Aroma components that are common to the grape cultivar are vital in defining the wine aroma aspect of wine quality. Sauvign blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon and Semillon grape are cultivars of which their typical aroma may be described as constituting vegetative, grassy, herbaceous, gooseberry, asparagus and green pepper nuances. The nuances are caused by a particular group of chemical components referred to as methoxypyrazines, though other chemical components also contribute to the complexity of the aroma. There are three kinds of Methoxypyrazines (grape-derived flavour compounds), namely 2-methoxy-3-isobutylpyrazine (IBMP), 2-methoxy-3-sec-butylpyrazine (SBMP) and 2-methoxy-3-isopropylpyrazine (IPMP). IBMP, SBMP and IPMP have astonishingly low sensory thresholds in wine, which are generally reported at low ng/l levels (Murray and Whitfield, 1978).
Concentration of wine
Research on the occurrence of isobutylmethoxypyrazine has indicated that it has a methodical and regular association with the grape variety and vine growing conditions. The occurrence of isobutylmethoxypyrazine-like aroma in the making of wine is regularly associated with the grape variety, which proves that the methoxypyrazines are produced under genetic control in the grape berry. In spite of the production of noticeable isobutyl-methoxypyrazin levels by Sauvign blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon and Semillon, other cultivars are observed to lack the ability to produce this compound. In another study of different grape varieties using vines with the same vineyard, high levels of isobutylmethoxypyrazine were observed in Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon blanc grapes, but no traces were found in Pinot noir (Heymann, Noble and Boulton, 1986).
Research has indicated that there is a direct relationship between the maturity of grape berries and concentration of isobutylmethoxypyrazine, such that increasing maturity leads to a decrease in concentration. Another study showed that the ripening temperature of the grape berries also affects the concentration. A study comparing fruits at various stages of ripeness, higher levels of methoxypyrazine were observed to occur in cool regions by comparison with warm regions. The level of isobutylmethoxypyrazine was observed to drop below its sensory detection threshold, in warm areas, by the time it got to harvesting time. In cool areas, the level ranged from 20-30 ng/L (Heymann, Noble and Boulton, 1986).
A regular increase in the concentration of isobutylmethoxypyrazine has been observed during fermentation with grape skin contact. This implies that methoxypyrazines can either be extracted from the solid parts of the grape, or produced by yeast-mediated effects. An increase is initiated by ensuring contact of the juice with the grape skins, and it decreases as fermentation progresses. Another important factor affecting the concentration is the vine canopy and the pruning and training system, since the exposure of the fruit to light affects the levels of methoxypyrazine. Within the vine canopy, a consistent lower level of methoxypyrazines is observed in the fruit that is more exposed than in the more shaded fruit, usually half or less of the level of the latter (Heymann, Noble and Boulton, 1986).
The IBMP concentrations in Sauvignon wines from Australia, New Zealand and France were observed to be about eight times higher, on average, than those of IPMP, while those of SBMP were lower. This implies that IPMP and SBMP do not contribute to the overall aroma of grapes and wine of this cultivar. To confirm this, the sniffing technique was used. It showed that IBMP was the most significant contributor to the vegetative aroma of regular wine. Other studies conducted on the typical Sauvignon blanc aroma showed that the addition of IBMP at levels greater than 2 ng/L resulted in musty and green pepper-like aromas in a model and natural wine respectively, implying that the threshold value for wine is 2 ng/L. Addition of the same amount of IPMP to the same wines resulted in musty aromas in the model wine and earthy and leafy nuances in the natural wine. The concentration of the compound added was observed to affect the aroma expression, indicating that other volatiles and individual compound concentration affect the perceived aroma. Aroma threshold values are only guidelines for aroma intensity and could change through synergistic actions with other components in the medium (Heymann, Noble and Boulton, 1986).
Biosynthesis
It is proposed that the biosynthesis of alkylmethoxypyrazines involves amidation of the appropriate amino acid. This step is followed by condensation with glyoxal, before methylation. The co-occurrence of the three methoxyyrazines is consistent with the biosynthetic way suggested a few decades ago. The amino acid leucine is observed to be the source of the C4 side chain of methoxypyrazine, through condensation of its amino amide with an unspecified C2 component, and methylation of the initial pyrazinone condensation product. This suggested biosynthetic pathway complements the three methoxypyrazines through incorporation of leucine, isoleucine or valine. These three are regularly available amino acids in plants. Little is known about the validity of this pathway in vines or other plant material, though the main aspects of the proposed pathway have been shown to apply to the biosynthesis of isopropylmethoxypyrazine by certain bacteria (Allen and Lacey, 1993). The chemical reaction for the biosynthesis process of the three methoxypyrazines is shown below.
Figure 1: biosynthetic pathway to isobutylmethoxypyrazine proposed by Murray and Whitfield.Figure 2: biosynthetic pathway to sec-butylmethoxypyrazineFigure 3: biosynthetic pathway to isopropylmethoxypyrazine
Comparison of methoxypyrazine to Ethylmethoxypyrazine
Ethylmethoxypyrazine is a component of grapes and wines, though it is unknown, where it came from. There is no clear association between it and vine variety, berry development and canopy light penetration that is found with isobutyl-methoxypyrazine (Allen and Lacey, 1993).
Quantification of methoxypyrazines
It has been observed that the growing conditions of the grape vine, in terms of soil, climate, variety, and maturity of the berry, have little effect on the concentration of methoxypyrazine. To start with, methoxypyrazines have been observed to be less vital for some varieties of grapes than others, with high levels in Sauvignon blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Semillon. Methoxypyrazines is useful in contributing a wine aroma that is both unique and vital in identifying the particular wine from other varieties. In the second place, the rapid loss of methoxypyrazines level as grape ripening occurs produces results such as 2% of the levels two months previously. This implies that the harvesting date has serious effect on the intensity of the aroma of these components in the wine. The advantage is that grapes harvested early can be blended with those harvested much later, to obtain the desired methoxypyrazine aroma intensity (Allen and Lacey, 1993).
The third aspect is higher level of methoxypyrazine in cool climatic conditions at various stages of berry ripening. Some of the cool regions including New Zealand and Western Australia are capable of developing a powerful methoxypyrazine aroma. the degree of exposure of the fruit to light is dependent on the pruning methods, resulting in fruit with varying concentrations of up to eight times. The effect of growing conditions on berry methoxypyrazine levels raises difficulties in the production of grapes with the appropriate or desired flavour quality. In addition to this, it necessitates research investigation, both new and on reports of previously done research (Murray and Whitfield, 1978).
References
Allen, M. S. and Lacey M. J. (1993). Methoxypyrazine grape flavor: influence of climate, cultivar and viticulture. Die Wein-wisenschaft, 48, 31-37.
Heymann, H., Noble A. C. and Boulton, R. B. (1986). Methoxypyrazines in Sauvignon blanc grapes and wines. Am. J. Enol. Vitic, 42, 103-108.
Murray, K. E. and Whitfield F. B. (1978). The occurence of 3-alkyl-2-methoxypyrazines in raw vegetables. J. Sci. Food Agric., 26, 973-986.
It is evident that the wine market in the United States is growing tremendously. The same can be evidenced in European countries. The improvement of the wine quality in recent years has proven that the demand for the product is high, especially in the United States. Moreover, the competition for the US market as a strategic and high priced wine market is an indication that the market is growing with time.
Moreover, the resuscitation of the old world wine producers in the European countries is an indication that wine market is yet to saturate. Over the years, the demand of wine has fluctuated as can be evidenced in the case study of the global wine war. Some of the factors that has affected this demand include, price, customer preferences, market distance, chain of distribution and wine quality (Anderson 278).
On the other hand, the supply of the wine has been affected by the following factors; the price of the product, wine producing technology, the price of related products such as beer, the climatic conditions of the wine producing countries and subsidies given to wine producers or grapevine growers. In the following discussions, the above aspects will be outlined in an in-depth manner.
As earlier indicated, the wine market is growing rapidly. An example of such is exemplified in the US wine market. It is asserted that with time a new generation of wine consumers started to prefer wine compared to conventional alcohol consumers in America. From this perspective, it is notable that majority of the Americans are used to liquor and beer (Bartlett 3).
However, with time, majority of the alcohol consumers started to understand the health benefits that are accrued from taking wine. As a matter of fact, American wine producers could not satisfy the domestic market, prompting more wine to be imported from the old worlds wine producers.
Another justification of the expanded market of wine is that some of the old world wine producers had already started to battle for a ready market of wine in America. The competition was largely contributed by price and quality factors. The Europes advance on the American market through various tactics is an example of a promising wine market. An example of such is evidenced by the subsidized marketing on wine products.
As a matter of fact, the subsidizing of these products is as a result of a European Union policy on agriculture. On the other hand, the American US producers have taken another role of rebranding the foreign wines as their own. Examples of such wine are the Italian wines; Ecco Domania and the Bella sera wines.
In order to determine the demand of wine in the wine industry, one has to consider the various factors that influence the commodities demand. In this case, the wines demand has incredibly changed or fluctuated over time. First, the price of the wine in old world wine producers was relatively high.
This is due to the fact that, wine was only associated with class and prestige. The increasing of the price affected the demand of the product and in due time, the demand of wine had reduced in many of the old world wine producing countries. Example of such is evidenced in Chile, Argentina and in Spain.
The entrance of the new world wine producers, namely; US and Australia, saw the reverse of this demand. The two countries ensured that wine was produced with the newest technology and made available at lower prices to many of the wine consumers. Relatively, this increased the demand for wine. America has a lot of alcohol consumers and their preference sometimes depends on the price of the commodity.
In the same context, the consumers preferences will determine the demand of the product in question. In case of the American wine consumers, most of them preferred the foreign wines. This was after the domestic wine producers in America started to increase the price of their wines (6). Moreover, some of the wine consumers in America believed in the authenticity of the wine blended in the old world.
This affected the demand of the local American-made wines, prompting for more wine imports into the country. Another reason that affects the demand of wine in America is the price of other alcoholic drinks such as beer and liquor (Bartlett 3). As indicated earlier, majority of the conventional Americans are used to beer and liquor. Beer and liquor can be termed as substitutes to alcohol. Since the prices of the two substitutes are relatively lower than wine, the demand for wine goes down.
However other factors such health benefits make more of the Americans consume wine than other alcoholic drinks. However, a higher demand on wine does not make beer and liquor inferior. The superiority of a commodity depends on the preference of the consumer. Majority of the wine consumers in the US are well endowed people, well educated and internet savvy. According to the case study on the global wine wars, the US wine clientele is also termed as price-sensitive (6).
