Ancient scientific traditions differed from modern science in form and content. In many ways, the prediction methods utilized the casual observations of omens or introduced practices, such as fortune-telling on an animals entrails, which were probably performed to impress the public. Ancient scientific traditions also included modern science elements, such as medical diagnosis and prescription of drugs. This paper aims to discuss and compare the role and purpose of prediction methods in Egyptian medicine and Mesopotamian omen divination.
Mesopotamian Systems of Divinatory Interpretation
The important divination disciplines in Mesopotamia included extispicy or divination by entrails of a sacrificed animal and Omen astrology which referred to planetary and lunar phenomena to make predictions regarding a kings or communitys welfare. The divination had the traits characteristic of religion, magic, science, and scholarship (Koch 2011). It existed on the border between these domains and did not fully belong to any of them. The priests resorted to fortune-telling to answer questions about life, health, and the fate of a person, family, or social group.
Fortune-telling could answer any question, from the future harvest to the rulers success in the coming battle. For example, in The Omen Series `umma Izbu probably used the semantic codes, saying: If a ewe gives birth to a lion, and it has two necks the land will have a different ruler, and will follow the stronger one (Leichty 1970, 74). The Babylonian Planetary Omens is an example of supernatural omens: If Venus rises in the morning watch and her light is terrifying, there will be a massacre in the land, or if Venus at her appearance flickers like fire, there will be a weakness of cattle (Reiner and Pingree 1998, 41). Likewise, the Weather Omens of Enkma Anu Enlil forecasts: If in the east and in the west lightning flashes up to seven times, Adad roars, again and again, comes down either once, twice, three, four, five, six or seven times as if he was a servant and if the earthquakes everywhere, a deluge will come (Gehlken 2012, 133). As can be seen from the above examples, the source of the divinatory information had supernatural or superhuman qualities.
Mesopotamian divination used the interpretation of signs or relied on the oracles answers obtained during special rituals. In fortune-telling, a fixed semantic code was used, which was applied depending on the prediction system and utilized social, ethical, and normative biases that formed the cultural context of the community, city, or state (Koch 2011). Mesopotamian divination, including extispicy, planetary, and weather-based predictions, made forecasts based on the nature of the deviations from the norm, such as the color of the rising moon or the direction in which lightning struck during a thunderstorm.
In general, all divination genres used similar approaches to interpretations, associating an ominous phenomenon with the community or its enemy. With the development of the divination system, the classification of interpretations became more complicated. It could depend not only on the binary of good or bad patterns but also on other schemes. Colors (green, red, white, yellow), time (day of the month), spatial divisions (top, middle, bottom), orientation (right, left, or north, south, east, west), and various models of associations, analogies and contrasts allowed the creation of more complex and comprehensive predictions (Koch 2011). Therefore, fortune-telling, which relied on observations of more or less complex and diverse natural or supernatural phenomena, could probably be used depending on the complexity of the issue.
The reliability of the interpretations was guaranteed because the experts in fortune-telling were considered respected members of the community. The divination ritual required special technical skills, and the rules could be pretty complex. Both common groups of divination extispicy and astrology were practiced by the two groups of experts (Koch 2011). The seers were the first group who specialized in interpreting the provoked omens like extispicy and lecanomancy, and scribers from the second group interpreted the astrological and other unprovoked omens.
Steps of Mesopotamian Divinations
All the divination types followed a similar procedure that included experiment, interpretation, application, and actualization. The experimental part included the observation or manipulation of a particular phenomenon in specific ways and at a certain time (Koch 2011). Interpretation and application meant applying the divinatory code, looking for omens, and relating this information to the situation in question. The actualization meant that the expert had to decide how the given prediction will affect the questioner.
In astrology, the omens were considered signs sent from the gods, and most predicted the rulers fate. Other omens regarded the community affairs like harvest, flood, rain, war, starvation, or locust attacks. The experimental part meant that an expert had to determine the phenomenon as a sign. That is why Neo-Assyrian and Babylonian astrologers observed the sky every night, paying particular attention to the moon and its phases (Koch 2011). Then, the decisions of what phenomenon should be considered an omen were made based on the experts knowledge of tradition. The interpretation was made by writing down all relevant omens and counterbalancing signs using unfixed technical terminology. Finally, astrologers actualized the celestial omens, but they rarely advised the questioners to make particular apotropaic or appeasement rituals.
