Category: Wisdom

The “Wisdom of Crowds” concept consists of the belief that if a crowd guesses a value and the average of their guesses is found, it will be somewhat close to the real value. In general terms, the “Wisdom of Crowds” concept explains that the “crowd” collectively has greater accuracy than the average individual. Even though there may be certain individuals with a guess closer to the real value, the chance of those particular individuals being selected at random is very low. Historically, there is a story about a man, Sir Francis Galton, who found that the average of 787 guesses concerning the weight of an ox was only a single pound away from the actual weight. While the “Wisdom of Crowds” theory will show reliably accurate results most of the time, it can still be flawed. This could happen for a number of reasons, but a notable factor is that if the data subjects are not independent of each other, or in other words, some of the results affect the others, this can cause the average result to become significantly less accurate. It is thought that in order for these crowds to be accurate, the crowds must have diverse opinions, and their opinions must not be influenced by the other members in the crowd.

Random Samples

A random sample is a smaller sample taken from a larger group or population that ideally does not contain any bias. The purpose of a random sample is to determine the chance/number of a chosen condition within a given population, without having to survey the entire population. It is vital that the random sample is as random as possible to ensure that it accurately represents the population as a whole. Researchers have to create a random sample to make it as representative of the population as possible. The idea is that from their randomly picked sample every male and female, for example, would have an equal chance of being picked. The drawback is that this process can be costly and time-consuming for researchers. It can also be difficult to gain access to a list of a larger population. There are different types of random sampling. The most common type is simple random sampling. For this type of probability, everyone in the entire target population has an equal chance of being selected, the selection occurs until the desired sample size is achieved. Examples of this include raffles and drawing names from a hat. Stratified random sampling is more controlled than simple random sampling. This method divides the populations into strata. These subgroups may be determined by age, ethnicity, gender or any other dividing characteristic. The required sample size of each subgroup is generally designed to be representative of the known proportions in reality. This does take longer than simple random sampling but the advantage to this is that researchers are able to achieve sufficient sample sizes for key groups of people.

Sources of Error

There are many errors which can occur in random sample research. Unrepresentative samples can negatively affect the reliability of the results. Undercoverage occurs when the sample may not be representative of the population, meaning there may not be the right balance between ages, ethnicities and genders, for the research to be generalised to the wider population. Another significant sample flaw is size, the larger the sample size, the more reliable the results will be. Statistically speaking, an experiment containing 100 people would have much more reliable results than a study with only 10. In a small random sample, outliers have the tendency to drastically change the outcome This is because as the sample size increases the effects of chance and extraneous variables are decreased. Something else that should be noted is that the sample members are the ones who choose to volunteer. This is notable as it gives a bias to the results where the entire sample consists of the type of people who are willing to volunteer, generally these people have certain characteristics such as being more outgoing. Random sampling helps to eliminate the voluntary response bias. Another source of error is participant error. Sample members may not participate correctly in the research or give fake results. These participants can alter the results drastically and prevent the results from being valid.

Sources of Bias

There are many different sources of bias, but as stated before, it is important to make sure that the results do not affect one another. Both the researcher and participant bias can have a big impact on the results. Researchers can ask leading questions, for example, the wording or emphasize parts of the question may have an effect on the participants. Even a tone can alter the participants’ decisions to respond differently in a way that benefits the researcher. Participant bias can also be detrimental to a study. The ‘Hawthorne Effect’ is the concept that participants are likely to change their behaviour due to the knowledge that they are in an experiment. Participants are likely to give biased answers in order to impress or satisfy the researcher. Another factor is known as social desirability. This the concept that most people will be reluctant to admit unfavourable opinions as they don’t want to be viewed negatively. This can result in dishonest answers.

Limiting Bias in Random Samples

The two most important ways to remove bias is to make sure that the selection process is truly random, and that the sample is large enough so that irregular results do not heavily affect the average. To ensure that the sample is random, each subject of the group or population has to have an equal chance of being selected. Unfortunately although increasing the sample size is helpful in reducing the sampling error, it doesn’t affect sample bias. Single-blind and double-blind experiments can be used to try and eliminate some of the bias variables.

Methodology

To test the concept of the ‘Wisdom of Crowds’ I designed an experiment surveying the year 12’s at Duncraig Senior High School. I selected as many random students as I could. Each student was instructed to guess how many students they believed were in the school. Students were asked to guess the total number of males and the total number of females. These numbers were ultimately combined in the data. It should be noted that students were able to hear each other’s answers. This is likely to have caused some sources of error and bias in our experiment.

Discussion of Results

The combined results from the experiment conducted supported the “Wisdom of Crowds” concept. This was proven in the results as the correct number of total students was 1642, and the average number guessed was approximately 1660. Most of the male component of the sample seemed to believe that there was a nearly equal amount of male and female students, as shown in graph 1, but when the female component of the sample was guessing the number of female students, the standard deviation was higher, implying that this aspect was more divisive within the sample.

Information systems are modernizing the way companies do business and are influencing organizations to move forwards. Information systems can improve the way organizations achieve their goals by helping management carry out daily operations, control and monitor progress (Stair and Reynolds, 2006). Laudon and Laudon (2013) state that information systems represent significant organizational capabilities and resources and can, when managed properly, confer a long term competitive advantages. Carr (2004) on the other hand has argues that information systems are a commodity given that the technology is widely available and as such cannot be used to build a competitive advantage. To fully benefit from information systems it is important to make distinctions and understand the differences between data, information, knowledge and wisdom.

