes could have salons inviting different people (mainly people involved in art or charity). They were also involved in charity activities. However, the major role of a female irrespective of her class was domestic issues. Women brought up children and focused on their households. At the same time, some women rights (mainly concerned with property and dowry) were protected by the law.6 Thus, the woman could keep the dowry or any property she had prior to her marriage in the case of divorce.
The New Order in the New World
Rights, Freedoms and Responsibilities of Females
Evidently, when Europeans came to the New World, they started spreading their ways and New France could be no exception. It was especially true for religious matters. Catholic priests tried to convert indigenous people to Catholicism, and First Nations women were highly resistant to this conversion.7 Their position can be easily understood as they knew that they would lose their freedom and their authority in the new world order. This is what happened in a few decades as the new society became highly patriarchal.8
It is necessary to add that irrespective of religious canons and social taboos, indigenous females earned some authority in the new world. Females often became settlers’ wives as it was common for New France when native people gave their daughters to male settlers to set right relationships for trade. Remarkably, men often valued their native wives who could live in the harsh environment of the new settlements. These women could make good clothes and footwear, they could take care of the household, and they could be interpreters and mediators in the fur-trade.9 However, men still preferred European females and it was common for a man to abandon his ‘country’ wife when he returned to Europe. This practice led to the development of the so-called “turning off”, which consisted in the tradition to place such a wife to another male who would take care of her.10
As has been mentioned above, there was particular bias (as well as various taboos) since First Nation females were seen as savages and inferior to Europeans. As a result, European women were encouraged to come to the New World. Some of the first females who came to New France were quite well-off wives of traders and officers or their daughters. These women were respected, and they occupied a privileged position in the new society. Wives handled their households and their children’s upbringing. However, they could also launch some clubs or meetings. They were often involved in missionary and later charitable work. They were often Catholic nuns who created new orders or joined existing ones.11 These females worked (and often opened) hospitals, schools, orphanages, and so on.
The French government’s desire to encourage people to live in New France also resulted in the appearance of the so-called ‘filles du roi’ (‘daughters if the king’). Those were women who received a particular sum of money (a kind of dowry) to go to the new world and create a family. The daughters of the king were to find a husband within 15 days, but this period often extended to several months as women tried to find the most appropriate candidate.12 It is noteworthy that these were often females coming from poor families (who did not have dowries) and orphans. Of course, they could not have a bright future in France, but they had a chance in the New World. These women had a privileged status in New France as there was a high demand for wives.
As far as responsibilities of the wife in New France, they were quite diverse. Clearly, females handled their households. They also made and mended clothes. Apart from that, they helped their husbands to gather the harvest. When their husbands were away, women took up their responsibilities that could extend to running the family business. In such periods, they were the decision-makers. Therefore, it is possible to state that women had quite many rights in New France, and many of them could be seen as a privileged class.
As for their lifestyles, they tried to live the lives they used to (or wanted to) have in Europe. They attempted to make their dwellings similar to European ones.13 The fashion was also European (French to be more precise). Women looked at newcomers, females of higher classes or just followed the trends they saw in magazines. This can be explained by the desire to feel at home in the new (and rather hostile) world. Women’s attention to fashion in clothes, households can also be explained by the lack of power in other spheres of their lives.
The Other Side of Females’ Lives
Nonetheless, there was the other side of women’s existence in New France. This side was characterized by abuse, extensive labor and exclusion from the social life of the community. Of course, class played the central role in the life of the woman in pre-confederation times.
For instance, First Nations women were often victims of sexual abuse.14 As has been mentioned above, indigenous women were seen as inferior and, hence, it was acceptable to treat them in a way considered inappropriate with European females. It is noteworthy that this image developed during the first years of colonization. For example, the famous discoverer, Vespucci, wrote that indigenous women were driven by lust and became prostitutes themselves.15 Clearly, the colonist distorted the truth as European men sexually abused females who later could be forced into prostitution proper. Poverty and complete discrimination of First Nations women also forced many girls to become prostitutes in the 17th century.