In extispicy, the divine answers were given through the rituals. The experiment stage meant that the expert performed a ceremony and listed the recognized ominous phenomena. Then, an interpretation was given based on the traditional knowledge. During the actualization stage, the diviner could perform the procedure up to 3 times if no omens were found. Therefore, the two main Mesopotamian divinatory disciplines of astrological divinations and extispicy followed a similar format, and the traditional knowledge determined the distinctions.
Egyptian Medicine
In Egyptian medicine, the methods and procedures were much closer to the modern scientific approach than in the Mesopotamian divinatory and predictions primarily based on omens. Sometimes the medical practice included prayer chants, and even spells, although they were not the basis for healing. According to The Papyrus Ebers, Isid was considered a healing goddess, as she alone of the gods and goddesses managed to create a recipe for a headache medicine that cured the god Ra, who tasted the pain relievers offered by the rest of the Egyptian gods and goddesses (Cyril 1974). It was believed that Ra was the initiator of sharing the recipe for a miracle cure with humans and that the gods were patrons of the healing qualities of remedies.
Unlike Mesopotamian divinations that utilized the traditional knowledge, the Egyptian medical practice had a scientific approach and was based on examining the patient and the subsequent diagnosis. According to The Surgical Treatise, which presented methods for determining the severity of traumatic brain injury, the doctor first had to examine the patient, then give opinions on the curability of the disease, and then follow the recommendations for treating the injury, following the instructions presented in the papyrus (Smith, n.d.). This approach is very similar to modern techniques in the healthcare practice.
The Egyptians described the complex processes of body fluids functioning, including blood, lymph, and urine. They also perceived diseases as caused by body malfunctions that occurred due to the influence of evil spirits. Therefore, to treat the illness, the doctors should charm the evil spirits out of the body (Cyril, 1974). After that, the healer proceeded to eliminate the evil spirits damage using drugs prepared following particular traditional recipes.
In particular, The Papyrus Ebers includes the descriptions of mixtures for headache and constipation. One of the remedies for constipation uses only berries-of-the-Castor-oil-tree. Other recipes are more complex, like adding the particular proportions of figs, sebesten, grapes, caraway, resin-of-acanthus, writing fluid, peppermint, gengent-beans, and sweet beer (Cyril, 1974). In general, Egyptians widely used medicinal plants, sweet beer, milk, honey, and onions as active elements for healing.
The Egyptians were believers and considered the heart to be the concentration of the individuals will rather than merely a pumping organ. They described heart diseases as the consequence of some nervous and spiritual non-wellness or misbalance of elements. The healers suggested various treatments for the heart and circulatory system, starting from milk and honey and ending with complex remedies using medicinal plants and crudely made mixtures (Cyril, 1974). Noteworthy, the heart was called the center of vessels to limbs. The perceived reason for the illness could be determined as connected with other particular organs or systems, and the remedy was developed respectively.
Egyptians also had a deep understanding of breathing, similar to ancient yoga systems. They considered that in the vessels of the ears, the breath of life goes to the right side, and the breath of death goes to the left side. In general, the chapter describing the heart and circular system includes complex descriptions of heart illness in the context of the whole anatomy. It is evidence of Egyptians holistic understanding of the body processes, close to the modern healthcare approaches.
Thus, the role and purpose of prediction methods in Egyptian medicine and Mesopotamian omen divination were discussed and compared. The Mesopotamian omen divination practices were far from scientific and mainly used traditional knowledge to interpret signs and actualize predictions. In contrast, in Egyptian medicine, the doctors work was similar to modern healthcare workers practice. The Egyptian healers used diagnostic methods and performed treatment following the generally accepted written instructions.
References
Cyril, Bryan. 1974. The Papyrus Ebers. Letchworth: Garden City Press.
Gehlken, Erlend. 2012. Weather Omens of Enkma Anu Enlil. Leiden: Brill.