Data

All information systems require the input of data in order to perform organizational activities. Data, as described by Stair and Reynolds (2006), is made up of raw facts such as employee information, wages, and hours worked, barcode numbers, tracking numbers or sale numbers. The scope of data collected depends on what information needs to be extrapolated for maximum efficiency. Kumar and Palvia (2001) state that: “ Data plays a vital role in organizations, and in recent years companies have recognized the significance of corporate data as an organizational asset”. Raw data on it’s own however, has no representational value (Stair and Reynolds, 2006). Data is collected in order to create information and knowledge about particular subjects that interest any given organization in order for that organization to make better management decisions.

Information

Information is the interpretation of bits of data in order to form a greater picture of raw facts. True value is placed on data when it is organized in a meaningful way (Stair and Reynolds, 2006). However, it is important to consider that some information is more valuable than others. In their research paper, authors Khurana and Mandke (2009) describe that the value of information is based on its integrity; they write: “ Information integrity is dependability and trustworthiness of information and is a key factor determining strategic business advantage” (¶ 2). Mandke and Khurana (2009) write that accuracy, consistency, and reliability are what make up the characteristics of information integrity. Stair and Reynolds (2006) define the value of information with the addition of the following qualities: flexibility, relevance, simplicity, timely, verifiability, accessibility, and security. Furthermore, Stair and Reynolds (2006) write that in order to be valuable information must be both complete and economical. The value of information can also be measured in dollars by calculating the net income the information has allowed the company to produce minus the cost of producing the information (Stair and Reynolds, 2006).

Knowledge

Knowledge are a very important concept and it refers to the cognitive ability to make use of the presented information in a useful and productive way. Knowledge refers to know how, know why and know when of experts acquired through extensive training and many years of experience. It is an ability to think deeply about the information and recognize appropriate ways in which it can be used. As such, it is possible for two individuals to have access to the same store of information but to use them with very different results. (Fraser 2016).

Wisdom

The concept of wisom as it pertains to information systems refers to the ethical development and use of these systems. As we will see in our studies, information systems have become very powerful over the last two decades and the ability to collect, process and store information on customers, employees, suppliers and other third parties is truly enormous. Used imprperly or carelessly, information systems can cause significant societal harm. As such, it is important that systems developers and managers use ethical principles such as Kant’s Categorical Imperative or Descartes’ Rule of Change when thinking about information systems capabilities and uses.

Example

Data, information and knowledge are best described when placed in a context. For example, a particular company might be interested in increasing their sale numbers. This company would then collect data on such things as their customer’s preference, their customers purchasing habits, the number of sales they have achieved in the last month, or the time and day of sales. The company would then process this data to turn it into information that could be presented to marketing analysts for their review. The analysts, through their years of experience and knowledge of the industry and business will be able to take this information and gain insights as to the best way of increasing sales. The analysts, managers and expectative must use wisdom to ensure that any course of action under consideration will not harm customers or employees in the quest for growth.

Conclusion

The ability of the organization to characteristics and differences between data, information and knowledge is an important factor to taking full advantage of an information system. Simply put data is a collection of raw facts that is converted into information with the use of knowledge.

Having a car is entirely different from being able to drive it. This is exactly the same case with learning about a thing and applying what you have learned in real-life situations to help you solve a problem. They are two different situations that can be likened to the difference between knowledge and wisdom.

When you go to school, for instance, you are there to learn about life and how to solve problems for yourself and the society at large. After school, you are expected to get a job or start a business of your own where you can apply all that you have learned in school so far to solve problems and probably make some money from it.

In the course of this post, we would be discussing the definition of these terms, and how they are different from one another.

DEFINITION OF KNOWLEDGE

Knowledge is defined as the information that can be learned and experienced with the help of the five human senses – touch, hearing, sight, smell, and taste. It deals with the collection of information or experience about a particular subject.

To be properly knowledgeable about a subject, you would have to go through a learning curve which may involve observation, investigation, studying, research, and experience. It involves the use of the mind and a level of exertion to achieve. This, to a great extent, involves determination, without which a person may lack interest in a subject.

Learning is a constant thing in life, but it is most distinguished in schools where students are provided with the opportunity to gain a wide base of important knowledge that would help them become valuable members of any society they find themselves in. The school environment also gives you an opportunity to interact with others from different backgrounds, which adds to the development of your social skills.

It is worth mentioning, at this point, that one difference between wisdom and knowledge in these modern days can be likened to technology. People learn online with their laptops or phones without having to go to actual school environments, thanks to technology. One can get a valid and reliable degree certificate after enrolling and meeting up with the required prerequisite of an online course.

Some of the synonyms of knowledge include

• Education
• Ability
• Awareness
• Grasp
• Expertise
• Familiarity

DEFINITION OF WISDOM

Wisdom is defined as the ability to apply certain information at the right time in order to come up with a favorable outcome. It can also be defined as a state of being wise, having the power and willingness to make the best decision for a situation.

Being wise requires learning, which can take place in the school, or anywhere at all, and then applying what has been learned for the betterment of a situation. It is wider than learning and can be associated with a person’s ability to think and act. Unlike in learning where one is expected to remember what has been taught, being wise requires more than remembering, but putting it into practice.

To answer the question – what is the difference between knowledge and wisdom? – may be a little tricky since they have similar meanings. But taking a look at their synonyms would help to clear things up a bit. Some of the synonyms of wisdom are as follows.

• Prudence
• Caution
• Foresight
• Experience
• Judgment

MAIN DIFFERENCES BETWEEN KNOWLEDGE VS WISDOM

Perspective is another factor that comes to play when comparing these terms. This is why both terms are regarded as synonyms. Putting knowledge vs wisdom side by side in a tabular form will easily show how these terms are different from each other, as well as how they may be similar.