Apart from the fact that Native American women were often raped, and they were often given to European men as “sexual servants”.16 Even when First Nations females became country wives, they were often victims of domestic violence. It is also necessary to add that such marriages could be regarded as a more decent type of prostitution. As has been mentioned above, country wives could be abandoned when their husband returned to Europe. Of course, these women’s lives were not easy as they often had children and had to take care of them. Sometimes these females found other European men, hence, they entered a new relationship, but often they had to return to their communities. The abandoned First Nations women did not have any rights to keep the property. Basically, they totally depended on the decision of their European husbands.
It is noteworthy that the position of European women also had a darker side. This is especially true for the daughters of the king. Even though they were a privileged class, due to the scarcity of women during the first decades of colonization, they often became victims of different types of abuse. Domestic violence was still present in families in New France. Females who came from Europe sometimes became prostitutes due to a variety of reasons. Poverty and inability to find a husband were two major reasons for that.
As has been mentioned above, women were often left alone in their houses while men went hunting or trading. They had to take care of their children, households as well as fields.17 Those living on the frontier were even in a more difficult situation as they could be attacked by wild animals, gangs or indigenous people. Thus, it is possible to note that the price for the ability to make decisions was quite high.
Of course, women who came from wealthy families rarely faced such issues. They had families. They were respected. Nonetheless, they were almost entirely excluded from the social life of the community. They were not involved in the decision-making process. They stayed out of the political and economic spheres. As for activities within the society, these women took up roles of nuns and could have some power.18 Of course, this was the limit for females.
It is important to add that when New France was under the British rule, things became even worse for women. The British law was not as liberal when it came to the protection of females’ right. Under the British rule, women became totally dependent on men. Of course, women were still involved in charity work, but this was the limit for them. Only in the 19th century, the struggle for their rights started, and it became successful in the 20th century.
Conclusion
On balance, it is possible to note that females’ lives were not comfortable in New France. They played a meaningful part in the social life of their communities, but this role was steadily shrinking. Indigenous women had equal rights with men in their communities, but they had to submit to a European husband when they created families. The major social activity for women in New France was charity work and females achieved a lot in this sphere. They opened hospitals and schools orphanages and shelters for unwed women.
Therefore, the role women played in the development of the region as well as the Canadian society cannot be overestimated. Education and healthcare developed in terms of the values spread by those women. New Nations women helped immensely, and Europeans were able to colonize new territories due to their country wives’ knowledge and skills. Of course, the Canadian culture developed and embraced the mix of European and indigenous values.
At present, Canadian women are empowered, and they play a significant role in all spheres of the Canadian society. It is possible to note that this is partially due to the struggle of women as well as the values developed during the first decades of colonization.
Bibliography
Farley, Melissa, and Jacqueline Lynne. “Prostitution in Vancouver: Pimping Women and the Colnization of First Nations.” In Not for Sale: Feminists Resisting Prostitution and Pornography, edited by Rebecca Whisnant and Christine Stark, 106-131. North Melbourne: Spinifex Press, 2004.
Henderson, Jennifer Anne. Settler Feminism and Race Making in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto, 2003.
Nyholm, Christine Terese. “Obstinate Nuns, Industrious Wives, and Independent Widows: Women and Power in New France, 1689-1730.” The UCI Undergraduate Research Journal (2015): 61-71. Web.
Paluszkiewicz-Misiaczek, Magdalena. “From Strength to Weakness – Changing Position of Women in Societies of New France and British North America.” Presentation at the 3rd Congress of Polish Association for Canadian Studies & 3rd International Conference of Central European Canadianists, 2004.
Shoemaker, Nancy. “Kateri Tekakwitha’s Tortuous Path to Sainthood.” In In the Days of Our Grandmothers: A Reader in Aboriginal Women’s History in Canada, edited by Mary-Ellen Kelm and Lorna Townsend, 93-117. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006.
Woodworth-Ney, Laura. Women in the American West. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2008.
Footnotes
Magdalena Paluszkiewicz-Misiaczek, “From Strength to Weakness – Changing Position of Women in Societies of New France and British North America,” (presentation, 3rd Congress of Polish Association for Canadian Studies & 3rd International Conference of Central European Canadianists, 2004), 382.
Jennifer Anne Henderson, Settler Feminism and Race Making in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto, 2003), 99.
Magdalena Paluszkiewicz-Misiaczek, “From Strength to Weakness – Changing Position of Women in Societies of New France and British North America,” 378.