This exhibits the sophistication of the US wine consumers. This means that they have the ability to buy wine regardless of the price, but with certain considerations; utility. The wine consumers want to buy a product of value and which they consider as quality. This is the reason they prefer low-priced wine from foreign countries, and which they still believe is still of good quality.
Supply is another major aspect to consider when discussing the wine industry in the US. According to Amerine and Josyln (146), the supply of wine into the US market has been influenced by factors discussed herein. Firstly, the price of the commodity in the US was relatively high considering that the product was under strict regulations (Bartlett 2). On the other hand, most of the old world wine producers had little wine production capacity.
This made the new world wine producers monopolize their market territories making the price of the commodity go high. In most of the European countries, the price of the grapevines was bought relatively low by the merchants and other corporations that were involved in large-scale wine production. The price of essential factors that contribute to production of wine such as land or labor can either reduce or increase the supply of the commodity.
For example, the fragmentation of land in many of the European countries like Germany and UK reduced the supply of wine. In this case, farming of the grapevine was done in small-scale and only few growers supplied the vines. On the other hand, large tracts of land in both Australia and America were used as vineyards. With time, the new technology used in producing wine by the new world made it easier to reduce labor and all costs associated with land and production (4).
Therefore, this reduction of the production costs increased the supply of wine in the expanding of wine market. Thirdly, the governments action to subsidize farmers who had vineyards and wine making companies ensured that some of the old world wine producers supplied more wine.
Works Cited
Amerine, A., Maynard and Josyln, A., Maynard. Table wines: The technology of their production, Volume 2. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1970. Print.
Anderson, Kym. The worlds wine markets: Globalization at work. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2004. Print.
Bartlett, A., Christopher. Global wine war 2009: New world versus old. Harvard Business School Case Study, August 13, 2009. Print.
The following paper outlines the secondary research conducted for attaining information on the launch of a wine bar in London. The wine bar is to be launched in a profitable area of London which is predicted to become a posh and competitive place for established bars and restaurants. However as the development is still taking place in the region. The prices of the land and property are affordable despite the location being in London.
Another point in favour of the location is that it is located at near central London and is accessibility by commuters and professionals residing and working in the region. The company has been able to access secondary data in the form of study which depicts the demographic characteristics of the area and its vantage point as a business location as per the research. The paper analysis the study in terms of relevance to the business and its prospective launch and provides the recommendations which can aid the business in establishing itself in the stated location.
Data Sources and Type of Information
The research data that is available for the purpose of this paper was taken from a secondary research agency. The research agency deployed research agency to collect information through the process of interview based surveys form the local community in the region. The focal point of the questionnaire that was used in this study pertains to the crime and safety situation of the region and the demographics of the people residing and operating in the area.
The questionnaire provides a letter of intent on behalf of the research agency and the community forum which sponsored the research. The respondent however include people form various walks of life who are familiar with the area and can provide sufficiently comprehensive and accurate information on the region of Central London which is being targeted by the community forum and the research agency. The questionnaire that was used is developed in such a manner that it is simple to read and comprehend for the respondent./ moreover most of the questions are close ended to attain a relatively tabular and computable result while open ended question have been provided where more abstract information can be collected.
Analysis
The results of the data collection and analysis depict that the respondents that were interviewed through the questionnaire had been residing in the region for about 5 years. This shows that the people residing in the region have been doing so for a period of time and are satisfied with their location. the questionnaire also depicts that the region is close to the countryside and yet still it provides a myriad of facilities for the residents and people working in the region Moreover the respondents provided that the region is relatively quiet whole still being London and that its provides easy access to amenities I and around the region.
Moreover the families of the people have also been residing in the region for a long period of time as the crime rate is very low when compared to the rest of the London. The region also does not have any significant problem pertaining to crime and violence however people have notices youth and gang members on streets on a number of occasions and who sometimes indulge in violence. Moreover the region also has parking problems and limited bus service which cause some problem for commuters. The people in the region are satisfied with the demographic characteristics of the areas which have remained relatively the same over the period of time.
However the region is taking to increasing rates of crimes, which are still lower than the rest of the London. The main issues pertaining to crimes are caused by the youth and members of the youth gangs. The main crimes however pertain to vandalism of public and private property as well as petty theft. In most case however the crime was reported to Bus Company, the authorities and the headmasters of the schools to which the youths belonged to.
Recommendation
The region that is invested in by the wine and bar business is very suitable for the business as the local residents are satisfied which the area and its facilities. Moreover the crime rate is very low and the only disturbances that do occur are from the youths which pertain to petty theft and vandalism. Moreover the location is of prime importance as the business would be having a steady flow of local as well as tourist customers. The central London location also provides the prospective patrons of the wine bar with commuting access to other regions of London as well. As a result it is highly recommended for the business to open the wine bar in this location.
Conclusion
Deriving information through the data provided, it can be said the region where the business has invested in for the wine bar is relatively safe. The region provides different types of facilities to the people residing in the region and is much safe from heavy duty crimes. The crimes however which are faced by the residents in the region pertain to small petty thefts and vandalism of public property. These crimes are conducted by the youths in the region, which belong to local gangs.
However they are reported to the authorities and the respective schools to bring about action against them. Through the research data we have been able to determine that it is very safe and convenient for the business to launch a wine bar here. The youths will have to be dealt with in term of restricting their access to the bar and the protection of the bar against their vandalism. However the already satisfied people living in the region and the constant influx of commuters and professionals who work in central London to the region would be providing a profitable flow of customers for the business. Therefore the business should launch their wine bar in this region.
The company, which deals with wine production, was established by Robert Mondavi in 1966. He held the role of chairman until his retire in 2001. The company has enjoyed market share in the wine industry as one of the global inventive producers and makers of smooth wine. The company has been categorized as a modern wine producer, and this has enabled it make millions from sales and stability in the market. This report evaluates the changing structure and situational analysis of the company based on the threats and growth strategy.
Situational analysis of Robert Mondavi Company
Production of modern wine is mainly involved with large, extensive vine yards and manufacture of various labels of premium wines. For instance, Robert Mondavi wine company was established in Napa valley on a hundred acre farm. This gave the company an added advantage to compete for the market in the wine industry since the old wine producers had small vineyards. To add on, another advantage of Robert Mondavi Company over small companies is based on technology.
The establishment of a wine company on a large farm enables the management to invest in technology. For this reason, it is expensive for a small company to invest in technology when compared to large company. The company benefited from this investment since it significantly helped in production of quality products and enabled the reduction in costs of production. Use of machines in harvesting of grapes enhanced the companys wine production hence consistency and stable market share. The company also has an advantage over small-scale companies because of its ability to produce wine in large quantity hence availability of stock for distribution in the ready market. This was easily achieved since the company maintained its quality in production. Small companies of old wine could not achieve production in large quantity while maintaining high quality products.
Over time, the structure of Robert Mondavi has been changing according to competition in the market. The success of the company in the industry relies entirely on the marketing approach. Robert Mondavi marketed its products by describing the product to opinion leaders enlightening them on the benefits for them to appreciate the product. This approach helped for the growth of the company since it offered a chance for promotion in consumer places such as restaurants where customers were offered the drinks for tasting, and also availed it to social events. The customer foundation was also strengthened by advertisements on both radio and televisions.
Competition from large companies
Success in the wine industry has attracted large companies such as Fosters, Diageo and Allied Domecq companies to enter the market. Most of these companies are alcoholic beverages producers with many branches around the world. The entrance of large companies in the premium wines industry was a major threat to Robert Mondavis control in the market share. However, the companies employed strategies of acquiring the limited companies in the industry. These involved large expenditures to acquire most of the brands in the market. Conversely, Robert Mondavi concentrated on enhancing the quality of their existing brands. This provided the base of the companys success since other companies had to market the acquired brands differently as their own hence consuming time. The position of Robert Mondavi enabled its growth and success in the wine industry as compared to the other companies.
The main strategy used by Robert Mondavi to expand in the international market was implementation of the industry consolidation approach. The company also got involved in international joint ventures abroad. This enabled the companys growth since their partner had adequate research information in their countries. The products were also marketed partly in the of the original brand. Production of quality drinks in the new market was substantial for the expansion internationally.
Conclusion
The success of Robert Mondavi in the wine industry relies mostly on the quality and availability of the product. Production of brands in large quantity enabled the company to stay well above other companies in the market. The marketing strategies employed are also essential in the growth of the company. This enabled the Robert Mondavi to succeed as one of the largest companies in premium wine production.
Wine tourism is organized around travel. It involves tasting, appreciating, and purchasing wine. Taking of wine is deeply entrenched in local cultures of people around. People go visit wineries and taste wines and while at they can sample the local food cuisines. They also get a chance to visit attractive sites in those particular regions. Wine tourism has many advantages for instance it attracts more numbers of tourists, other businesses develop alongside the wineries to cater for the visitors. We have various wine tourists.
Wine in France
Wine has been made in France for generations. But it is not until the 1980s that France developed because they saw the need in making wine accessible to more people. They also saw the need to make it understandable. (Phillips 2000) Thus winemakers and the organizations concerned with tourism joined hands and developed activities molded on the theme of wine. Some wineries or cellars are small and the owners may charge those who do not purchase the wine for tasting. In come cellars, tasters can access and taste the wine free of charge. In France, large producers concentrate on the wineries at a professional level. The wineries are major tourist attraction sites.
However, France is facing stiff competition from other wine-making countries. The use of wine in France has been on the decline. Nevertheless, the interest in wine has been raised due to many health advantages associated with wine. Selling and advertising wine to the end-users has revolutionized wine the wine industry which has also helped in the tourism sector (Hall 2000)
Wine tourism
Wine tourism in France has been embraced due to its economic benefits. This has led to the many wine-makers creating many products to attract tourists. Wine tourism-related attractions cut across family-owned attractions to big organized visitor attractions. The organized attractions include festivals and even wine museums. The events are also highlighted to attract more visitors by giving then the date events and the organized activities. Wine tourism has led to the creation of job opportunities for many people in France. We have cellar owners who depend on them for their livelihood. They make money when tasters come and buy wine from them. Come off the tasters may even become regular customers thus ensuring a steady supply of incomes for the people involved.