Koch, Ulla. 2011. Sheep and Sky: Systems of Divinatory Interpretation. In Karen Radner and Eleanor Robson, eds., The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 447-469.
Leichty, Erle.1970. The Omen Series `umma Izbu. New York: J.J. Augustine Publisher.
Love as a power of transformation. Traditional Buddhist worldview vs. Western definitions of love/desire. An exploration of if the transformation depicted could be the ultimate sign of true/real love.
There are numerous powers that love appears to depict, yet the one that cokes our strongly from the poem by Jeff Wilson is one of transformation. As the poet has noted, The scent of the lotus is thick and suddenly you are carried away on a wave of bliss , this is an indication of the power of love to transform mere mortals into extraordinary beings. However was a mortal man getting carried away in a wave of bliss? In addition, the last sentence to this poem, For from this sleep will come an awakening like no other, to change the world forever is a clear indication that following this dream, this person shall never be the same again. There is also an indicating of the witnessing of a miracle, as exemplified by dancing cripples who have already been made whole. Certainly, a miracle may very well be described as a transformation, in addition to accompaniment of love. The blind men also share in the joy of seeing again, once their vision is restored. One could hypotheses that this is an Eastern view of love, as the situation described here resembles events leading to the attainment of nirvana, a state of being that is the ultimate goal in such religions as Hinduism and Buddhism, amongst others, and which have a firm establishment in the East.
Like Hinduism, Buddhism shares a related concern in as far as an overcoming of desire is concerned; by way of celibacy. Even then, celibacy as an issue has received a varied metaphysical context amongst Buddhists. The notion of suffering and impermanence are fundamental to the Buddhist worldview. As a result, the human race undergoes suffering, one that bears a connection with desire. The objective of practicing Buddhism, therefore, is to bring to an end this suffering, by way of extinguishing of desire (Kornberg 2007). From such a context, therefore, celibacy occupies a central role in the Buddhist religion, seeing also that it is a requirement of both nuns and monks to assume celibacy as they take their vows. Through sexual activity renunciation, coupled with the associated complex actions and intentions series, renunciants have a chance to begin to detach themselves from the impermanence of the world and transcend the craving that characterizes human life (Kornberg 2007). Following quenching of this craving, desire dissipates like the flame of a flickering candle and the state of nirvana is obtained wherein no return to the endless cycle of birth and death exists (Kornberg 2007).
On the other hand, the Western view of love and desire appears to contradict that from the East. The Western context of desire seems to tie sex with desire. In this case, sexual intercourse is seen as an act of gratifying the needs of the body, and as such, could be seen as more of a craving.
Mortimer and Weissman (2000) wonder whether a world that lacks sex would find the desire or better still, love. One cannot but help wonder what would happen in the vent that both love and desire existed in the world and if at all these two entities would be quite distinct. It is important to note that even in the absence of sex, desire would also be there for man tends to go thirsty, hungry, tired, and cold. In addition, the passions or emotions of fear and rage would also be present, as these too are mans desires.
The transformation that Jeff Wilson describes in the Buddherotica could be described as the unlimited sign of true love, at least within the context of the Eastern version of love. This is because such a state that borders Nirvana is the ultimate goal for everyone to attain. It goes beyond the love for material things or the self. It is an experiencing of a state of mental and spiritual bliss, coupled with a divine transformation. If at all a mortal man could experience such a vision in their lifetime, then, without doubt, this very action may very well be regarded as the discovery of true love. Nowhere in this depiction do we see a desire for the happiness of self only. Rather, it is a situation that seeks to make life more bearable to the less fortunate, like giving sight to the blind and letting the crippled walk.
Conditions necessary for adultery to occur. An assessment on why societies in North American appear to place more emphasis on the act of adultery, as opposed to its root causes
The conditions that are necessary for adultery to take place are varied and diverse. One thing that we ought to put into consideration is that since adultery by definition reflects on sexual intercourse that involves adults, there must have been consent from the two parties. Fr. McSorleys, through his publication, The violence that is war , offers conditions that must be present in order for just adultery to take place. To start with, adultery ought to be viewed by a couple as the last resort (Dines 2002). This means that over time, they should have tried and failed in pursuing other means of helping them get along well with their sex life. This could entail receiving advice from a third party, discussing amongst them, failed attempts at expressing affection, and reconciliation of differences.