Ibid.
Christine Terese Nyholm, “Obstinate Nuns, Industrious Wives, and Independent Widows: Women and Power in New France, 1689-1730,” The UCI Undergraduate Research Journal (2015): 65, Web.
Magdalena Paluszkiewicz-Misiaczek, “From Strength to Weakness – Changing Position of Women in Societies of New France and British North America,” 380.
Christine Terese Nyholm, “Obstinate Nuns, Industrious Wives, and Independent Widows: Women and Power in New France, 1689-1730,” 69.
Nancy Shoemaker, “Kateri Tekakwitha’s Tortuous Path to Sainthood,” in In the Days of Our Grandmothers: A Reader in Aboriginal Women’s History in Canada, ed. Mary-Ellen Kelm and Lorna Townsend (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006), 93.
Jennifer Anne Henderson, Settler Feminism and Race Making in Canada, 96.
Magdalena Paluszkiewicz-Misiaczek, “From Strength to Weakness – Changing Position of Women in Societies of New France and British North America,” 379.
Laura Woodworth-Ney, Women in the American West (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2008), 118.
Magdalena Paluszkiewicz-Misiaczek, “From Strength to Weakness – Changing Position of Women in Societies of New France and British North America,” 382.
Laura Woodworth-Ney, Women in the American West (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2008), 119.
Melissa Farley and Jacqueline Lynne, “Prostitution in Vancouver: Pimping Women and the Colnization of First Nations,” in Not for Sale: Feminists Resisting Prostitution and Pornography, ed. Rebecca Whisnant and Christine Stark (North Melbourne: Spinifex Press, 2004), 111.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Magdalena Paluszkiewicz-Misiaczek, “From Strength to Weakness – Changing Position of Women in Societies of New France and British North America,” 377.
Laura Woodworth-Ney, Women in the American West, 119.
Traditionally, a Korean woman duties and responsibilities were supposed to be based on the household compound. When they were young in their teenage, they were taught behaviours of inferiority, and how to be patience, as a way of preparing them for the future women roles (Pok 102).
Women were not supposed to participate in various activities like how their men were doing. Their main duty was to serve as a wife and a mother to the children. During the late 19th century, the country became civilised due to interactions with the outside world, and several situations started taking a new direction.
During this period, several changes were realised in the country that resulted to a different perception of women’s roles. There was an introduction of modern schools that were not there in the old Korea.
Western Christian missionaries assisted a great deal to come up with these schools, some of which were purposely meant to boost the status of women. Education was a major initiative in changing the role of women in Korea. Were it not for education, women would remain in oppression status for a long time (Hyun 95).
The chance of enrolling in schools, women acquired much knowledge that opened important doors for them as far as activities were concerned. Women learnt important skills like arts, teaching, and even some faith doctrines.
The lucky women who got chances of enrolling in schools demonstrated a very social attribute by enlightening their fellow women. Through this, women encouraged one another and the knowledge and skills were easily passed among women. During the time when there was independence movement in Korea meant for facilitating some actions against Japanese occupation women were never left behind.
Women took this opportunity to prove their capability and as vigorous as men, full of determinations and even more courageous than they were expected. During this period, women participated in various actions that they were never thought they are capable. They achieved higher expectations than even their men, and people especially the leaders started viewing them as able human beings.
The best recognition of women came min the year 1948 when the Korea attained independence. This brought an opening for women through the new constitution that Korea came up with. The constitution had rights for women to pursue education just like any other person, and not be seen as a lesser human being.
Women were also supposed to enjoy rights of work in any place at any level as long as they were qualified. The constitution also allowed women to interact with public life just like any other person and participate accordingly without any form of discrimination.
When women got this chance, they made marvellous contributions to the economy as most of them occupied professional posts in public and private sectors (Edson 89). After the constitution where women started enjoying their rights, the economic growth of Korea improved rapidly, and this was considered as the contributions of women as they were seen working with much efforts.
As much as the economic status of Korea developed, the living standards of the country also improved, which resulted to a higher level of education that women were to achieve.