BASIS OF COMPARISON KNOWLEDGE WISDOM

Definition The information that can be learned and experienced with the help of the five human senses – touch, hearing, sight, smell, and taste The ability to apply certain information at the right time in order to come up with a favorable outcome

• Identified as Gaining organized information Applying information
• Results to Comprehension Judgment
• Nature Selective Comprehensive
• Approach Theoretical Spiritual

CONCLUSION

The question – what is the difference between wisdom and knowledge? – should not be much of a problem to you at this point, if at all. The saying goes – knowledge is power – but with all that we have disclosed in the course of this piece, it is obvious that there would be no power if knowledge is not applied.

The challenge of the wisdom writings is that they seemingly express doubts about the validity of the affirmations of the other wisom literatre within the bible. However this is the exact theological purpose of the material, they acknowledge the presence of doubts we cannot dismiss as well as questions we cannot necessarily answer.

The Hebrew Bible contains three books known collectively as the Wisdom Literature, Job, Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. Wisdom Literature features vastly different themes than those characteristic of the Deuteronomistic writers and the prophets. There is no reference to the covenant, the promises to the ancestors of Israel or of the promised Kingdom of David. Instead these books pertain to normal daily life in order to instruct how to live well and discern the acts of God. They rely on “general revelation” to do this, knowledge that can be perceived about God by observing the world he created and ordered (Tate, Ballard and Tucker, 2000). The book of Job is a theodicy, it seeks to answer the question of why God permits evil to exist or why bad things happen to good people. It has no clear historical background but takes place in Uz, a land far away from Israel. This setting is intentional as the author requires our attention to be directed at the questions raised by Job’s suffering. The previously referenced absence of allusion to the Israelites means there is a lack of scholarly consensus on the dating of the wisdom writings. However thematic and textual consistencies indicate that Job took inspiration from both a Mesopotamian poem called Ludlul bel nemeqi (c1700 BCE) and an earlier Sumerian work “Man and his God” (2000 BCE).

The Book of Job has been branded a “fireball which destroys the neat arrangement devised by some adherents to the religion of Israel to reject painful questions” (Duquoc and Floristan, 1983,7). I personally consider this view to be a theological misconception. An outright theological attack on traditional wisdom would seem uncharacteristic of someone God himself describes as “my servant Job” a man who there is “no one on earth like” (1:8). This essay will seek to demonstrate that not only does Job not contradict Proverbs and Ecclesiastes but that the three must be considered in coalition with each other. When read together they offer a sophisticated account of human experience which imparts on the reader the collective wisdom of Gods people.

Perhaps one of the reasons for the view that Job is critical or contradictory of traditional wisdom literature is because of his seeming dismissal of it (Job 26:3). However, his sarcastic response to his “miserable comforters” (16:2) in 12:1 does not reflect his actual perspective on wisdom but rather his indignance because he knows himself to be a righteous man. We the reader also recognize this quality in him as the prologue describes him as “blameless and upright”, a man who “feared God and shunned evil” (1:1). Therefore, I propose that Job does not seek to contradict Proverbs and Ecclesiastes but acts instead as wisdom in tension with these other books. Wisdom is not always universal and advice which would prove excellent in certain situations is not suitable to other scenarios. We are all familiar with the adage “slow and steady wins the race” and understand its underlying message. However, while a worthy sentiment it would be useless to a sprinter prior to competing in the 100-meter final at the Olympics. This oversimplified example illustrates that Job is not contradictory but is hugely contextual, its message is most useful to those who are suffering. Penchansky regards the book as “a profound and complex attempt by the Israelites to address the problem of undeserved evil” (2012,35). Proverbs seems to exhibit contradictory statements about gambling (13:11, 16:33), alcohol (20:1, 31:6) and poignantly regarding the consideration of Job the issue of whether good people suffer (12:21,19:23). Yet rarely is Proverbs challenged for such inconsistencies, mainly because the proverbs found within the book are accepted for what they are, pithy statements bestowing general truths which are nevertheless circumstantial. For a non-biblical analogy, “actions speak louder than words” yet “the pen is mightier than the sword”. While both statements are conflicting in their message and subjective, which is more appropriate to a given situation is entirely context dependent. The same is true of scriptural expression. When considering discrepancies between the Wisdom literature it is worthy of note that similar “contradictions” exist between Ecclesiastes and Proverbs despite both books being canonically ascribed to Solomon (Proverbs 1:1, Ecclesiastes 1:1). The pseudonymous crediting of Ecclesiastes to the Solomonic tradition provided ascendancy and authority to the scripture (Meade,1986,58). They even disagree on the nature of wisdom itself and whether it is the path of peace (Proverbs 3:17) or grief and pain (Ecclesiastes 1:18).

It has been suggested that Proverbs focuses on the general rule of life while Job and Ecclesiastes offer us a glimpse of the exceptions. Proverbs asserts that if you are wise and fear God you will lead a happy existence, we are told that the light of the righteous rejoices while the lamp of the wicked goes out (13:9). Yet the suffering of Job challenges this principle, he even comes to ask, “How often is the lamp of the wicked put out?” (21:17). Job takes no glee in being an exception to the statement that Proverbs put forth, he is simply observing the reality that he experiences and importantly is accepting of it (2:10). The messages of the three books do not simply disagree in parts, they are specifically required to be held in tension to serve their scriptural and theological purpose. The implications of the texts as we read them teach us that a life of wisdom is pleasant (Proverbs 2:10) and will originate from relationship with God (1:7). However, it is still possible that righteous people will suffer, and God controls this, they may even suffer because of their virtuousness (Job 1:8). Finally, we confront brutal realties that ultimately, we all will die whether we are godly or sinful (Ecclesiastes 9:2). The wisdom literature shows us what God showed Job, that life is infinitely more complex than we could ever truly understand, yet through both suffering and joy the correct response is to maintain faith in God (Sumney,2014,178).