In addition, just adultery means good intentions, that there is no intention of a participant harming either their spouse or the one with whom they are engaging in sexual intercourse. It is important to note that revenge as a result of one partner being unfaithful to the others might as well be considered a very probable cause of adultery. There are also other trivial things worth considering, like a desire to have more children, or even another home. This publication supports the notions of looking at adultery as a defense to love. In light of this, the writer argues that the cause behind committing adultery ought to be genuine affection and love for the one with whom a spouse is committing adultery, seeing that the very needs for adultery may not be satisfied through any other means (Dines 2002).
As such, there is a need to have pure intentions for both two parties (Foster & Froman 2006). Another condition for adultery is that it must be seen as protecting the innocent. What this means is that the partner that gets aggrieved ought not to be harmed. As such, it is necessary that efforts be made to maintain the action as a secret.
Consequently, not only should there not be open flaunting but that the aggrieved partners should also not get wind of the development. In the event that children get born as a result of adultery, then it is important both the partners in adultery take care of these. There is also a need to strike a balance between on the one hand, good intention and on the other hand, ban ones (Soble 1998). What this implies is that it is important that the foreseeable harm to both the absent partners as well as the children be weighed, relative to love and affection that the two partners are enjoying. A dwindling respect towards the bondage that is marriage, couple with the ensuing family life damage, gets offsets by the discernible escalation in human affection, love as well as respect for that person jeopardized by adulterys social effects.
It is important to note that it is the indifferences that crop up within the relationship of a couple that drives them towards committing adultery. Without suffering and worry, life at times tends to be uninteresting and dull, and an individual interests wanes (Soble 1998). The need for adventure then sets in and this is how adultery is brought to the fore. Love, according to St. Paul, is kind and patient. It is thus the principle virtual of human beings. When a married person commits adultery however, his/her inner peace gets destroyed. That sacrament of marriage hinges on love as the unifying factor for a couple in one flesh . Furthermore, such love ought to be both mutual and sincere. Adultery, on the other hand, tends to hurt such a union, leaving in its wake suspicion, doubt, betrayal and deceit, and an eventual eroding of love. As can be seen, a better understanding of love in the first place goes a long way into reducing episodes of adultery.
The societies in North America appears to place more emphasis on the actual act of adultery, while at the same time turning a blind eye to the conditions that lead up to it. One would presume that it would be easier to fight the vice from its roots, as opposed to nurturing and growing it, only to condemn its end-product. However, there is a need to point out here that over time, the very definition of adultery has received diverse manipulations. As such, some actions that would otherwise have been regarded as being adulterous, ends up not being so. This is a true mark of a tolerant society. For instance, in New York, an adulterer is defined as that person who engages in sexual intercourse with another person at a time when he has a living spouse, or the other person has a living spouse (Foster & Froman 2006).
On the other hand, the state of North Carolina has defined adultery as the act taking place at a time when a woman and a man lewdly and lasciviously associate, bed, and cohabit together (Foster & Froman 2006). The law in Minnesota on the other hand, indicates that when a married woman has sexual intercourse with a man other than her husband, whether married or not, both are guilty of adultery (Trevas et al 1997). As can be seen, there are various discrepancies that surrounds the very definition of the term adultery, amongst the various states. All of these definitions of course explore the final act that is adultery, and no mention is made therefore of the causes of adultery. In virtually all the societies in the East, adultery bears a significant inclination towards religion. As such, adultery is frowned upon by the society and religion as well.
In North American and especially in the United States, there exists a separation of church and state and for this reason, one could hypothesize that at times, the Church may want to condone adultery while at the same time also focusing on the root causes of adultery. On the other hand, there is a state that stands out to protect the privacy of all, regardless of their religious affiliations. As such, a conflict of interest may ensue. Furthermore, criminal penalties have also been instituted in the United States and these tend to vary from one state to the other (Kornberg 2007). Besides, the United States Supreme Court issued out a decision in 1965 that relates to sexual intimacy and privacy amongst consenting adults.