By the year 1998, the level of the educated women who were professionals in Korea was very high. 99.5% of women by this year had attained a high school education, and approximately 61.6% had attained a university level of education (Pok 62). According to the research that were done, there is evident that the rate of participation of women in the economy of Korea increased steadily as it was 34.4% in the year 1965 and then increased up to 48.1% in 1999.
This was an act appreciated by everyone in Korea, as it showed the effort of women in their work. Women embraced their rights, and opportunities of contributing to the economic development so much. In the year 1975, the top positions like managerial and other professional activities consisted of only 2% of the women while men occupied the rest (Pok 89).
This did not imply that women were not capable of working in such positions, but it is only that they did not have the opportunities to utilize their talents and potential. During this period, even the jobs that are for women currently like clerical jobs had only 4%.
By the year 1998, the trend was completely different whereby the top positions and career jobs in public and private sectors were occupied by approximately 13% of women, and now the clerical positions had gained its popularity to women and women occupied approximately 15% of this job.
The effort of women to work in professional and high positions in different sectors, the government decided to boost their effort and maintain their morale. In 1987, the government of Korea came up with equal employment act that was to eliminate any form of discrimination to female workers (Theodore 246).
This act gave women an equal opportunity to secure any job in any rank provided they are qualified, and an equal opportunity of gaining promotions at their working places just as their fellow male workers. Today, a Korean woman is a very crucial contributor to the country’s economy.
Women are now participating in all types of fields just like men. There are some fields that were believed to be best for men like engineering, law and medicine. Currently, Korean women have surpassed these believes ad are now actively working in such fields.
The new administration that took place in 1998 was purposely to support the women affairs. This commission was even made to cover wider areas and be responsible for ministerial gender equality mainly to look over the women education and their careers.
Although a Korean woman got an opportunity to acquire education and skills to enable her to work in high posts and other professional posts, other duties about rearing children and household chores are also her responsibilities.
This makes Korean women to be among the busiest women in the world. The society does not allow these women to abandon the children and other household chores to their careers (Pok 121). The constitutional rights that opened all those opportunities to these women was a way of adding more responsibilities to women of Korea, but they proved to equal the challenge.
Korean women are always overburdened with many commitments and prospectus. The government does not let down the efforts of these Korean women, but it worked hard towards empowering these women and to provide them with the necessary resources that would enable them perform their duties.
Korean women are mostly involved in triple jobs whereby, the opportunity to education opened a great chance of working, their children as well rely on their mothers care and love, and finally the household chores are responsibilities of Korean women.
In many companies, the employers avoid as much as possible from employing women especially the married ones due to their home burdens of children and other chores (Edson 96). This fact has made women to suffer in the modern Korea world, as they were facing such discrimination due to their other burdens.
The government did not hesitate to protect women from such discrimination it came up with maternity protection law, whereby the employed women would receive a three month paid leave after delivery and they had the right to resume their working positions after the leave. This enactment protected many women from loosing their jobs after delivery as it was happening before.
Despite all the barriers that Korean women faced before and after independence, they continued to prove their significance in the society. Women started participating in government and politics activities in the year 1990, and started taking remarkable responsibilities whereby they proved their capabilities of making achievements.
For the past few years, there was a woman in Korea who managed to secure the position of a prime minister, and even others who were ready to meet the challenge by vying for presidency.
Women have occupied other high positions in the government and in politics like the mayoral seats. In the year 2004, the percentage of women in the Korea national assembly had increased to up to 13%, and this was remarkable for women compared to the past when there was no woman in parliament (Edson 81).
The presence of women in parliament and mostly in the law making activities was very crucial for the other women and a girl child in Korea.
The women in parliament showed the readiness to continue the fight for the women rights to ensure the Korean woman was in the right position in the society. These women concentrated mostly in shaping the woman life right from the young female children to prepare them to handle the challenges of the family and for the working environment (Bary 867).
In the past, a girl child grew up knowing that her place is within the household to take care of the husband, children and undertake other household chores. However, currently these young female children are brought up by learned mothers who show them that a woman is equal to any challenge just like men.
The girl child is also brought up in the society where women are in top positions and are doing much to bring the achievement to the whole nation.
The emergence of superior companies in Korea also promoted the learned women a great deal. The ones who were advantaged to acquire the education occupied the middle to upper level executives in those companies like LG electronics (Hyun 156).