Economic profit
The government also gets revenue from the many visitors who come. They stay in hotels and this creates an income for the hotel owners. The industry attracts many tourists who not only come to see the wineries by end up shopping here for various products. This is means that when they shop here they tell their friends where they bought the products and this means more visitors will come to visit the country. Wine is the most bought product across cross-border shopping (Carlsen 2000)
Wine tourism problems
Wine tourism faces a lot of challenges there is a lack of cooperation between tourism and the wine industry as this would. The two industries would assist each in that visitors to one would access the other industry. The other challenge is that people have yet to view wine tourism as a serious form of tourism. The wine industry also lacks an understanding of the tourism sector (Hall 2000)
Wine tourism also faces a major challenge because not all the efforts bear fruit in making the wine industry a major tourist attraction as some of the visitors do not necessarily become interested wine tasters. This means France has to diversify and promote other tourists attractions like their culture and other physical attractions.
Wine tourism is also costly which means the capital required to set up the cellars is costly. Many are not able to raise this capital and hence are limited in the resources to market their cellars (Hall 2002)
Government regulations
The French government has embarked on a major plan to improve the wine tourism industry. This has been necessitated by the competition from emerging winemakers. The government will do so through a body under the leisure and international industry. It intends to do so by improving the linkage between the key players in the tourism sector. (Trompiz 2009). The wine industry management needs to be improved to ensure the wine industry does not succumb to fierce competition. It needs to capitalize on the notion that France is the best wine destination in the world. To do this all stakeholders must be involved for maximum impact. France also needs to look at what other countries are doing for example South Africa which is doing very well in the wine sector.
The French government can also give incentives to the wine cellars to encourage them in opening and running them. When the government does so the sector will rise to greater heights. The government should also encourage wine festivals and other cultural activities. Through these activities, more people will have an opportunity to experience French wine. This could translate into more visitors get involved in sampling wines in the future.
The government has not been marketing the idea of wine tourism enough and this could explain the stiff competition faced. It has to do more to get and retain a clientele that will come and stay in the wine regions for several days. The government should promote less known wine regions through tourism fairs that are organized. It can achieve this by making known the profile of these areas; that they are as good as the well-known Burgundy or Bordeaux. They should come up with activities like marathons along the vineyards. This could be a very strategic point for attracting visitors. (Trompiz 2009)
The government should allocate more funds to support the wine tourism sector. More studies should be conducted to help in the better understanding of this sector which has for a long time been seen as an illegitimate sector (Getz 2000). When this is done more people will venture into this great industry. Wine tourism in France has a great future and everything necessary must be done to ensure it exploits this potential to the maximum.
Conclusion
Wine tourism can act as a great way of getting people to learn and appreciate each other’s culture. This is because as one visits a country to taste its wine they also get to interact with the winemakers. This offers them a good opportunity to learn about each other as they meet face to face. Through this stereotypes are demystified and people are placed in a better position where they can tolerate one another.
Bibliography
Carlsen, J. 2006, Global Wine Tourism: Research, Management and Marketing, CABI: London.
Hall, C. M, Brock, C., Sharples, L. & Niki, M. (2000) Wine tourism around the world: development, management, and markets Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.
Hall, M 2002, Wine Food, and Tourism Marketing, Haworth Press, Haworth.
Hall, M wine tourism around the world, 2002 BUUTERWORTH HEINEMANN: Oxford.
Getz, D 2000, Explore Wine Tourism: Management, development & destinations, Cognizant Communication Corporation, New York.
Parode, N. Wine Travel in France Discover French Wine Regions About.: Senior Travel. Web.
Phillips, R 2000, A short history of wine, Allen Lane, London.
Trompiz, G. 2009 France eyes tourism to help invigorate wine sector Thomas Reuters Corportion. Web.
Swarbrooke, J 1995, The Development and Management of Visitor Attractions, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.
Williams, N., Oliver B, & Fallo, S, 2005 France Ed 6 lonely planet, Cape Town.
Sauvignon is a dry white wine produced from a green-skinned grape, which is a variety that originates from Bordeaux, France. In addition, Sauvignon Blanc is planted in other wine-producing regions such as Chile, Australia, South Africa, California, and New Zealand whereby it is used to make a refreshing, crisp, and dry variety of white wine. However, the grape is also a major component of dessert wines such as those originating from Sauternes. The grape vines tend to grow vigorously, and thus, there is the need to prune and thin the shoots and leaves to increase fruit ripening. On the other hand, the varietal Sauvignon Blanc grape is similar to grapefruits, bell-peppers, grass or gooseberries depending on the region of origin (Marais, Hunter & Haasbroek, 1999, p. 19).
Characteristically, the level of pyrazine in the grape determines whether the varietal grape is intense or mild. Moreover, sufficient sunlight guarantees the production of melon-like aromas in the grape. Otherwise, insufficient lighting imparts an aggressive box tree odor to the grapes. Furthermore, depending on the climatic conditions under which the grape is cultivated, the flavor of Sauvignon Blanc wine can range from sweet to aggressively grassy.
When slightly chilled, Sauvignon wine can be served with fish, sushi, and cheese. Usually, Sauvignon wine is consumed young because aging does not have any significant contribution to its quality except for the oak-aged varieties from Bordeaux, which are known to age for approximately fifteen years (Marais et al., 1999, pp. 19-30). This essay presents a review of the components of aroma, the fermentation process, the aging process, and finally, aroma analysis about the Sauvignon Blanc wine.
Chemical Components of Aroma
Wine aroma contributes to the quality of wine in that the aroma components form an integral aspect of wine quality. Furthermore, the grape cultivar is a major contributor to wine quality because it determines the amount and type of the chemical components of aroma. As mentioned earlier, a typical varietal aroma of the Sauvignon grape can be identified as being vegetative, gooseberry, grassy, herbaceous, green pepper, or asparagus. However, these aromas can also be found in other varieties of grapes such as Semillon and Cabernet Sauvignon.
Accordingly, a review of the chemical components producing these aromas shows that the most important chemicals in Sauvignon Blanc are methoxy-pyrazines such as 2-methoxy-3-isobutylpyrazine (Marais, 1994, p. 42). Conversely, the grapes contain additional components such as 4-methyl-4-mercapto-pentane-2-one, C6-aldehydes, monoterpenes, C13-norisoprenoids, and C6-alcohols. These chemical components in Sauvignon Blanc are the major descriptors of the complex range of varietal aromas in white wines. Additionally, studies show that the level of methoxy-pyrazine, and thus, the varietal aroma of Sauvignon wine vary with climatic conditions, the plant origin, and the degree of ripeness.
Here, it is worth noting that the concentration of methoxy-pyrazine in Sauvignon Blanc decreases as the grape ripens, and also as the intensity of sunlight and temperature increases. Therefore, to produce varietal wines containing typical grape aromas, there is the need to cultivate the vines in cool areas and store the mature wines in dark places to retain the original aromas.
Methoxy-pyrazines
These are secondary products of the catabolism of amino acids, which are made up of a nitrogen-containing ring. As a result, the precursors of 2-methoxy-3-isopropylpyrazine include methionine, valine, and glycine. These compounds occur in beetroots, peas, potatoes, and green peppers. However, various quantitative techniques have been designed to study the low concentrations of methoxy-pyrazines in Sauvignon grapes.
According to Marais (1994, p. 43), Sauvignon Blanc grape contains 2-methoxy-3-isopropylpyrazine, 2-methoxy-3-sec-butylpyrazine, and 2-methoxy-3-isobutylpyrazine as shown in figure 1 below. These components contribute to the green pepper-like, pea-like, and asparagus-like aromas. Furthermore, the varietal aromas of Sauvignon Blanc wine rely on whether the concentration of each chemical component exceeds the threshold value.
Other Components of Aroma
The possibility that additional components do contribute to the varietal aromas of Sauvignon Blanc wines cannot be overlooked. Studies show that under acidic conditions, the extracts containing glycosidic precursors derived from Sauvignon Blanc do not have the grass-like, pea-like or the asparagus-like aroma, and thus, the pyrazine-derived aromas do not come from glycosides (Williams, Francis & Sefton, 1992).
Additionally, when hydrolysates released from their Sauvignon Blanc precursors through enzymatic reactions were added to neutral wines, the hydrolysates enhanced the aroma of the wine by imparting the floral, grassy, talc, pineapple, tea, toasty, oaky and the lime aromas. Probably, the floral and lime aromas were as a result of the monoterpenes; the honey-like and tea-like aromas were due to C13-norisoprenoids; and finally, the oak-like aromas were caused by the phenolic components. Furthermore, additional studies show that the aromas caused by addition of enzyme-released hydrolysates to neutral wine can also be found in wines derived from Chardonnay and Semillon grapes (Sefton, Francis & Williams, 1994).
The monoterpenes containing a p-methene structure do occur in high concentrations in Sauvignon Blanc grapes as menthenediol-1, menthenediol-2, and trans- and cis-sobrerol in their bound forms (Versini et al., 1992). These chemical components, which are the oxidized forms of alpha-terpineol, increase in concentration as the wine ages. Moreover, the C6-aldehydes and the C6-alcohols contribute to the grassy, herbaceous-like, and leafy-like aromas of the Sauvignon wine (Singleton, 1998).
Fermentation of Sauvignon wine
As opposed to red wines, which are produced from the alcoholic fermentation of skins, musts, and the seeds, white wines are obtained from fermented grape juice. Therefore, fermentation of Sauvignon Blanc juice is preceded by juice extraction and juice clarification. Additionally, making of white wine may entail maceration, a process through which the solid components in the juice are solubilized. Moreover, it is worth noting that the taste of wine derived from any grape cultivar is determined by the pre-fermentation operations, which include harvesting, crushing, pressing, extraction, and clarification (Grainger & Tattersall, 2005, p. 64).
Therefore, the process of making white wine entails selective extraction of components of the grapes including the best portions of the grape and preventing the diffusion of some volatile components. As a result, successful white winemaking depends on the winemaker’s expertise in pressing the grapes and clarifying the juice or musts in such a way that achieves maximum extraction and preservation of the quality of grapes (Ribereau-Gayon et al., 2006, 398).
In recent years, the art of white winemaking has undergone several changes including the production of white wine in barrels instead of tanks. However, regardless of the fermentation method, the major fermentation operations in white winemaking include filling, yeast inoculation, addition of Ammonium salts and juice aeration, completion of alcoholic fermentation, and malolactic fermentation.
The first step in the fermentation of white wine entails filling, which is the process of adding clarified grape juice into fermentation tanks. This process leaves about 10% of the volume of the fermentation tank empty to avoid spilling of foam, which is produced in the subsequent phase of alcoholic fermentation. Moreover, this stage involves the assembly of different clarified juices in case a high-capacity tank is used (Ribereau-Gayon et al., 2000). Additionally, the fine lees that settle after racking the juice should be added into the juice before blending. Conversely, fresh juice should not be mixed with the fermenting juice because the fermenting yeasts can use the free SO2 in the fresh juice to produce H2S. Finally, immediately after constituting the blend, fermentation must be initiated.