There are numerous reasons as to why a person may engage in adultery. More often than not, the underlying causes of adultery get overshadowed by the secondary ones. For example, a woman may resort to adulteration when she feels that her spouse no longer satisfies them sexually. It could also be as a result of waned affection and consequently, attraction. Nevertheless, all these issues point to the fact that such a couple have a poor form of communication for if they were communicating in an effective manner, certainly they would be in a position to resolve such matters without jeopardizing their marriage. It may also be insinuated here that adultery could also be an indication of selfishness on the part of one partner (Trevas et al 1997). When a couple gets married, the idea is to have them united as one. With time, they get to knowing each other better. Affection and love then develops over time. Therefore, adultery may be deemed immoral to the extent that one partner is deceiving the other. Even in the absence of deception, the morality of adultery may be less likely a plausible option as it is a betrayal to trust and friendship.
A comparative assessment of Taoist idea of participation in sex with participation in prostitution and pornography
The issue of morality and prostitution has enjoyed along relationship with religion. As such, these issues may very well be seen as quite inseparable. From the biblical perspective, it is often the women that engaged in prostitution that were the targets. They are often seen as immoral and therefore unclean, so to speak. No mention is made of the men that they had sex with. Seeing that oppression and violence was mainly directed to the women, it is important though to appreciate that in the society in which we live today we have believers and non-believers alike, Christians, Hindus and Muslims, amongst other religions. Nevertheless, all these distinct faithful are unified by virtue of their human nature, seeing that their religious believes may differ. As humans, there we ought to respect the laws that govern us. Even then, the legality and morality of prostitution should be a counterbalance between the biblical teachings on the one hand, and the laws of the land on the other hand (Ditmore 2006). This way, we give each of us space and privacy. However, it is important that we respect the decision and view of the church, as it has moral basis for arguing against prostitution.
The Taoist teaching on sexuality dates as far back as the 2nd century. In addition, these teachings appear to have been closely integrated in its overall cosmology (Clarke 2000). As Clarke has further noted, the sexual act was viewed primarily not in terms of pleasure, or even the production of offspring, but rather as an active participation in the life enhancing processes (Clarke 2000). These life enhancing processes Clarke has noted, are deemed as a significant in the self-cultivation process. Such an observation is in sharp contrast to participation in prostitution and pornography. Here, money and self-gratification appears to be the driving forces. In prostitution and pornography, the participants do not engage in these acts for purposes of procreation, health to their bodies or happiness. It is more of a craving or desire, as opposed to mutuality.
Clarke has also quoted Douglas Wile, a sinologist, who asserted that The followers of the sexual school of Taoism encouraged the development of a sexual sensibility that invested every act of coalition&. with an indelible metaphysical significance (Clarke 2000). What this appear to imply is that the immediate goal techniques of sex was for purposes of enhancing life-giving sexual essence, by way of sexual stimulus. In addition, care was also taken not to lead to a possible loss of the same. Apparently, sexual essence for purposes of love giving seems to lack in both prostitution and pornography. Instead of glorifying and respecting the act of sex, it has instead been commercialized, meaning that it is more of a money making venture as opposed enhancing life giving.
Taoism teaching holds the view that the female orgasm, relative to that of a male, appear to augment their vital essence, in addition to that of the man with whom they have sex with. For his reason, it was quite fashionable that a man could engage in sexual intercourse with numerous partners, in a bid to absorb as much as possible the vital essence released by the women in orgasm (Clarke 2000).Taoism harbours a general view to the effect that abstaining from intercourse tended to be harmful. In addition, Clarke writes that the drawing together of yin and yen elements produced health, harmony and long life (Clarke 2000), and so the more reason why a lack of sex was deemed harmful. In reference to sexual activity, domination has more to do with playing with power dynamics (Ditmore 2006).
Prostitutes, along with other sex workers are usually inclined and willing to incorporate these kinds of activities, in as far as their work is concerned. Apparently, sex workers may have less control when faced with humiliating scenes from clients, seeing that most of the clients tend to objectify them. Such dehumanizing activities may include burning them with cigarettes, spanking and hair pulling. On the other hand, the sex workers have a controlling effect on the finances of a client, such as a management over their credit cards, in addition to going shopping at the expense of their clients.