The companies employed women as they proved competent and equal to major challenges, and so these companies were so sure about good performance of women.
Although such executive positions were relied on men only, women in some companies were even doing better than men. For instance, in most companies, women best perform the department of research and developments and the number of women employed in such field is increasing day by day.
Globally, women are seen as a minority group, but their performance, determination and successful proves them as equal as men. The women’s role in the modern Korea covers both socially and economically (Bary 513).
When women started working in professional positions, most of them became the family’s bread winner to be relied upon by the rest of the family as the source of financial support. Women with good working conditions have really proved to be performers in different fields.
Apart from occupying the executive positions in different sectors, the learned women are also in best performing businesses. Women own and manage good businesses that earn them an attractive income in Korea.
One reason why women are prospering in business is due to their capability of serving their customers well hence retaining the old ones and attracting more to their businesses (Theodore 202). The aspect of women owning businesses, they have become employers to even men. There are men who works in businesses and companies owned by women, and women have also proved to be good bosses.
The women, who own businesses, are mostly also the overall manager of their businesses. According to some researches done, women businesses have prospered much as women have the best human resource attributes.
In conclusion, women in the contemporary Korea are as competent workers as men are. Since independence, the government of Korea can least the effort of women, and mostly their contributions to the economy of the nation.
Starting from the social setting the work of a Korean woman is identifiable, politically, women have also some wonderful achievements, and economically, they have contributed greatly (Hyun 105). The government of Korea has and is continuing to make the working conditions of women conducive, to enable them fulfil their dreams of improving the overall productivity of the nation.
Gender equality is very important in any nation as everyone has his or her role to play in developing the nation. Gender discrimination can lead the whole nation to a downfall, as women are also contributors’ economically. Women have also another major role of acting as the role models of the growing female children. They have to act as good role models.
Works Cited
Columbia University Press, 2008.Bary, William. Sources of East Asian Tradition: The modern period. New York: Edson, Michael. Koreas twentieth-century. Hawaii: University of Hawaii, 2007.
Hyun, Theresa. Writing women in Korea: Translation and feminism in the colonial period. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, 2004.
Pok, Sang. Modern korean society: Its development and prospect. California: University of California, 2007.
Theodore, Jun. The politics of gender in colonial Korea: Education, labour, and health. California: University of California, 2008.
For many decades, historians have associated women’s rights with human rights.1 Although women’s rights share some characteristics with the latter, they differ, based on the inherent historical and traditional bias against women rights, in favor of rights exercised by the male gender.2 Women’s rights refer to the entitlements of the female gender, across all age groups and across different social, economic, and political strata. Many societies enshrine these rights in their constitutions, while others infer these rights through unwritten social behaviors expected from men and women alike. Similar to other rights, women’s rights change. Often, they change through the inclusion of new rights and the elimination of social barriers for growth. Common issues that are synonymous with the women’s rights movement include autonomy issues, rights to own property, rights to education, rights to equal pay, and rights to marital, or parental, ownership.3 This paper uses these issues to understand women’s rights that characterized the pre-historic period to 1600 A.D. It does not have any bias towards a specific demographic or social characteristic. The paper explores these rights in three categories – political rights, social rights and economic rights.
Political Rights
Before 1600 A.D, few societies allowed women to take part in the political development process. In this regard, few women held political positions of power. Exceptions existed in monarchies, where some queens exercised political power, temporarily.4 Mainly, they did so to make sure that there was a smooth power transition between their husbands and sons. Some sections of the Catholic Church also allowed women to exercise political power as heads of catholic convents.5 In other societies, women could not take part in political processes. For example, they did not enjoy the right to vote. In fact, countries that consider themselves as “progressive democracies” (today) did not give women the right to vote until the 20th century. Therefore, this right was a “recent” one. In ancient Rome, women enjoyed citizenship rights, but they could not run for a political office, or vote.6 However, outside the political field, ancient Romans gave women the right to change their “personal politics.” In this regard, the status of a woman varied across the same continuum as a man’s status would. For example, the status of a woman varied from a peasant to a wealthy person. The latter situation often occurred when a woman had a rich father, or a wealthy husband. Caecilia Metella is one such woman who held a high status in the society based on this connection. In this regard, most women from the medieval times could determine their social and political destiny, but the responsibility to others mainly rested on the men (politically).