We have considered some of the tensions that may be considered contradictory between Job and the other two wisdoms. Yet there are also a unique set of theologies which unify them. All three books agree about the significance and importance of righteousness. This is apparent from the vehement way in which Job defends his innocence (31:6) and refuses to compromise his integrity (27:5). While the wisdom literatures demonstrate the value of righteousness, they also show that it will not ultimately keep suffering out of a person’s life. The narrative means we are aware that God is testing Job (1:12) while Job never discovers why he suffers. From Job’s perspective he has been the perpetrator of no sins and yet he experiences what must feel and seem like divine punishment (1:15,1:19,2:7), yet throughout he blesses the name of the lord (1:21). Proverbs 10:25 explains that “when the tempest passes the wicked are no more, but the righteous are established forever”. This potentially addresses the theodicy issue and implies that both good and bad people will experience the same storm, but God will ensure only the righteous survive their struggles, as Job does. Ecclesiastes acknowledges the difficult truth Job puts forth, that some righteous people suffer and die despite their good nature while some wicked people who live long despite their “evildoing” (Ecclesiastes 7:15). However, it still asserts that things will never be well for the truly wicked who do not “stand in fear before God” (Ecclesiastes 8:13). The phrase ‘“fear of God” or “fear of the Lord” reoccurs throughout the wisdom literature. The term is used ten times in the book of Job, indicating his unblemished character (2:3) and is equated to wisdom in Job’s hymn (28:28). It appears five times within Ecclesiastes, including the closing statement which informs that fearing God and keeping his commandments is “the whole duty of everyone” (12:13). Proverbs also features the term on eighteen separate occasions (2:5, 9:10 etc).

All three wisdom writings of the Hebrew bible clearly demonstrate that wisdom comes from God and that divine omnipotence is the ultimate determinant of a person’s situation and experience. Job asserts of wisdom that, “God understands the way to it, and he knows its place” (28:23). Likewise, Ecclesiastes 2:26 states “to the person who pleases him, God gives wisdom, knowledge and happiness”, while Proverbs 2:6-8 agrees that “all wisdom comes from the Lord”. Job affirms this belief perhaps even more so than the other two books, emphasizing God’s total power, “he stands alone, and who can oppose him? He does whatever he pleases’ (23:13)”. This is clear by God’s actions throughout the book, his sovereignty is demonstrated by his decision to afflict Job yet insist his life be spared (2:6) and his immense power shown when he speaks to Job out of a storm (38:1). His grace evidenced by the way he returns twice as much to Job as he had before (42:10). Ecclesiastes exhibits Gods divine authority and power by explaining that not only does he give peoples wealth and possessions to them but it it is he who enables them to enjoy them- the gift of God (Ecclesiastes 5:19). Similarly, Proverbs explains that God’s blessing brings wealth rather than human endeavor (10:22) and it is “the Lords purpose that prevails” (19:21).

While the achievement of wisdom may be outside of human control, even once someone is “blessed” with it (Proverbs 3:13) their knowledge is not unerring. The wiser we become the more foolish we understand ourselves to be (Ecclesiastes 7:23-25, Proverbs 26:12). It is even suggested that the wisdom and knowledge required to understand life’s deepest complexities is beyond human comprehension (Job 38:18). This is especially true in matters of faith and understanding the divine, Job teaches that God is great “beyond our understanding” (36:26). Despite this even Job is guilty of questioning the justness of the Lord until he is humbled and admits he spoke without true understanding (42:1-3) of the vast complexity of that which God presides over (38). Though the pursuit of wisdom is noble it does not make one infallible (Ecclesiastes 8:7). Demonstrated by Eliphaz, Bildad and Zohar’s inability to truly understand the situation of Job. In Job 42:7 God condemns the advice they offer because they “have not spoken of me what is right” (Von Rad and Martin, 1997).

There are clearly disparate themes and messages between Job and the other wisdom writings, yet they are not separate dogmatic works insistent that they individually hold the teachings of a good life. Instead they are nuanced, subtle creations deliberately addressing vastly different situations and should be considered as in a dialogical relationship with one another. This essay has demonstrated that fundamental theological similarities exist which unify the three texts. It has also explained the nature of Job, Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, such that it should now be evident that the texts when read in accordance with each other offer a sophisticated account of human experience. Derek Kidner suggests that by reading the three books together we witness “aspects of existence which no-one can afford to overlook: the demands of practical good management; the enigma of calamities that are beyond control or explanation; and the tantalizing hollowness and brevity of human life” (2015,116). Thus, to conclude that Job is contradictory towards conventional wisdom literature would be a scriptural misconception. It should not be considered in isolation but thought of collectively with the other wisdom books, when it is it provides guidance for a person’s life whether they are experiencing a time of great happiness or sorrow. The purpose of wisdom is to navigate us through and teach us to appreciate both.