The second fermentation operation in white winemaking involves yeast inoculation. This stage entails addition of a strong concentration of sulfates (usually at 10 g/hl) into juice to lower the effect of spoilage microflora and promote the activity of wine fermentors. Subsequently, the starter juice is allowed to undergo spontaneous fermentation before it can be inoculated into the newly filled tanks at a concentration of 2-5%. Here, it is important to note that the kinetics of fermentation relies on the indigenous strain of yeast present. Furthermore, clarification has been shown to disturb inoculation since slow fermentation may arise because of the low concentration of yeast.
On the other hand, selection of a suitable strain of yeast for fermentation is very important because there are more than 30 strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which have the potential to produce white wine. Yeast selection entails an understanding of the fermentative potential of the strain and its overall effect relative to the specificity of the wine in question (Grainger & Tattersall, 2005, pp. 64-77).
The third stage of fermentation entails meeting the nitrogen and oxygen needs of the fermenting yeasts and constant aeration of the fermenting juice. Sometimes, assimilable nitrogen levels in juice derived from grapes cultivated in cool climates are sufficient to meet the nitrogen needs of the yeast. However, juices deficient in assimilable nitrogen can also be produced in cool climates especially when the vineyards are supplied with insufficient levels of nitrogen or due to increased summer dryness. As a result, juices with less than 160 mg of assimilable nitrogen require addition of ammonium sulfate during fermentation (Ribereau-Gayon et al., 2006, p. 426). Furthermore, there is the need to maintain temperature at constant levels since untimely changes in temperature can lead to thermal shocks, which can stop the fermentation process.
Conversely, completion of alcoholic fermentation in white winemaking depends on several factors such as the conditions, under which the juice is extracted, the concentration of sugars and assimilable nitrogen in the juice, the strain of yeast present, turbidity, the duration and frequency of aeration, and the fermentation temperature. However, these parameters can be controlled by the winemaker, which implies that a slow fermentation process is caused by carelessness on the part of the operator.
According to Ribereau-Gayon et al. (2000, p. 432), the duration of alcoholic fermentation in the production of white wine should not be more than 12 days. However, longer fermentation durations may arise when the juices contain high reducing sugar concentrations. In addition, the density of the fermenting juice should be monitored daily to assess the fermentation kinetics. Here, completion of alcoholic fermentation is achieved when the concentration of reducing sugars in the juice is less than 2g/l.
Wine Aging
Dry white wine is fermented and matured in barrels, which compensate for aroma deficient by imparting additional aromas derived from volatile substances in wood. These volatile substances in wood include phenols, octalactones, and phenol aldehydes. Traditionally, barrels derived from fine-grain oaks are used aging of dry white wine. The oaks are popular for their odorous components such as octalactones (Ribereau-Gayon et al., 2006, p. 438).
During barrel production, toasting influences the aromatic effect of the oak-wood on the wine. Here, the barrels should be toasted in such a way that the fragrant wood imparts a lower aromatic effect compared to the unstable wine aroma. Additionally, intermediate grain oak woods can also be used to produce medium toasted barrels, which are less fragrant, and thus, they cannot dominate the aroma of the white wine.
Wine aging commences immediately before completion of alcoholic fermentation. At this point, the barrels are filled with the juice to the top, and at the end of the fermentation process, the barrels are stirred daily until sulfating. On the other hand, barrel maturation of Sauvignon wine entails stirring and topping off of the juice on a weekly basis while maintaining the concentration of free SO2 at 30 mg/l (Ribereau-Gayon et al., 2006, p. 439).
Aroma Analysis
The components of aroma consist of diverse classes of chemical compounds some of which are highly reactive or present in food at very low levels. As a result, the qualitative and quantitative analysis of aroma entails isolation of the volatile components, dilution analyses (differentiation of the aroma compounds from other compounds present in the volatile fraction), concentration and identification, quantification and calculation of the aroma value, simulation of the aroma relative to the analytical results, and finally, conducting omission experiments (Hans-Dieter, Grosch & Schieberle, 2009, p. 356).
During isolation, it is advisable to employ gentle methods, which eliminates the possibility of contamination. For instance, during fruit homogenization, hydrolases can enrich the fruit aroma with newly formed substances, and thus, there is the need to carry out the process in the presence of enzyme inhibitors. The most convenient methods of isolation include distillation, gas extraction, headspace analysis, enrichment, and the use of sensory relevance techniques (Hans-Dieter, Grosch & Schieberle, 2009, p. 360). Subsequently, the isolated compounds are then analyzed using various qualitative and quantitative methods such as Aroma Extract Dilution Analysis (AEDA), and Headspace GC Olfactometry.
On the other hand, to elucidate the structure of aroma substances, mass spectrometry should be the method of choice because of increased sensitivity. Further, enantioselective analytical procedures are employed to elucidate the absolute configuration and to calculate the enantiomeric ratio of aroma substances. Moreover, to determine the aroma values, quantitative methods such as Isotopic Dilution Analysis (IDA) are very beneficial. Finally, aroma models are designed in omission experiments to determine whether the odorants identified produce the actual aroma under study (Hans-Dieter, Grosch & Schieberle, 2009, p. 367).
Conclusion
This essay provides an extensive review of the production of Sauvignon wine with emphasis on the chemical components of aroma, the fermentation process, the process of wine aging, and aroma analysis. From the foregoing discussions, there are several descriptors for the varietal aromas of Sauvignon wine.
For instance, Sauvignon wine can be described as grassy, herbaceous, lime, tea, pea-like, asparagus-like or honey-like relative to the amount and variety of aroma substances derived from the grape cultivar. Here, we note that Sauvignon wine is a dry white wine that is derived from the white juice of Sauvignon Blanc grape, which is grown in several wine producing regions notably France and New Zealand.
On the other hand, there is no generally acceptable method of producing white wine, and thus, white winemaking can take place in a tank or barrel. Furthermore, it is worth noting that the recommended duration for the completion of alcoholic fermentation in white winemaking is approximately 12 days. Conversely, wine aging commences before alcoholic fermentation is complete, and this ensures that the fragile aroma of the white wine is maintained by imparting additional aromas derived from volatile substances in wood. Overall, the process of white winemaking is a tedious exercise, which relies on the expertise of the winemaker to determine the correct pre-fermentation operations, the fermentation operations, and the post-fermentation operations while maintaining the quality and aroma of the Sauvignon Blanc wine.
Reference list
Grainger, K. & Tattersall, H. (2005). Wine production: Vine to bottle. England: Wiley Blackwell.
Hans-Dieter, B., Grosch, W. & Schieberle, P. (2009). Food chemistry. New York: Springer.
Marais, J. (1994). Sauvignon blanc cultivar aroma – A review. Stellenbosch, SA: Nietvoorbij Institute for Viticulture and Oenology, Agricultural Research Council.
Marais, J., Hunter, J.J. & Haasbroek, P.D. (1999). Effect of season and region on Sauvignon Blanc grape composition and wine quality. South African Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 20, 19-30.
Ribereau-Gayon, P. Dubourdieu, D., Doneche, B. & Lonvaud, A. (2006). Handbook of enology: The microbiology of wine and vinifications, 2nd ed. West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Septon, M.A., Francis, I.L. & Williams, P.J. (1994). Free and bound volatile secondary metabolites of Vitis vinifera grape cv. Sauvignon blanc. J. Food Sci, 59, 142-147.
Singleton, V.L. (1998). Oxygen with phenols and related reactions in musts, wines, and model systems: Observations and practical implications. Am. J. Enol. Vitic., 44, 359-370.
Versini, G. Rapp, A. & Dalla Serra, A. (1992). Considerations about the presence of free and bound p-menth-1-enediols in grape products. Wurzburg, Germany: Proc. Int. Symp.
Williams, P.J., Francis, I.L. & Sefton, M.A. (1992). Sensory and chemical analysis of hydrolyzed flavor precursors from Sauvignon blanc grapes. Wurzburg, Germany: Proc. Int. Symp.
Humans use microbial metabolism in various ways; one example is wine production. Virdis et al. (2021) claim that currently, the primary function of Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) in wine is to perform malolactic fermentation (MLF). This method improves microbiological stability, enhances wine flavor and smoothness, and decreases acidity. LAB may also release hydroxycinnamic acids from tartaric esters and can degrade anthocyanin glucosides, influencing wine color (Virdis et al., 2021). Moreover, the bacteria can create enzymes that have the potential to aid in the production process and contribute to the end product’s longevity. For instance, LAB has peptidolytic and proteolytic activity, which might help break down the proteins that cause wine haze, lowering the requirement for bentonite. The bacteria may demonstrate both wine’s beneficial and harmful effects on human health (Virdis et al., 2021). Organic acids, such as lactic and acetic, phenyl lactic acid, diacetyl, cyclic dipeptides, and bacteriocins, which can prevent the growth of spoilage or pathogenic bacteria, are among the metabolites produced by LAB.
Discussion
Although wines from a single grape variety have distinct characteristics that set them apart from other types, these active-flavor components are not always discernible during the pre-fermentative phases. Virdis et al. (2021) argue that they are frequently the result of yeast and microbial metabolism and are changed and generated in wine throughout the fermentation. LAB enzymes that may be found in wine contain glycosidases, esterases, and proteases. These enzymes’ activity may considerably improve wine’s appearance, taste, mouthfeel, and fragrance, eventually contributing to establishing its structure. Lactic Acid Bacteria are Gram-positive bacteria that belong to the Firmicutes phylum, class Bacilli, and order Lactobacillales (Virdis et al., 2021). Several Lactobacillaceae genera are employed in the food business and manufacturing process of several fermented products such as yogurt, cheese, and kimchi (Virdis et al., 2021). Consequently, the only genera connected with wine are Oenococcus, Leuconostoc, and Pediococcus from the formerly identified Leuconostocaceae family and Lactobacillus from the once-recognized Lactobacillaceae family.
Lactic acid bacteria may be both damaging and beneficial to wine quality. Their effectiveness in wine is influenced by unique species, strain genes, and several other variables like atmospheric temperatures and microbial interactions (Virdis et al., 2021). Oenococcus oeni is one of three and the most well-known species in the Oenococcus genus. O. oeni is the primary LAB of preference in winemaking due to its high tolerance for low pH, high ethanol concentrations, and nutrient lack of supply (Virdis et al., 2021). Nevertheless, with rising temperatures during expansion and harvest, and a resultant increasing pH trend for many wines, other LABs have the prospects to evolve into a reasonable alternative to Oenococcus, playing a crucial role in the adjustments of wine aroma.