Social Rights
Many societies often overlooked the female gender in many aspects of economic and political development during the medieval period.7 Their societal contributions focused on social matters (by virtue of being instruments of siring new citizens).8 This observation emerged after investigating sex and reproduction during prehistoric times. Here, it is important to understand that social constructions of sexual behavior (including taboo and regulation) had a profound impact on women. Since many societies did not allow foreigners to enjoy the same rights as natives did, they mainly expected the women to give them legitimate heirs.9 This expectation reduced the freedoms of women to move around and get the partners that they wanted. Therefore, many societies closely guarded women’s sexuality through strict patriarchical systems (especially during their reproductive years). Some societies encouraged incest by encouraging women to sire children with close male relatives.10 The main aim of doing so was to make sure that a family’s financial resources remained within the family. In the East, women experienced brutal treatment in the hands of their male counterparts because they experienced exclusion and isolation.11 Many Arab societies termed this practice as Purdah (sex segregation). Some societies in the East also married off young girls (between five and ten years) to men who were unknown to them.12 In this regard, women had limited social rights.
Economic Rights
Unlike the modern-day era where women strive for equal pay in the workplace, pre-historically, women were gatherers, as the men hunted for food. This was their main economic activity. Some historians say that during the pre-historic era, women’s rights, in economic development, were equal to men’s rights because gathering was equal to hunting.13 In fact, some historical excerpts suggest that hunting was a later socioeconomic activity (compared to gathering) because men developed advanced hunting tools through the improvement of tools associated with gathering. Therefore, women took part in daily economic activities by gathering fruits, insects, vegetables and such like foods to feed their families. Through agriculture, their economic roles changed, as they became farmers. Some historians affirm this fact through an analysis of pre-historic African women who farmed and provided for their families.14At the same time, men participated in manual labor and took care of the animals in the homestead, thereby providing a co-dependent economic system for growth. In this regard, women’s economic contribution to their families gave them equal rights to their male counterparts.
The above dynamics also stretched to the middle age period, when women participated in the same economic activities as men did. For example, the labor force in the Caliphate allowed women and men, from different ethnic and religious backgrounds, to participate in economic activities.15 For example, in the primary sector, women worked as farmers. In the secondary sector, they worked as construction workers, dyers, and spinners (among other professions). In the tertiary sector, they were caregivers, brokers, peddlers, and scholars. In fact, in certain economic sectors, women held a monopoly over men.16 For example, they often monopolized specific branches of the textile industry, such as spinning, embroidery and dying. Wage labor issues were uncommon then.17 Similarly, workplace equality was uncommon until the 18th and 19th centuries.
Concerning property rights, many medieval societies did not allow women to own property. This was the norm across many regions of the world. In fact, even modern societies denied women this right until the mid 19th century. However, some “progressive” ancient societies allowed women the right to own property during the Middle Ages. For example, ancient Egyptian laws allowed women to exercise the same property rights as men did.18 Therefore, Egyptian women could own private property. The scope of this property entitlement included ownership of livestock, slaves, and servants. The Egyptian law also allowed women to bequeath their property to other people and, at the same time, inherit any property bequeathed to them. Women in the Egyptian society also had the right to divorce their husbands and begin such legal proceedings without a male companion.19 Comparatively, other societies that allowed women to inherit property required that they have a male companion who would allow them to do so. Although some of these societies allowed women to exercise the right to own property, the men still outnumbered them in most trades. Thus, their roles still focused on the home and family.
Conclusion
Based on the issues highlighted in this paper, we see that, from prehistory to 1600 A.D, most women had fewer rights, compared to their male counterparts. One key finding of this paper is that all women belonged to the home. Therefore, the society confined their political, social and economic rights within this space. Religious and cultural influences mainly defined these boundaries. For example, politically, existing constitutional laws, such as the Greek law, supported such limitations. Religiously, the church allowed women to hold political positions within the structure of the church. Outside these structures, we find that most medieval societies perceived women as “inferior” human beings. Therefore, most societies often denied them the same rights that the men enjoyed because both sexes were not equals. Many ancient scholars supported this view.