Proverbs is undoubtedly a unique book of the Bible due to its distinctive literary style and form. Perhaps it is most unique due to its rich metaphors and imagery, which enable the reader to understand wisdom from God’s perspective. Many of these metaphors and images are based on the natural world – God’s creation. In fact, Proverbs is often described as a book that evokes “vivid metaphors from nature” (Yoder 256). Proverbs reveals wisdom through nature metaphors in a variety of aspects, including water, weather, and wildlife.

First, Proverbs reveals wisdom and insight through imagery and metaphors of water. Several of these water metaphors and images seem to be a reflection of a person’s heart and character. For example, Proverbs 27:19 states “as water reflects the face, so one’s life reflects the heart” (NIV). In a commentary on Proverbs, Chapman expounds on this verse, explaining that “just as the reflection in the water depends on the degree of its purity and translucence, so the heart of man reflects his judgement of the other man’s character” (Chapman). In other words, the kind of reflection that a person’s character produces in life is similar to the reflection that water creates. Next, there are several water metaphors in Proverbs that seem to portray the wisdom of choices. Proverbs 21:1 explains that “In the Lord’s hand the king’s heart is a stream of water that he channels toward all who please him” (NIV). Here, water is used to portray the wisdom of choice – ultimately it is God’s choice: “A king’s heart can be guided by God just as a farmer can direct irrigation water into different channels” (Chapman). Next, several water metaphors portray the wisdom of words. Proverbs 18:4 states the following regarding the wisdom of words: “The words of the mouth are deep waters, but the fountain of wisdom is a rushing stream” (NIV). Similarly, Proverbs 17:14a states that “Starting a quarrel is like breaching a dam; so drop the matter before a dispute breaks out” (NIV). Commentating on Proverbs 17:14, Chapman states that the ideal time to end a quarrel is “in its beginning stages, not when the rivulet reaches floodtide” (Chapman). Through these vivid water metaphors, these two passages effectively convey the power of words and the manner in which they effect other people. In addition, the verses cause the reader to reflect on words more deeply through this imagery. Thus, there are numerous water metaphors and imagery in the book of Proverbs that effectively portray various aspects of wisdom, including character, choices, and words.

Next, the book of Proverbs utilizes weather metaphors and similes to portray various aspects of wisdom and foolishness. Interestingly, several of these water metaphors have negative connotations and are often associated with the foolish. For example, Proverbs 27:15-16 states “A quarrelsome wife is like the dripping of a leaky roof in a rainstorm; restraining her is like restraining the wind or grasping oil with the hand” (NIV). Fox expounds on this by explaining that the woman described in the verse “is a public embarrassment, the opposite of the Woman of Strength, who brings her husband public honor” (Fox 810). Thus, through the bothersome imagery of a watery leak, Proverbs portrays the foolishness of an argumentative wife (Fox 810). A second passage that portrays foolishness through water imagery is Proverbs 25:23, which states: “Like a north wind that brings unexpected rain is a sly tongue – which provokes a horrified look” (NIV). In his commentary, Chapman expounds on this verse and explains how “the evil of slander is pictured as the results of a north wind that brings unpleasant rain” (Chapman). Thus, many of the weather metaphors in Proverbs are used in a negative context. However, there are many weather metaphors and similes that are portrayed in a positive light, and are associated with the wise. For instance, Proverbs 25:13 states “Like a snow-cooled drink at harvest time is a trustworthy messenger to the one who sends him” (NIV). Fox explains the significance of this imagery: “The point of the metaphor is that a reliable messenger is as refreshing as snow during the hot harvest would be – and perhaps as rare” (Fox 783). In other words, the imagery of unexpected snow during another season is used to portray the rarity of a trustworthy messenger. Thus, it is clear that there are numerous metaphors and images in the book of Proverbs that are based on the weather and are used to portray the various aspects of foolishness and wisdom.

Next, wildlife imagery is used to portray wisdom in action throughout the book of Proverbs. Although wildlife imagery can be seen all throughout Proverbs, chapter thirty contains perhaps the most wildlife imagery in all of Proverbs. It is a chapter that presents us with a “heightened awareness of the complexities inherent to being wise,” and was written by Agur, who had “appreciation for how the smallest least powerful creatures teach humans to be wise” (Yoder 262). In other words, creatures as tiny as ants and as mighty as lions effectively portray various aspects of wisdom in action. The wildlife imagery in the book of Proverbs includes animals, reptiles, insects, and other creatures.

First, the book of Proverbs uses animal and reptile imagery to convey various aspects of wisdom. The lion is a classic example, and it is most often used in comparison to the king due to its boldness and power – just as the lion “does not have to yield to any creature,” so also does the king display “his might as he parades at the head of his army” (Steinmann 64). For instance, Proverbs 19:12 states that “A king’s rage is like the roar of a lion, but his favor is like dew on the grass” (NIV). A similar passage in Proverbs states that “A king’s wrath strikes terror like the roar of a lion; those who anger him forfeit their lives” (Proverbs 20:2, NIV). Steinmann explains that this metaphor is conveying that there is wisdom in being “cautious in risking the king’s wrath by interrupting his display of regal authority and power” (Steinmann 64). Next, the lizard is another type of imagery used to portray wisdom in action in the book of Proverbs. Proverbs 30:28 states “a lizard can be caught with the hand, yet it is found in kings’ palaces” (NIV). According to Steinmann, the “lizard is wise because although it appears to be subject to the whims of ordinary humans who can pick it up in their hands, it can gain access to the king – something most of the king’s subjects cannot do!” (Steinmann 64). Yoder adds to this view by asserting that the lizards are akin to “stealthy infiltrators,” and this verse is likely a warning to kings who may be overconfident in their sense of security (Yoder 261). Thus, the lizard seems to be portrayed as a type of underdog that serves as a warning against a false sense of security.