Conclusion
The wine color is a significant sensory property of red wines that are determined mainly by grape variety and vintage, and to a lesser extent, by winemaking processes. The activities of yeast and LAB can also influence wine color. Wines post-MLF have lower concentrations of polymeric pigments and Visitin A and B content and a higher content of monomeric anthocyanins than their equilibrium values that did not undergo MLF(Virdis et al., 2021). Acetaldehyde is valuable for preserving wine color because it moderates the formation of permanent ethylene-linked pigments, which are more stable than their equilibrium values that were not subjected to MLF (Virdis et al., 2021). Additionally, pyruvic acid and acetaldehyde combine with pigments like malvidin-3-glucoside to form the comparatively stable pyranoanthocyanins Visitin A and Visitin B. Overall, utilizing the enzyme reactions of LAB will expand the possibilities available to winemakers in shaping the wine of their preference.
Reference
Virdis, C., Sumby, K., Bartowsky, E., & Jiranek, V. (2021). Lactic acid bacteria in wine: Technological advances and evaluation of their functional role. Frontiers in Microbiology.
Aroma components that are common to the grape cultivar are vital in defining the wine aroma aspect of wine quality. Sauvign blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon and Semillon grape are cultivars of which their typical aroma may be described as constituting vegetative, grassy, herbaceous, gooseberry, asparagus and green pepper nuances. The nuances are caused by a particular group of chemical components referred to as methoxypyrazines, though other chemical components also contribute to the complexity of the aroma. There are three kinds of Methoxypyrazines (grape-derived flavour compounds), namely 2-methoxy-3-isobutylpyrazine (IBMP), 2-methoxy-3-sec-butylpyrazine (SBMP) and 2-methoxy-3-isopropylpyrazine (IPMP). IBMP, SBMP and IPMP have astonishingly low sensory thresholds in wine, which are generally reported at low ng/l levels (Murray and Whitfield, 1978).
Concentration of wine
Research on the occurrence of isobutylmethoxypyrazine has indicated that it has a methodical and regular association with the grape variety and vine growing conditions. The occurrence of isobutylmethoxypyrazine-like aroma in the making of wine is regularly associated with the grape variety, which proves that the methoxypyrazines are produced under genetic control in the grape berry. In spite of the production of noticeable isobutyl-methoxypyrazin levels by Sauvign blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon and Semillon, other cultivars are observed to lack the ability to produce this compound. In another study of different grape varieties using vines with the same vineyard, high levels of isobutylmethoxypyrazine were observed in Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon blanc grapes, but no traces were found in Pinot noir (Heymann, Noble and Boulton, 1986).
Research has indicated that there is a direct relationship between the maturity of grape berries and concentration of isobutylmethoxypyrazine, such that increasing maturity leads to a decrease in concentration. Another study showed that the ripening temperature of the grape berries also affects the concentration. A study comparing fruits at various stages of ripeness, higher levels of methoxypyrazine were observed to occur in cool regions by comparison with warm regions. The level of isobutylmethoxypyrazine was observed to drop below its sensory detection threshold, in warm areas, by the time it got to harvesting time. In cool areas, the level ranged from 20-30 ng/L (Heymann, Noble and Boulton, 1986).
A regular increase in the concentration of isobutylmethoxypyrazine has been observed during fermentation with grape skin contact. This implies that methoxypyrazines can either be extracted from the solid parts of the grape, or produced by yeast-mediated effects. An increase is initiated by ensuring contact of the juice with the grape skins, and it decreases as fermentation progresses. Another important factor affecting the concentration is the vine canopy and the pruning and training system, since the exposure of the fruit to light affects the levels of methoxypyrazine. Within the vine canopy, a consistent lower level of methoxypyrazines is observed in the fruit that is more exposed than in the more shaded fruit, usually half or less of the level of the latter (Heymann, Noble and Boulton, 1986).
The IBMP concentrations in Sauvignon wines from Australia, New Zealand and France were observed to be about eight times higher, on average, than those of IPMP, while those of SBMP were lower. This implies that IPMP and SBMP do not contribute to the overall aroma of grapes and wine of this cultivar. To confirm this, the sniffing technique was used. It showed that IBMP was the most significant contributor to the vegetative aroma of regular wine. Other studies conducted on the typical Sauvignon blanc aroma showed that the addition of IBMP at levels greater than 2 ng/L resulted in musty and green pepper-like aromas in a model and natural wine respectively, implying that the threshold value for wine is 2 ng/L. Addition of the same amount of IPMP to the same wines resulted in musty aromas in the model wine and earthy and leafy nuances in the natural wine. The concentration of the compound added was observed to affect the aroma expression, indicating that other volatiles and individual compound concentration affect the perceived aroma. “Aroma threshold values are only guidelines for aroma intensity and could change through synergistic actions with other components in the medium” (Heymann, Noble and Boulton, 1986).
Biosynthesis
It is proposed that the biosynthesis of alkylmethoxypyrazines involves amidation of the appropriate amino acid. This step is followed by condensation with glyoxal, before methylation. The co-occurrence of the three methoxyyrazines is consistent with the bio—synthetic way suggested a few decades ago. The amino acid leucine is observed to be the source of the C4 side chain of methoxypyrazine, through condensation of its amino amide with an unspecified C2 component, and methylation of the initial pyrazinone condensation product. This suggested biosynthetic pathway complements the three methoxypyrazines through incorporation of leucine, isoleucine or valine. These three are regularly available amino acids in plants. Little is known about the validity of this pathway in vines or other plant material, though the main aspects of the proposed pathway have been shown to apply to the biosynthesis of isopropylmethoxypyrazine by certain bacteria (Allen and Lacey, 1993). The chemical reaction for the biosynthesis process of the three methoxypyrazines is shown below.
Figure 1: biosynthetic pathway to isobutylmethoxypyrazine proposed by Murray and Whitfield.Figure 2: biosynthetic pathway to sec-butylmethoxypyrazineFigure 3: biosynthetic pathway to isopropylmethoxypyrazine
Comparison of methoxypyrazine to Ethylmethoxypyrazine
Ethylmethoxypyrazine is a component of grapes and wines, though it is unknown, where it came from. There is no clear association between it and vine variety, berry development and canopy light penetration that is found with isobutyl-methoxypyrazine (Allen and Lacey, 1993).
Quantification of methoxypyrazines
It has been observed that the growing conditions of the grape vine, in terms of soil, climate, variety, and maturity of the berry, have little effect on the concentration of methoxypyrazine. To start with, methoxypyrazines have been observed to be less vital for some varieties of grapes than others, with high levels in Sauvignon blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Semillon. Methoxypyrazines is useful in contributing a wine aroma that is both unique and vital in identifying the particular wine from other varieties. In the second place, the rapid loss of methoxypyrazines level as grape ripening occurs produces results such as 2% of the levels two months previously. This implies that the harvesting date has serious effect on the intensity of the aroma of these components in the wine. The advantage is that grapes harvested early can be blended with those harvested much later, to obtain the desired methoxypyrazine aroma intensity (Allen and Lacey, 1993).
The third aspect is higher level of methoxypyrazine in cool climatic conditions at various stages of berry ripening. Some of the cool regions including New Zealand and Western Australia are capable of developing a powerful methoxypyrazine aroma. the degree of exposure of the fruit to light is dependent on the pruning methods, resulting in fruit with varying concentrations of up to eight times. The effect of growing conditions on berry methoxypyrazine levels raises difficulties in the production of grapes with the appropriate or desired flavour quality. In addition to this, it necessitates research investigation, both new and on reports of previously done research (Murray and Whitfield, 1978).
References
Allen, M. S. and Lacey M. J. (1993). Methoxypyrazine grape flavor: influence of climate, cultivar and viticulture. Die Wein-wisenschaft, 48, 31-37.
Heymann, H., Noble A. C. and Boulton, R. B. (1986). Methoxypyrazines in Sauvignon blanc grapes and wines. Am. J. Enol. Vitic, 42, 103-108.
Murray, K. E. and Whitfield F. B. (1978). The occurence of 3-alkyl-2-methoxypyrazines in raw vegetables. J. Sci. Food Agric., 26, 973-986.
Wine drinking is an old Egyptian practice dating back to more than 2200 years when it was used as medicine for various ailments. According to Barbara Gardner (2008) some of the most ancient uses of red wine include pain relieving during birth and treating bites and wounds.
However, the spread of Christianity and the development of breweries and distilleries discouraged people from using wine as medicine. The presence of alcoholic effects of wine made this possible. Since then not many people believe that red wine is a healthy and refreshing drink. The last century saw many nations doubt the medicinal value of wine after the Temperance Movement started spreading the ills of alcoholic drinks. This research paper is aimed at discussing the effects of red wine on health.
Advantages of Moderate Consumption
There is no standard measure of a moderate amount of alcohol a person needs to take. However, several factors determine the amount of alcohol that individuals can take. In her book Dakota Stevens (2010) notes that the influence of red wine of a person depends on a variety of factors; in particular such aspects like age, sex, experience, genetics and body weight determine an individual’s moderate consumption rate.
There is a significant difference between when individuals drink alcohol while taking other food substances and when one is drinking alcohol without any food supplement. According to Dakota Stevens (2010) food substances reduce absorption rate of alcohol. In addition, children have a lower consumption rate compared to adults. Research has established that men have higher body water mass compared to women.
This explains why women are quickly intoxicated compared to men. However, most medical researchers assume that taking two glasses of wine a day is moderate drinking. The most abundant chemical substances in red wine are polyphenols and resveratrol. These substances protect body cells against damages caused by pathogens. This is one of the advantages of drinking red wine.
Importance of Good Health
With improved healthcare, the chances of patients recovering whenever they visit a medical facility are increased. In addition, medical accidents which have led to the loss of lives in some health facilities have been avoided, making healthcare safe for everybody. Besides increasing the confidence of people in healthcare facilities, a safe healthcare system ensures that people take minimal time to recover hence reducing the effects suffered by other economic sectors.
Moreover, quality healthcare means that effective drugs are prescribed to patients whenever they visit a health facility. Drugs with dire side effects are therefore not allowed in the market, let alone in any health facility. Consequently, patients will not have to visit doctors time and again to be treated for the side effects caused by use of generic substandard drugs. On the same note, citizens will always have high standards of health and will therefore be more productive.