For example, Aristotle believed that all men needed to control their women.20 Although these observations apply to many medieval societies around the world, this paper also points out that some ancient societies were relatively “progressive” because they allowed their women to exercise minimal rights, such as the right to hold property and the right to rule. Nonetheless, many modern women’s rights, such as the right to vote and the right to education, are relatively “recent” rights that emerged after the 18th century. Comprehensively, the women rights movement is broad and encompasses different cultural, social and political practices of different societies.
References
Duiker, William. World History. London: Cengage Learning, 2012.
Kishlansky, Maek. Sources of World History. London: Cengage Learning, 2011.
Meyer, Jørgen. “Women in Classical Athens in the Shadow of North-West Europe or in the Light from Istanbul.” HIST. Web.
Raaflaub, Kurt, and Rosenstein Nathan. War and Society in the Ancient and Medieval World. New York: Center for Hellenic Studies, 2001.
Footnotes
William Duiker, World History (London: Cengage Learning, 2012), 1-7.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Maek Kishlansky, Sources of World History (London: Cengage Learning, 2011), 40-56.
Ibid.
Kurt Raaflaub and Rosenstein Nathan, War and Society in the Ancient and Medieval World (New York: Center for Hellenic Studies, 2001), 1-10.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Jørgen Meyer, “Women in Classical Athens in the Shadow of North-West Europe or in the Light from Istanbul,” HIST.
Ibid.
William Duiker, World History (London: Cengage Learning, 2012), 12-24.
Ibid.
Jørgen Meyer, “Women in Classical Athens in the Shadow of North-West Europe or in the Light from Istanbul,” HIST.
The fight for women’s rights has come a long way and it has taken many years and efforts for women activists. The first significant and most important move was made by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony. They have initialized the changes in society towards women’s rights, freedom and equality.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony were united by the same idea but came towards the idea in very different ways. Elizabeth Stanton was born and grew up in a wealthy family. Her father has had four sons but they all died and as women had no rights at the time, he lost all hopes that someone will take his place as the leader of the family.
Elizabeth Stanton wanted to please him very much and acted according to her father’s words, which were: “I wish you were a boy” (Barnes, 1999). When the time came for her to continue education and she very much wanted to, both social rules and her father did not support her.
When she met and married Henry Brewster Stanton, she received support from him, as he was also a revolutionist and supported slavery abolition. When they were attending the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London, Elizabeth Cady Stanton met Lucretia Mott who was a feminist and a great supporter of rights of women. Lucretia Mott has very much influenced Elisabeth’s views and goals in the fight for women’s equality (Barnes, 1999).
Susan B. Anthony, on the other hand, was born in a Quaker family and her father was also quite a successful man. The difference was that he supported his daughter and her want to get educated. He pulled her from a public school and educated her himself. Later Susan B. Anthony finished her education and became a teacher herself.
She was very intelligent and organized, as well as tactical. She became a good teacher and was given a head position. During the 4 years of teaching, she had many opportunities to get married, as there were several suitors. Instead, she chose to be independent, she did not want to belong to anyone, as this was the predominant view of society, that women were a man’s property.
She returned home and her father placed her in charge of his farm. This was the place where a lot of revolutionaries and human rights activists would meet and she realized that she wants to be a “full time reformist” (Barnes, 1999).
Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton were introduced to each other in 1851, they joined their forces in the temperance movement (Isecke, 2011). They have started their lives in different surroundings but were united by the same goal. As mentioned in the video titled “Elizabeth Cady Stanton & Susan B. Anthony – Not for Ourselves”, they complimented each other.
Susan Anthony was strategic, organized and a critic. She would also supply the facts and be representative of their mutual thoughts in the speeches that she made. Elizabeth Cady Stanton was a better writer, a philosopher and good at rhetoric.
In the video, Kathleen Barry says that these two women “are women’s history” and that without them the movement might have never started. These two individuals have created a unit so strong that it changed the course of history and their differences were only skin deep, while their common goal was their life and passion.
References
Barnes, Paul. (Executive Producer). (1999). Not for Ourselves Alone: The Story of Elizabeth Cady Stanton & Susan B. Anthony. [Film]. Washington, United States: WETA.
Isecke, D. (2011). Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton: Early Suffragists. Huntington Beach, United States: Teacher Created Materials.