Next, the book of Proverbs uses insect imagery to convey wisdom in action as well. The imagery of the Ants in Proverbs 6:6-8 and 30:25 represents the wisdom of steady hard work and preparing for the future (Robinson 26). Proverbs 6:6-8 states “Go to the ant, you sluggard; consider its ways and be wise! It has no commander, no overseer or ruler, yet it stores its provisions in summer and gathers its food at harvest” (NIV). In a similar passage, Proverbs 30:25 states: “Ants are creatures of little strength, yet they store up their food in the summer” (NIV). In each of these passages, the ants demonstrate the value in a steady work ethic. Robinson points out that “the ant knows what time it is in life” (Robinson 26). Therefore, it is wise to work hard and prepare for the future, because eventually “winter will come” (Robinson 26).

In conclusion, the book of Proverbs is full of metaphors and imagery based on the world of nature. Through these metaphors and images, one can gain insight on various aspects of wisdom. From the water metaphors, one can learn to reflect on the wisdom of choices, character, and words. Second, the vivid weather imagery enables the reader to consider various aspects of wisdom and foolishness. Lastly, wildlife imagery portrays wisdom in action, such as the ants’ work ethic. Therefore, one can glean much wisdom through the vivid nature metaphors in the book of Proverbs.

I am interested in dialogue 8 Crito. This dialogue is all about taking justice to injustice act of people that they have done according to the laws of the state to take appropriate action to the victims. It focusses more on justice (honesty) which sees that if someone commits a crime he should deal according to the offense that he had done and not escaping from it.

The dialogue of Crito relates to Ethics “meaning the philosophical study of moral values and rules”. Crito talks about justice (honesty) meaning taking the appropriate actions for something that is injustice or unfair that is not right. Which in the dialogue Socrates has given up his life to respect to the laws of the state by been honest to give himself to the law for what he had done.

In Melanesian, Wisdom Crito relates back to principles of law (custom) that honesty is most treasured in the Melanesian societies that must build trust between the Chiefs, leaders and the people of the village and other nearby villages. Narakobi (1983, p. 14) claims that “Members of different families and clans will contribute to the work either to discharge an obligation or to create new obligations or to give honor to an endeared personal relationship.” For instance, in Papua New Guinea context we see exchange (trade) when trading with another village the Chiefs and the village leaders must have trust and honesty amongst each other in trading goods or food with each other for the benefit of the people. If there is no honesty and trust in the exchange or trade, there is a possibility of having a tribal fight between the villagers because there is no honesty and trust between the two villagers. As said in the dialogue Jowett (n.d, p. 211) “fulfilling a divine mission and trusting in the will of heaven, but simply as the good citizen, who having been unjustly condemned is willing to give up his life in obedience to the laws of the state.” This refers to Papua New Guinean context of tribal fight people are killed in the tribal fight are seen as they have given their lives for the justice of the people according to the colonial act and beliefs of the people and the community.

In conclusion, honesty is a virtue and must always be practiced in our day to day livelihood to gain trust and respect from others. If there is injustice or unfair practice in a society, there will be more immoral behavior from the people against each other. There must always be Justice and honesty among the people in the society if someone commits a crime or assault someone in the society he must deal accordingly to the punishment given rather than escaping from the penalty.

Reference

1. Melanesian Wisdom (2019). Week four: Plato’s Dialogue [pdf]. RS332 dwu eLearning hub Retrieved from: https://learninghub.dwu.ac.pg/pluginfile.php/194337/mod_resource/content/1/The_Dialogues_of_Plato_v0.1.pdf
2. Narakobi, B (1983). The Melanesian Way Retrieved from http://www.alastairmcintosh.com/general/resources/1983-Bernard-Narokobi-Melanesian-Way.pdf

Psychologists in modern times have often focused attention on the complex relationship between genius and madness, and Guy de Maupassant appears to have been ahead of his time in exploring this topic in Le Horla, which deals both with the supernatural, and the nature of insanity. Perhaps this reflected his own inner torments, as it was well known even during his time that de Maupassant both studied psychiatry and suffered from madness himself (perhaps as the result of having contracted syphilis). It is well-known that Maupassant was himself part genius and part mad. To what extent does the author suggest in Le Horla that madness may actually be a form of wisdom? This is the central issue that will be discussed in this essay.

The title of this short story or novella might be an appropriate place to begin a discussion of the theme of madness and wisdom: The words “hors là” in French suggest one who is outside, or The Outsider – ‘the thing that is out there’ – and, by extension, one who does not belong or one who cannot be understood. The narrator, who presents the story in the form of journal entries, a bachelor, himself constantly wonders whether he belongs and whether he is in fact losing control of his senses. After having seen a vision of ‘a three mast Brazilian boat’ which he impulsively waves to, the narrator writes that he is immediately seized by a sense of anguish and starts to wonder whether he has inadvertently invited a supernatural being – the Horla – which he believes to be haunting the boat – into his home.

Who or what is this Outsider that operates outside the self or the persona of the narrator? Why should it occasion such dread and anguish in the narrator as he is forced to move outside his self and to confront the nature of what lies outside his persona and his mental makeup? Or is his anguish caused by the precise fact that the Outsider operates in fact within his mind, thus tormenting him and challenging him to confront the very nature of who he is? This focus by Maupassant on some hidden dimension of existence which may be ‘out there’ but which, in fact, exists if at all within the obsessive mind hints, if not of madness, then of an altered sense of reality.