The issues of decriminalizing and legitimizing of prostitution have enjoyed a fare share of hot debate amongst proponents and opponents alike. Nevertheless, there is a need to ensure responsibility over ones life, especially in a case whereby sexually active people are involved. Making prostitution illegal may not be the way forward, seeing that it is the oldest profession, older than even a majority of the religions. That said there is a need to impose legal penalties to the brothels that operates without a license, and therefore fails to remit taxes. This should also apply to licensed sex pros that fail to pay tax. In addition, brothel officials that subject their sex workers to causal sex with clients without protection should also be charged.
Exploring heterosexism as a sub-category of sexism. A view of the Western culture as primarily hetero-centrist
Heterosexism refers to bias, negative attitudes as well as discrimination in preference to relationships and sexuality of the opposite sex. This definition goes on to take the assumption that all are individuals are heterosexuals, a rather generalized approach. In other words, heterosexism rests on a premise that relationships and attraction of the opposite sex are often the norm and as such, they take the center-stage. It is quite possible for individuals with divergent sexual orientations to harbor such an attitude. Dines (2002) has described heterosexism as being encoded into and characteristic of the major social, cultural, and economic institutions of our society (Dines 2002).
Heterosexism, though a term that has established itself quite well, often times gets described as having been coined from the term sexism. If we were to portray heterosexism as a set of attitudes and beliefs, we would then find out that this term hinges upon fundamental tents, and this therefore appears to distant itself from bisexuality and homosexuality (Kornberg 2007).
Within the mindset or ideology of a heterosexist, sexual orientation as a concept in either deemed irrelevant, or rejected altogether. On the other hand, sexism as a term was first coined during the 20th century, in reference to the attitude or belief that one of the two sexes of genders could be less valuable or inferior to, in comparison with the other.
In addition, sexisms could also be used while referring to a prejudice towards or hatred of either of the two sexes, as a while. In addition, it might also refer to stereotypical applications of femininity with respect to women or masculinity in terns of the men (Ditmore 2006). Other authors have also referred to it as female and male chauvinism (Ditmore 2006). Sexism has led to the subjugation of women to men across diverse cultures, historically. In light of this, a majority of the women and men espousing masculinsm and feminism, in addition to other forms of ideologies, have attempted to dismiss beliefs about sexism.
As long as there continues to be a discrimination against the sexual inclination of a certain groups by say, the larger majority, then it can be expected that such individuals that may almost always get drawn to members of the same sex, with whom they have a chance of finding acceptance and accommodation in, seeing that they share similar values. This in itself acts to propagate same sex relationships and marriage. In the absence of such discrimination as depicted by sexism, then there is also a possibility that they might get an approval and acceptance from the society.
The Western culture has been depicted as one that is hetero-centrist. What this means is that we as a society have come to appreciate and include in heterosexism as a form of sexuality. This behaviour has mainly been propagated by the numerous magazines and newspapers that seem to glorify heterosexual beings, at times depicting these as being successful role model worth of emulation (Ditmore 2006). Furthermore, pornographic movies also seem to glorify heterosexism.
After answering questions from the Are My Attitudes Heterosexist? Test, I realized that in most of the instances, we as the society condone the heterosexual actions of individuals without first minding about how they might have landed in the situation that they find themselves in, in the first place. For starters, a person may become a heterosexual genetically, by way of socialization, as a result of pressure from parents who may be heterosexual themselves, or even as a result of a prior traumatic experience from a heterosexual person. In addition, this test has enlightened me in the sense that it is quite possible for one to group out of this condition. Furthermore, the root cause of heterosexual behaviour could be as a result of a neurotic fear of individuals of a similar sex. If at all individual could be exposed to these findings, then it would be quiet possible to make individual diagnoses regarding this problem. As such, people may also be helped to get out of this situation after making a discovery of their problem.
An assessment of the question, What in life might fit into this category of mediocre, convenient, or conventionally expected? Can it be changed?
The societies in the Western culture have time and again been accused of being too fast-paced, reactive and too detracted, to the extent that we are not able to learn who we really are. Moreover, the very idea of loving ourselves is almost alien. In the absence of learning us first, how then, do we expect to love other? What yardstick might we use to love others, seeing that we lack a standard fro loving us first?