Moreover, affordable medical plans that result from quality healthcare enable people to take up insurance policies. Therefore, many citizens will be able to afford high standard healthcare and conveniently pay for their hospital bills making the nation healthier.
Additionally, good medical covers by insurance firms have been proved to lead to the establishment of good healthcare facilities which are well equipped, further improving the services that people receive. Similarly, with good and affordable medical insurance which results from quality healthcare, more people are bound to be insured. As a result, the number of people who are able to access healthcare whenever need arises is increased.
It is also important to note that when quality healthcare is insisted upon by all stakeholders, research into the field of health will be enhanced. Advanced technology as well as state-of-the-art equipment which enable quick and accurate diagnosis, will result from the research.
According to Roger Corder (2007), the government will also increase its budgetary allocation to the health sector, leading to provision of exemplary services in both private and public health institutions. In addition, quality healthcare ensures that health personnel are qualified in their field.
Strict policies are put in place to guide the training of health personnel in a move that aims at eliminating half-baked professionals, who end up making acute mistakes that cause deaths or permanent disability. At the same time, regulations that are usually implemented to ensure that all qualified health professionals are registered by recognized bodies go along way in ensuring that patients receive proper treatment.
Disadvantages of Drinking Red Wine
Red wine is an alcoholic drink just like beers and spirits. However, the difference occurs in alcohol concentration. Red wine has a slightly lower alcohol concentration ranging from 4% to 25% depending on the type of wine and how it was distilled.
This is why Roger Corder (2007) warns that over-consumption of red wine leads to health complications. It is essential to drink moderate drinking habits to avoid risking consumers’ health. Excessive drinking increases cholesterol levels in the human body. This weakens heart muscles and leads to cardiovascular arrests.
It is necessary to educate people on the disadvantages of excessive drinking. Red wine has same intoxicating effects like beer and spirits. Therefore, over consumption leads to intoxication. This leads to irrational thinking and poor judgement. As a result, visibility and body balance are distorted leading to blind walking and staggering respectively.
Moreover, according to Barbara Gardner (2008) over- consumption of red wine leads to irresponsible sexual behaviour that may lead to high transmission rates of sexually transmitted infections.
Lastly, over consumption of red wine leads to loss of appetite for food. As a result, an individual exposes his body to hunger and starvation that may lead to death or other health complications.Red wine is a sweet, alcoholic drink and thus people fall victims to this temptation.
As a result, most of them end up becoming addicts and unable to control their cravings. It is essential to note that overreliance on wine leads to addiction that is similar to other drug addictions. People must learn to control their craving for wine to make use of other activities like work and studies. Thus, people should remember about these complications while drinking red wine. The task of medical workers is to inform the patients about the benefits of consuming red wine and its risks.
Importance of Red Wine
Despite the raging debate, about beliefs that wine is an alcoholic drink and thus unfit for treatment people still regard it a beneficial substance. According to Norm Ray (2006), there is enough evidence to prove that red wine is an effective remedy for various health complications.
Nevertheless, Norm Ray (2006) warns that red wine is an effective remedy for various health problems if only taken in moderation. This is one of the issues that should be kept in mind. If a person drinks two glasses of wine regularly there will be few possibilities of developing health complications. This is the most optimal intake level. Too much wine will intoxicate the body and lead to drunkenness.
Secondly, drinking red wine reduces the risks of developing heart complications. Research shows that moderate drinking of red wine increases the amount of blood cholesterol to manageable levels. This ensures blood flows through the arteries without clogging them.
However, it is highly advisable that wine drinking should be regulated since over consumption increases cholesterol. In his book Roger Corder (2007) points out that people who drink moderately on a regular basis increase their blood flow through the heart and veins. There is much oxygen pumped to the heart and other body parts. This reduces pressure and strain caused by cholesterol deposits within the blood veins and arteries. As a result, the individual reduces chances of developing blood pressure and stroke.
Atherosclerosis is a common condition that affects old and obese people. This condition occurs as a result of over accumulation of fatty substances in the blood arteries. Therefore, the arteries thicken and become stiff (John 2007). This hinders blood circulation to and from various parts of the body.
As a result, the victim suffers constant suffocation as a less blood is supplied to various parts. Consequently, the victim has high chances of developing blood pressure since the arteries are extremely thin and unable to allow passage of enough blood. However, moderate drinking of red wine ensures the arteries are freed off these fatty substances and thus supply blood efficiently.
In his book Integrative Cardiology John Vogel (2007) argues that red wine has substances that break down these fatty substances and thus they cannot be deposited on the artery walls. They come together and form lumps that allow blood circulation to various body parts.
This is why people who drink red wine and smoke have fewer chances of developing this condition compared to those who smoke but do not drink red wine. Therefore, drinking red wine increases the efficiency of blood circulation by cleaning blood arteries. This is one of the benefits that red wine can bring to a person.
There is enough evidence that drinking red wine reduces the risk of developing obesity. When a person drinks, and eats junk food at the same time the rate of food absorption in the small intestines is reduced. The substances in red wine ensure food is slowly absorbed by the body; therefore, reducing the risk of becoming obese. In spite of the amount of food eaten by people drinking red wine will ensure they maintain their body weights.
There are considerable illustrations that prove this point. Most party lovers may never become obese if they include red wine in all their parties. This explains the presence of red wine in may parties regardless of the amount of healthy or unhealthy food the revelers consume. Therefore, drinking red wine ensures people keep the desired body weight and avoid developing obesity and its complications.
Cancer is one of the modern killer diseases on earth. The number of men and women falling victims to cancer continues to rise despite various attempts to contain the menace. Modern lifestyle is largely to blame for causing various cancer infections. This is an abnormal multiplication of body cells that spread rapidly to all parts of the body except the hair, nails and teeth.
It is evident that the most common way of treating cancer is through surgical operations or chemotherapy that is extremely beyond many victims’ financial abilities. However, recent research indicates the likelihood of reducing cancer cases through consumption of red wine. In their research article Thomas Kraft et al ((2009)) note that at wine contains resveratrol and antioxidantsubstance that prohibits cell activities.
This substance controls the spread of cancer cells especially those associated with breast and lung cancer. An increase in the amount of red wine consumed increases the body’s ability to fight cancer cells and thus keeps the person safe. However, overconsumption of red wine just like any other alcoholic drink will lead to high risks of developing cancer. So, red wine can indeed decrease the risk of cancer, yet such an effect can be achieved only if a person consumes it properly.
Every person wishes to remain younger the rest of theirlives. However, this is not possible due to the high rate of cell degeneration. According to Michael Gelb (2010), this leads to an increase in the rater art which the skin shrinks and muscles drop. The sight of hanging muscles hanging from skeletal structures of human beings is a disgusting reality. However, people have sought various ways of saving their body cells against quick degeneration.
Their efforts have not yielded enough since they are accompanied by the other side effects. Lucky, red wine is the best remedy against aging due to the presence of resveratrol in grapes. According to Beth Giesler (2011) this substance acts as an antioxidant that prevents cell damage from physical or biological factors.
As a result, individuals who drink red wine regularly have lesser chances of developing aged skin compared to those who do not drink. In addition, the bone marrow is in charge of producing blood and other body cells. This is another beneficial property of red wine.
Furthermore, according to David Goldberg and George Soleas (2011) the consumption of red wine is associated with the increased life expectancy and reduced risk of ischemic stroke. Thus, statistical evidence supports the consumption of red wine. Additionally, according to the study carried out by Rabai et al (2012) the consumption of red wine improves hemorheological parameters and eventually decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease.
Nevertheless, a group of researchers under the guidance of Roger Corder suggest that such an effect manifests itself when one speaks about red wines produced in France where certain production standards are met (Corder et al, 2006). To a great extent, this study explains the so-called French paradox which means that people living in the country are less likely to die from heart diseases at an early age. This issue should be considered by people who want to increase their consumption of red wine.
The presence of resveratrol in alcohol ensures the bone marrow continues to produce cells despite an individual’s age. However, overconsumption of alcohol leads to bone fractures that weaken the body(O’Byrne2009). There is no guarantee that a human body is capable of reconstructing after fracturing.
The bone is made of dead cells that once fractured cannot be repaired. As a result, the damage in any bone structure leads to cell degeneration and also weakens the body. In addition, drinking red wine reduces the speed at which macular cells degenerate. This allows individuals to see clearly despite their old age.
Loss of vision is a common complication associated with old age. However, though moderate red wine drinking an individual is able to maintain his vision despite his old age. Therefore, in order to realize the benefits of red wine an individual has to drink moderately.
Sleep is an essential human activity that enables the body to rest and rejuvenate from the day’s activities. However, most people suffer from amnesia and rarely fall asleep for more than two hours. Despite this condition, there is a remedy for lack of sleep courtesy of red wine. In her book, Beth Giesler (2011) refers to the scientific research indicating that red wine contains melatonin which induces sleep in individuals.
Even though, the human body has this substance they are in low concentrations. Sometimes these concentrations are too low to induce sleep. We live in a fast paced and overly competitive society, where life is economically, physically and emotionally demanding. Subsequently, cases of depression have been rising exponentially, especially in the developed world; where people are always taking anti-depressants, pain killers and sleeping pills.
The downside to taking these pills is that, people become overly dependent on them to the extent that, they cannot function normally without them. However, drinking a glass or two of wine will ensure an individual falls asleep faster than when he goes to bed without drinking. This is another advantage of drinking red wine in moderate portions.
Even though, it is argued that one of the key effects of alcohol is slowed down mental functions, there is evidence that continuous drinking of red wine inhibits the production of new brain cells. Even though, the role of wine substances in slowing the development of dementia is not well established there are higher possibilities that moderate wine drinking leads to a slow rate of developing mental depressive disorders.
However, there is a contradictory effect of wine drinking on the elderly population. Paul O’Byrne (2009) refers the study carried by researchers from Wake Forest University which indicate the possibility of reducing chances of developing dementia. However, the results are different in individuals who already have the condition. Victims suffering from these conditions have high possibilities of developing reduced memory spans with continued alcohol intake.
Moreover, according to Michael Gelb (2010 ) alcohol consumption stimulates the production of acetylcholine which is a key chemical responsible for brain functioning. Regular wine drinkers have a fresh supply of this substance and thus have higher chances of eradicating brain complications like depressions, memory lapses and brain functions.