At first, the narrator believes his anguish to be a form of fever, of insomnia, a dread of impending doom. He writes: « Je suis malade, décidément ! Je me portais si bien le mois dernier ! J’ai la fièvre, une fièvre atroce, ou plutôt un énervement fiévreux, quir end mon âme aussi souffrante que mon corps ! J’ai sans cesse cette sensation affreuse d’un danger menaçant, cette appréhension d’un malheur qui vient ou de la mort qui approche, ce pressentiment qui est sans doute l’atteinte d’un mal encore inconnu, germant dans le sang et dans la chair. » (Maupassant, 1887)

He wakes from this febrile state with the distinct feeling that someone is watching him, even kneeling on him. He starts to question his own sanity at this point, after having found his glass of water (by his bedside) to be empty, in spite of his distinct impression he has not touched it. Just as suddenly he feels he is in fact perfectly fine, capable of analyzing his condition with perfect lucidity.

All this to-ing and fro-ing from one extreme to another suggests instability, if not insanity per se. Any psychiatrist today would be certain to detect all sorts of psychosis in this pattern of behaviour or manner of thinking. Nothing, at least so far in the narrative, to suggest sagesse of any kind on the part of the narrator.

At this point, after more bouts of insomnia, the narrator decides a trip would do him good, and he sets out on a voyage outside Rouens, on the belief that perhaps his nightmares may be taking place only within his home. This voyage away from his home, a place of refuge – a safe haven – is suggestive of a further departure from reason and security. This is an attempt to try to come to one’s senses, an effort to understand this ‘thing’ that is outside oneself and that destroys one’s self of reason and respectability.

The narrator sets out to the Mont St. Michel, at the summit of which he engages in a discussion with a monk. He asks the monk, in general terms, about the existence of spirits, as to whether these might exist. The monk’s response only seems to add to the narrator’s confusion when he responds: « Est-ce que nous voyons la cent millième partie de ce qui existe ? Tenez, voici le vent, qui est la plus grande force de la nature, qui renverse les hommes, abat les édifices, déracine les arbres, soulève la mer en montagnes d’eau, détruit les falaises, et jette aux brisants les grands navires, le vent qui tue, qui siffle, qui gémit, qui mugit, – l’avez-vous vu, et pouvez-vous le voir ? Il existe, pourtant. » (Maupassant, 1887) Have you seen the wind? No, but it still exists.

So, the Horla exists even if one cannot view it. This message from the monk – from one who is supposed to know – only serves to further confuse the narrator. The suggestion here is that there is inherent limitation in the power of our senses to in fact accurately perceive existence. He starts to question the nature of evolution itself: is the Horla in fact the next step in evolution, he wonders? The monk suggests that it is impossible to accurately perceive the mysterious world around us, just as we cannot ‘see’ the wind that represents one of the most powerful forces of nature.

It would appear that the Horla is nothing more than the personification of mental illness itself. If one is so haunted by images, dreams and insomnia as the narrator, in what way could this be said to represent wisdom? There is nothing sage about the hallucinations of the protagonist, the narrator, as he lurches from one insane thought to another, from one anxious state to another.

The narrative itself, though, has a certain lucidity. The narrator clearly describes to his doctor his feelings, his emotions, the torment he feels…To whom is he describing in such detail, his train of thought and events as they develop. Can someone who is insane develop this kind of clear and measured narrative?

It is significant, in this regard, that the narrator is depicted as a bachelor. In describing his mental condition, is the author in fact suggesting that bachelors – or the male identity at the end of the 19th century – is doomed to anxiety and madness as a result of shifting gender roles in fin du siècle France? Is the narrator a symbol of male identity in crisis? (Brossillon, 2017). This is an interesting possibility, which also raises the issue of what happens to individuals who choose to isolate themselves socially – is madness a predictable and inevitable outcome for such people? Philosophers, as early as Aristotle, observed that “man is by nature a social animal…” (Aristotle, 350BC). Bachelors, like the protagonist in Le Horla are by definition at risk of becoming reclusive, and hence in danger of becoming isolated and hence vulnerable to mental illness. « Quand nous sommes seuls longtemps, nous peuplons le vide de fantômes,» (Maupassant, 1887) the narrator observes. In a sense, the Horla is the Double or Alter Ego of the narrator, both outside him and yet nothing more than a reflection of his tortured and isolated self.

The Horla is thus presented as a strange presence, one who is outside and yet one who dominates one’s mind and hence one’s entire being. This division so torments the narrator that he sets out to destroy this alternate presence, by setting fire to the very things that have stood by him and kept him sane thus far: his home and his servants who have served him loyally and faithfully. Although fire is a destructive force, it has always been associated in literature and in religious custom as a cleansing element, one that can purify. Is the protagonist’s intent, then, to purify rather than to kill and destroy? He is seeking to destroy his Double, his other self, so that he can be spared the torment he has to continually suffer. Ironically, even after this the Horla does not leave his mind, and it is on this note of despair that the novella ends: «Non… non… sans aucun doute, sans aucun doute… il n’est pas mort… Alors… alors… il va donc falloir que je me tue, moi !…» (Maupassant, 1887) He thus capitulates fully to his madness.

Shortly before burning his home down, the narrator looks up at the sky and wonders what life forms exist within the stars, and whether the Horla in fact represents an alien life force. The question posed by the author here is the relationship between nature and the supernatural, between one’s self and, quite literally, with what lies outside the realm of human and mental experience. The ambiguities in the construction of the novella appear to have been carefully constructed, and it thus seems difficult to discern whether the novella is essentially about madness or an examination of the supernatural and the relationship between the self and the supernatural. Perhaps the author intended the novella to be both. Insofar as the narrator’s spiral descent into destructive behaviour is concerned, it is a tale about madness and the disintegration of a seemingly rational man. But seen from the perspective of the narrator’s ruminations on nature and the supernatural, the novella borders on philosophy and enters the realm of wisdom and sage self-inquiry. This tension is never fully resolved in the novella, and the reader is thus left to choose between these differing interpretations.

On the other hand, the frequent references to supernatural elements also raises the possibility that the Horla is, rather than the narrator’s Alter Ego, an alien force which has possessed him. In this context, the author also delves into the role of hypnotism as a potential release from such possession. This is evident, for instance, in the discussion of the narrator’s cousin who, while hypnotized, asks the narrator for a five thousand franc loan for her husband. Once released from her trance, she no longer has any recollection of ever having been ordered by her husband to ask for the loan. The author suggests, however, that it is only people with a nervous condition, such as the narrator’s cousin, who are capable of being hypnotized. The narrator himself, it is suggested, may not be able to find such release as he is incapable of succumbing to hypnosis. (Abecassis, 2007)

Overall, it is difficult to see Le Horla in terms other than a powerful description of the narrator’s downwards spiral to madness. The Horla penetrates into the narrator’s mind and house, inhabits his nights and his very being and literally enslaves him. The narrator seeks freedom by taking the desperate step of setting his home on fire, but even then he cannot liberate himself from the Horla. It is only then that the narrator realizes that he is himself the cause of his hallucinations, and that the only way to free himself and to get rid of the Horla is to kill himself. The narrator sense of reality is a very distorted one, and it is hard to discern any hint of wisdom in the midst of this insanity.

Bibliography

1. Abecassis, J. (2007). On Reading Maupassant’s Le Horla Problematologically. Cairn.info, [online] 242, pp.391-413. Available at: https://www.cairn-int.info/article-E_RIP_242_0391–on-reading-maupassant-s-le-horla.htm [Accessed 1 Apr. 2019].
2. Brossillon, C. (2017) The figure of the ‘Horla’ in Guy de Maupassant’s short stories: from isolation and alienation to annihilation. [ebook] Dix-Neuf, 21:1, 16-30, DOI: 10.1080/14787318.2016.1245378 [Accessed 1 Apr. 2019].
3. Maupassant, G. (1887). Le Horla. [ebook] Available at: http://maupassant.free.fr/pdf/horla.pdf [Accessed 1 Apr. 2019].
4. Marsico, n. (2016). Insanity, the Invisible, and the Unfamiliar in Maupassant’s Le Horla. [ebook] Academia.edu. Available at: https://www.academia.edu/30475468/Insanity_the_Invisible_and_the_Unfamiliar_in_Maupassant_s_Le_Horla [Accessed 1 Apr. 2019].
5. Paun, C. (2016). The Rationality of a Social Animal. [ebook] ResearchGate, pp.125-140. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299599996_The_Rationality_of_a_Social_Animal [Accessed 1 Apr. 2019].

Being wise in life leads you to a righteous path so that you can achieve your lifelong dreams and ambitious goal in life. Looking for your path takes time before you discovered it, seeking wisdom to construct yourself and building self-knowledge as well as exploring things that you don’t know. Doing things in the right way leads you to a beautiful future. It says that, if you follow the right path and achieving good things for yourself, we can be successful, and we can achieve what we visualize in life. We must know all things to become wise to think of the right track for yourself so that you can reach wisdom. Wisdom can be found in yourself. You can obtain this if you know how to handle things, if you know how to carry out the decision, and if you recognize what is knowledge. Finding the worthiest things for yourself requires many sacrifices as well as dedication to doing it if you definitely want to know what is wisdom. Having knowledge but being unwise is useless, some people consistently seek wisdom because they did not use it properly.

Wisdom spreads empathy, compassion, and kindness. Acquiring this, you learn how to interact with unknown people. You know how to willingly give and spread tons of unconditional love towards everything. Wisdom grants us the power to discover the beauty of life. Wisdom teaches us what is life as well as it gives us experiences on how to achieve things through obstacles. Finding your path to your wisdom gives you a unique experience of real-life. Having the ability to choose and decide what is right for you and what is bad that would ruin you. This actively illustrates that if you seek wisdom, then you must have the ability to be in the right and decide the goodness for yourself. We have wisdom if we pursue things and have experience in life, in good people, and a better version of yourself. People around you give life lessons but no one teaches about wisdom because wisdom can be acquired if you want to possess it. Wisdom can be acquired if you know the meaning of life and what it is for. We can have wisdom in ourselves when we appreciate the beauty of everything in life. Wisdom in myself is in the golden path because I know about myself that I am productive and I appreciate the beauty in my life. I interact with various people, how to serve, and respect everyone full of love, kindness, and compassion. Experiencing darkness and brightness of life full of compassion, being contented and with unconditional love, this is what wisdom disciplined me.

Wisdom gives knowledge for life, proper judgment, and a pleasant experience. Experiences that we gather before reaching the wisdom in ourselves is our priceless treasures. We have a different definition of wisdom, but for me, wisdom is life and a path to knowing yourself. Reaching wisdom demonstrates to us what life is, wisdom takes us to be a better person for a good role model for everyone. It’s uneasy to acquire wisdom. It takes some experiences, realizations, obstacles, and efforts to learn some moral lessons about life. Every experience has a purpose. Learning and opening our mind and soul to its fullest is what wisdom explains to us.