Incidentally, it is a popular culture in culture to take dinner with wine because it has been proved that it aids in digestion. However, only a small amount of wine is served with meals as medically required. Researchers have observed that even though the average American takes as much cholesterol as an average French person, the American tends to exhibit more instances of heart diseases than the French person because the French take wine with their meals which breaks the fat into more soluble units.
Scientists have also proved that wine helps in bone strengthening by making them more resistant to injuries that may be suffered accidentally. In women red wine has been known to improve the senses of the elderly compared to their non-wine-drinking counter-parts. The mitochondria are a part of a cell that releases energy for cellular activity. Red wine has been found to produce chemicals that enhance the generation of mitochondria which in turn reduces the aging process.
Therefore, red wine if taken in small prescribed amounts can reduce the aging process in human beings. Red wine also reduces their chances of developing kidney stones by 5%. Furthermore, it is widely believed that red wine helps in the production of platelets that are quite essential in the blood clotting process that tends to slow down the bleeding process which is quite vital in stopping bleeding when someone is injured.
Recommendations
Alcohol consumption is an old tradition that will never die despite efforts by various crusaders to fight the habit. Even though, there area thousands of alcoholic brands in the market their effects are similar depending on the amount consumed and an individual’s drinking habits.
However, there is enough evidence to prove the benefits of wine consumption. People despise alcohol drinkers due to the negative impacts it has on their health and community. However, if people learn responsible drinking habits there will be no complains about alcoholism. Wine drinking is as healthy as the drinker and thus should not be demonized. So, one should be able to distinguish responsible and irresponsible drinking.
People should learn to drink wine in moderation in order to achieve the benefits mentioned above. It is common knowledge that over consumption of anything is dangerousregardless of the importance of such substances. It takes self disciplineto ensure an individual is not addicted to alcoholism since it will affect his life.
The most salient aspect with regard to wine drinking is an individual’s ability to control craving for another glass of wine knowing tomorrow is another working day. If a person cannot control this desire, it would be better for him/her to refrain from drinking. This is one of the main points that can be made.
Conclusion
Wine consumption is as helpful as it is harmful for human consumption. The amount taken will determine whether the wine will be a luxury, a drug or poison to ones’ health. The outcome of this activity relies on the individual’s perceptions of the reasons for drinking wine.
Given the advantages that red wine has to the health of human beings, it should be made part of our diet. Unfortunately, many people abuse the use of wine and over consume it with the aim of intoxicating their bodies rather than using the right quantities. On the same note, it should be noted that red wine has side effects which can sometimes be fatal to ones’ health.
However, people should learn to make use of the available opportunities to promote their health rather than subject their bodies to risks. Wine consumption is beneficial to those who understand and appreciate its value. The most important aspect is the ability to follow certain rules of consumption, special attention should be paid to the dosage of red wine that a person can drink per day.
References
Corder, R. (2007).The Red Wine Diet.New York: Avery Trade.
Corder, R., Mullen, W., Khan, N., Marks, S., Wood, E., Carrier, M., & Crozier, A. (2006).
Oenology: red wine procyanidins and vascular health. Nature, 444(7119), 566 -588.
Gardner, B. (2008). Red Wine, Chocolate, and Life after 40: Ten Steps to Slow Down Aging. Charleston: BookSurgePublishing.
Gelb, M. (2010). Wine Drinking for Inspired Thinking: Uncork Your Creative Juices. New York: Running Press.
Giesler, B. (2011).Resveratrol: Unleashing the Benefits of Red Wine.New York: Healthy Living Publications.
Goldberg, D. M., & Soleas, G. J. (2011). Wine and Health: A paradigm for alcohol and antioxidants. Journal Of Medical Biochemistry, 30(2), 93-102.
Kraft, T., Parisotto, D., Schempp, C., & Efferth, T. (2009). Fighting cancer with red wine? Molecular mechanisms of resveratrol. Critical Reviews In Food Science And Nutrition, 49(9), 782-799.
O’Byrne, P. (2009). Red Wine and Health (Food and Beverage Consumption and Health). New York: Nova Science Publication.
Ray, N. (2006).Wine and Cheese Pairing Guide: Your Exciting Search for Wow! Combinations. California: Rayve Productions.
Rabai, M., Toth, A., Kenyeres, P., Mark, L., Marton, Z., Juricskay, I., & Czopf, L. (2010). In vitro hemorheological effects of red wine and alcohol-free red wine extract. Clinical Hemorheology And Microcirculation, 44(3), 227-236.
Stevens, D. (2010). Chilean Wines: An Overview, Wine Regions, Winemaking, Grapes, and Wines. New York: Webster’s Digital Services.
Vogel, J. (2007).Integrative Cardiology: Complementary and Alternative Medicine for the Heart. New York: McGraw-Hill.
According to AHA report in 2007, Diseases of the Heart is not equivalent to Total Cardiovascular Disease, the latter term is to be used to describe the leading causes of death.
Data from the 2003 Health Survey for England suggest the prevalence of coronary heart disease (CHD) in England was 7.4% in men and 4.5% in. Combined data from prevalence studies on myocardial infarction suggest that overall about 4% of men and 2% of women in the UK have had a heart attack. Studies on the prevalence of angina in the UK showed that the rate appears to be higher in Scotland than in England. Figures from the 2003 Health Survey for England suggest that about 8% of men and 5% of women aged 55 to 64 and about 17% of men and 8% of women aged 65 to 74 have or have had.
The Heart of England Screening study on heart failure, selected patients by systematic random sampling of all men and women aged over 45 years registered at GP practices in the West Midlands. Over 2% of patients (3% of men and 1.7% of women) screened had definite heart failure. Probable heart failure was seen in around a further 1% of patients, which suggests that more than 3% of people aged 45 and over in the UK have definite or probable heart failure. Heart and circulatory disease is the UK’s biggest killer. In 2002, cardiovascular disease (CVD) caused 39% of deaths in the UK.
In 1819, an Irish physician named Samuel Black reported, that the French suffer relatively low incidence of coronary heart disease, despite having a diet rich in saturated fat; he called this phenomenon The French Paradox (Ferrieres 2004). It has been suggested that France’s high red wine consumption is a primary factor in the French paradox (Law; Wald 1999). Atherosclerosis is a type of arteriosclerosis. The name comes from the Greek words athero (meaning gruel or paste) and sclerosis (hardness). It’s the term for the process of fatty substances, cholesterol, cellular waste products, calcium and fibrin (a clotting material in the blood) building up in the inner lining of an artery. The buildup that results is called plaque (AHA 2007).
Pathophysiology of atherosclerosis
Mechanisms contributing to atherogenesis are multiple and complex. A number of theories including the role of dyslipidemia, hypercoagulability, oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, and inflammation and infection by certain pathogens, have been propounded from time to time explain this complex phenomenon.
Recently it has been suggested that atherosclerosis is a multifactorial, multistep disease that involves chronic inflammation at every step, from initiation to progression, and that all the risk factors contribute to pathogenesis by aggravating the underlying inflammatory process (Mallika, Goswami and Rajappa, 2007). The possible role of red wine in lowering the potential of atherosclerosis is better understood in the lights of pathophysiological changes that characterize the disorder.
The findings of Boudi and others 2006 indicate that the critical cellular elements of atherosclerotic lesions are endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, platelets, and leucocytes. They also stated that vasomotor function, the thrombogenicity of the blood vessel wall, the state of activation of the coagulation cascade, the fibrinolytic system, smooth muscle cell migration and proliferation, and cellular inflammation are complex and interrelated biological processes that contribute to atherogenesis and the clinical manifestations of atherosclerosis.
Mechanisms of vascular stiffness
Zieman and others 2005 stated that: Vascular stiffening develops from a complex interaction between stable and dynamic changes involving structural and cellular elements of the vessel wall. Their findings also indicated that these vascular alterations are influenced by haemodynamic forces as well as by “extrinsic factors” such as hormones, salt, and glucose regulation.
The role of lipids
Crowther 2005 explained that: The lipid hypothesis of atherogenesis has been dramatically modified over the last 20 years. In his lecture he added: “Once viewed as the initiating agent of atherothrombosis, it is now recognized that localization and accumulation of lipid occurs in response to earlier changes in the vascular endothelium. Accumulation of lipid is, however, required for the development of the definitive plaque.
Lipid deposition likely starts with the movement of LDL from the blood into the vessel wall. Once within the media three fates can befall the LDL: it may move back into the bloodstream (a hallmark of lesional regression and a process that may be facilitated by some lipid lowering strategies), it may become oxidized (through action of free radicals or direct activity of leukocytes) or it may be taken up by monocyte/macrophages which ultimately become foam cells. Oxidized LDL is particularly atherogenic and is chemotactic for monocyte-macrophages”.
He explained the role played by macrophages as they “bind intra-intimal LDL via a family of novel receptors known as scavenger receptors, which recognize LDL only after it has been oxidized. Uptake of oxidized LDL renders the macrophages less mobile, thereby promoting the accumulation of these lipid-laden cells in the intima. The foam cells retain their metabolic activity and secrete a variety of cytokines and inflammatory mediators. Outcomes of their activation include recruitment and proliferation of smooth muscle cells (which in turn elaborate additional locally active cytokines), further LDL oxidation, recruitment of additional monocyte/foam cells and additional impairment of endothelial function”.
Nitric oxide and nitric oxide synynthase
In the endothelium, nitric oxide (NO) is constitutively generated from the conversion of L-arginine to L-citrullin by the enzymatic action of endothelial NO synthase (eNOS). An impairment of endothelium-dependent relaxation (EDR) is present in atherosclerotic vessels even before vascular structural changes occur, and represents the reduced eNOS-derived NO activity. Because of its multiple biological actions, NO from eNOS is believed to act as an anti-atherogenic molecule. The presence of dysfunctional eNOS may not only impair EDR but also accelerate lesion formation in atherosclerotic vessels (Kawashima 2004).
Pattern of occurrence of atherosclerotic lesions
Zieman and others 2005 showed that stiffness is not uniformly disseminated throughout the vascular tree but is often patchy occurring in central and conduit vessels while sparing more peripheral arteries. Common diseases, such as hypertension and diabetes mellitus, or simply aging itself, amplify the vascular changes that result in artery stiffening and can do so in different, yet synergistic, ways.
Evolution of the atherosclerotic plaque
Crowther 2005 stated that; Evolution of the atherosclerotic plaque is characterized by gradual enlargement over time due to the accumulation of foam cells. He differentiated between slowly growing plaques and rapidly growing ones, “Slowly growing plaques gradually accumulate lipid within foam cells; proliferation of smooth muscle cells and elaboration of intracellular matrix produce the definitive fibrous plaque.
In general, such plaques tend to have adherent endothelial layers that are not prone to sudden disruption with associated activation of coagulation. Some plaques grow at a much greater rate than would be predicted by simple lipid accumulation and expansion of the components of the fibrous plaque. Cholesterol accumulation within such plaques is due to both “passive” transfer of LDL from the circulation and scavenging of red blood cell membranes deposited during intraplaque hemorrhage. Angiogenic signaling and proliferation of microvessels within the plaque is only now beginning to be understood; however, plaque hemorrhage is likely attributable to bleeding from fragile microvessels that proliferate within the plaque itself”.
Does red wine affect cardiovascular diease: Epidemiological evidence
Drinking red wine has been portrayed by the media as a means of combating heart disease. Do these claims have any real medical basis? The main health benefit of moderate alcohol use appears to be related to its effect on the development of atherosclerosis or the accumulation of fatty plaques in the blood vessels, particularly the coronary arteries that supply the heart. Data from 51 epidemiological studies were studied by Szmitko and Verma, 2005 (a), they showed that the risk of coronary heart disease decreased by approximately 20% when 0 to 2 alcoholic drinks were consumed per day.
The question of is red wine advantageous to other alcoholic beverages was attended by the Copenhagen City Heart Study (after Szmitko and Verma 2005 a), in which 13,285 men and women were observed for 12 years suggested that patients who are used to moderate intake of wine had half the risk of dying from cardiovascular and coronary heart disease or stroke as those who never drank wine. The same study showed that those who drank beer and spirits did not experience this advantage. The additional benefit of red wine is supported further by an analysis of 13 studies involving 209,418 participants.
This analysis showed a 32% risk reduction of atherosclerotic disease with red wine intake, which was greater than the 22% risk reduction for beer consumption. Other studies and reviews have failed to show a beneficial effect for red wine, however, and hence it could be concluded that other lifestyle factors such as diet, exercise, socioeconomic status, or pattern of alcohol consumption may have played a role in giving wine drinkers an advantage in lowered rates of atherosclerosis. The chemical composition of red wine may contribute to its apparent benefit. A series of scientific studies (Szmitko and Verma, 2005-a) suggests that the polyphenolic compounds in red wine such as flavonoids and resveratrol, may play important role in limiting the start and progression of atherosclerosis.
How red wine affects atherosclerosis
Grapes contain a wide variety of polyphenols including resveratrol (stilbene), catechins, flavonoids and its derivatives, flavons, flavonols, and anthocyanins. These compounds present in the red wine possess a number of biological effects that might participate in vascular protection, including anti-aggregatory, antioxidant and free radical scavenging properties. Another therapeutically relevant effect of flavonoids may be their ability to interact with the generation of NO from vascular endothelium, which leads not only to vasodilatation, but also to the expression of genes that protect the cardiovascular system Polyphenols also contribute to the preservation of the integrity of cells belonging to the vascular wall, mainly those in the endothelium, by acting on the signalling cascades implicated in endothelial apoptosis.
Due to their antioxidant properties, diets supplemented with foods containing flavonoids, might also protect different tissues against ischemic damage. Flavonoids reduce oxidative and nitrosative stress leading to cellular death. All these effects of flavonoids might interfere with atherosclerotic plaque development and stability, vascular thrombosis and occlusion and they might therefore explain their vascular protective. Recently, the possible advantage of a moderate wine consumption in patients with chronic renal failure was hypothesized. Therefore, it is expected that the naturally occurring nutritional sources of antioxidants, such as fruits, vegetables, tea or wine, would also attenuate the renal damage caused by oxidative challenges (Pechanova et al 2006).
Promotion of endothelial function
Endothelial dysfunction is an early pathophysiological feature and independent predictor of poor prognosis in most forms of cardiovascular diseases. Epidemiological studies report an inverse association between dietary flavonoid consumption and mortality from cardiovascular diseases. Perez-Vizcaino, et al 2006, reviewed the effects of flavonoids, especially quercetin and wine polyphenols, on endothelial function and dysfunction and its potential protective role in hypertension, ischemic heart disease and stroke. In vitro studies showed that flavonoids may exert multiple actions on the NO-guanylyl cyclase pathway, endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor(s) and endothelin-1 and protect endothelial cells against apoptosis.
In vivo, flavonoids prevent endothelial dysfunction and reduce blood pressure, oxidative stress and end-organ damage in hypertensive animals. Moreover, some clinical studies have shown that flavonoid-rich foods can improve endothelial function in patients with hypertension and ischemic heart disease. Altogether, the available evidence indicates that quercetin and wine polyphenols might be of therapeutic benefit in cardiovascular diseases even though prospective controlled clinical studies are still lacking.
Oxidative modification in atherosclerosis
There is now a consensus that atherosclerosis represents a state of heightened oxidative stress characterized by lipid and protein oxidation in the vascular wall. The oxidative modification hypothesis of atherosclerosis predicts that low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation is an early event in atherosclerosis and that oxidized LDL contributes to atherogenesis. In support of this hypothesis, oxidized LDL can support foam cell formation in vitro, the lipid in human lesions is substantially oxidized, there is evidence for the presence of oxidized LDL in vivo, oxidized LDL has a number of potentially proatherogenic activities, and several structurally unrelated antioxidants inhibit atherosclerosis in animals. An emerging consensus also underscores the importance in vascular disease of oxidative events in addition to LDL oxidation.
These include the production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species by vascular cells, as well as oxidative modifications contributing to important clinical manifestations of coronary artery disease such as endothelial dysfunction and plaque disruption. Despite these abundant data however, fundamental problems remain with implicating oxidative modification as a (requisite) pathophysiologically important cause for atherosclerosis.
These include the poor performance of antioxidant strategies in limiting either atherosclerosis or cardiovascular events from atherosclerosis, and observations in animals that suggest dissociation between atherosclerosis and lipoprotein oxidation. Indeed, it remains to be established that oxidative events are a cause rather than an injurious response to atherogenesis. In this context, inflammation needs to be considered as a primary process of atherosclerosis, and oxidative stress as a secondary event. To address this issue, we have proposed an “oxidative response to inflammation” model as a means of reconciling the response-to-injury and oxidative modification hypotheses of atherosclerosis (Stocker and Keaney 2004).
Red wine and nitric oxide (NO)
Szmitko and Verma 2005 (b) in their review article stated that nitric oxide (NO) is the key endothelium-derived relaxing factor that plays a pivotal role in the regulation of vascular tone and vasomotor function, also NO protects against vascular injury, inhibits leukocyte adhesion to the endothelium, and limits platelet aggregation.
Szmitko and Verma 2005(b) reviewed in vitro studies and showed that while ethanol appears to increase the expression of endothelial NO synthase and NO production in aortic endothelial cells, red wine polyphenols, in particular resveratrol, appear to further enhance endothelial NO synthase expression and activity and subsequent NO release from endothelial cells. Red wine, and not white or rose´ wines, inhibits endothelin-1 synthesis, a potent vasoconstrictor that is seen as a key factor in the development of vascular disease and atherosclerosis (Szmitko and Verma 2005-b).
Red wine and Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL)
The oxidation of LDL cholesterol increases its uptake by macrophages resulting in foam cell formation as well as decreasing intracellular concentration of nitric oxide to cause endothelial activation (Szmitko and Verma 2005-b). Thus, if LDL oxidation is reduced, atherosclerotic plaque formation may be decreased (Szmitko and Verma 2005-b). The phenolic substances in red wine have potent antioxidant properties that inhibit the formation of oxLDL in vitro, as well as macrophage-mediated LDL oxidation (Szmitko and Verma 2005-b). Human studies reviewed by Szmitko and Verma 2005 (b) suggest that the consumption of red wine or alcohol-free red wine leads to a significant increase in serum antioxidant activity, which may reduce the susceptibility of LDL to oxidation in vivo, limiting the extent of atheroma formation.
Red wine effects on inflammatory biomarkers in atherosclerosis
Inflammatory activation of the endothelium is marked by the increased expression of inflammatory biomarkers (Szmitko and Verma 2005-b). Estruch et al, 2004 showed that after either gin or wine consumption, plasma fibrinogen decreased by 5 and 9%, respectively, and cytokine IL-1α by 23 and 21%. The expression of LFA-1 [Lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1] (−27%), Mac-1 [Macrophage -1 Antigen] (−27%), VLA-4 [(Very Late Antigen-4] (−32%) and MCP-1 [monocyte chemotactic protein] (−46%) decreased significantly after wine, but not after gin. Wine reduced the serum concentrations of CRP [C-reactive protein] (−21%), VCAM-1 [vascular cell adhesion molecule] (−17%) and ICAM-1 [Intercellular Adhesion Molecule] (−9%).
Effect of red wine on plaque destabilization, rupture, and thrombosis
Disruption of a vulnerable atherosclerotic plaque when exposed to haemodynamic stresses because of slow blood stream can initiate intravascular thrombosis with both the alcohol and polyphenolic compounds in red wine appear to have antithrombotic action (Szmitko and Verma 2005-b).
“Erosion of the plaque surface, characterized by areas of endothelial cell desquamation, exposes a prothrombotic surface, making subendothelial collagen, tissue factor, and von Willebrand factor accessible to components in the circulation, resulting in coagulation and thrombin formation” (Szmitko and Verma 2005-b). Light to moderate alcohol consumers have lower levels of fibrinogen, von Willebrand factor, and factor VII, with wine drinkers additionally having lower plasminogen activator inhibitor antigen-1 suggesting a reduction in haemostasis (Szmitko and Verma 2005-b).
Furthermore, any form of alcohol consumption also increases antithrombin-III activity (after Szmitko and Verma 2005-b), and based on results from the Physicians’ Health Study is associated with increased tissue plasminogen activator concentrations (after Szmitko and Verma 2005-b). In vitro, alcohol induced the expression of tissue-type plasminogen activator in human endothelial cells, resulting in enhanced fibrinolytic activity (Szmitko and Verma 2005-b). Resveratrol and other polyphenolic compounds decrease platelet aggregation, possibly by interfering with prostaglandin synthesis and ADP-mediated aggregation” (Szmitko and Verma 2005-b).
Conclusion
Prudent use of alcohol may be acceptable in the prevention, and even management, of CV disease. It is reasonable to inform patients that beneficial effects occur if they exercise moderation in consumption. Only with great caution should patients who do not drink alcohol begin to imbibe because of the risk of alcohol abuse. It is possible that in the future, genetic testing may identify those at high risk for developing alcohol dependence.
References
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