Dollimore (1998) describes love as being the ultimate surrender of oneself in the other, even in this most extrinsic being of death, the death of the absolute representation of the limits of life . (Dollimore 1998). Here, Dollimore refers to the love of Christ over the church, one that led to his eventual dying on the cross. Dollimore further adds that the death of Christ could be a symbol of a sacrificial death, which in itself depicts an act of absolute satisfaction (Dollimore 1998). The dialect depiction of love by humans offers the promise of significant sense of completion in the other; the sublime transcendence of bad infinity which also entails a loss of the self (Dollimore 1998).
Love appears to distinguish between on the one hand, the self and on the other hand, the other. Nevertheless, it is quite difficult for one to differentiate one from the other. Indeed, it is the feeling of consciousness of the identity of the two that is a true manifestation of love. This is what happens when we, as human beings get to be at peace and satisfied not just with ourselves only, but also with this other (Dollimore 1998). This other referred to as here, by virtue of its existence outside of ourselves only bears a correlation with us due to our being conscious about it. By the mere act of human beings experiencing their own identity within themselves and in this other, this is what gives them feeling, intuition and identity of their unity. It is this phenomenon that Dollimore has referred to as love.
It is important to note here that the individuals in the western culture may not be said as loving themselves, literary, as they ought to, if the amount of distractions, reactive-ness and speed that characterizes this culture is anything to go by. In this haste, the individuals of the Western culture ends up not loving themselves enough, or at least as we ought to. In addition, their portrayal for the love of others is also quite wanting. Ours is more of a materialistic culture, in which personal advancement and enhanced wealth appears to be our overrated virtues. This is in sharp contrast with the cultures in the East or indeed the developing countries in Africa. Here, love is manifested more by the art of giving, and despite these communities not being endowed with material wealth, they at least have been blessed with much love for others, and self too.
Nevertheless, this should by no means be taken to mean that we hate ourselves, far from it. Being egocentric and arrogant is not a mark of loving oneself, characteristics that appear to be more common amongst our culture more than any other. What this could imply is that we are awake to the realization that before you can love another you have to love you first. Indeed, it is a mark of a culture of people that are alive to the notion of humanness, coupled with compassion and acceptance. Nevertheless, all this love for self in the long run, does not entirely fulfil our desires, and gain with seek for love in other forms. This is a void that not even material possessions may fill. At this point, it would be vital if we as a people, could be honest with our feelings, and explores to cultivate love and affection that would ultimately quench our thirst.
Even a total alignment with an ethnic orientation or religious inclinations may not offer us much hope if at all we do not find peace and happiness amongst ourselves., therefore, it is only by way of becoming aware of our predicament, coupled with being honest with our feelings, intuitions even, that we could be on our path towards salvation. These are key elements which when accompanied by the truth, prepares the ground for the planting of the seed of love.
Works cited
Clarke, James. The Tao of the west: western transformations of Taoist thought. London: Routledge, 2000.
Dines, Gail. Gender, Race, and Class in Media: A Text-Reader. New York: Wiley, 2002.
Ditmore, Melissa. Encyclopedia of prostitution and sex work. Oxford: Greenwood Publishing, 2006.
Dollimore, Jonathan. Death, desire and loss in Western culture. London: Routledge, 1998.
Foster, John & Froman, Wayne. Thresholds of Western culture; identity, postcoloniality. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006.
Kornberg, Greenberg. Encyclopedia of love in world religions. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2007.
Mortimer, Jerome & Welshman, Max. How to think about the great ideas. London: Wiley, 2000.
Soble, Alan. Sexual investigations. New York: NYU Press, 1998.
Robinson, Richard. The Buddhist religion: a historical introduction (3rd Ed). Belmont, Calif: Dickenson Pub. Co., 2000.
Trevas, R, Zuker, A & Borchert, D. Philosophy of Sex and Love. New York: Prentice Hall, 1997.
The Nile Valley in North Africa, Euphrates and Tigris River Valley in south Asia are considered the origin of modern technology. The two regions enjoyed political and economic success during the ancient times that facilitated civilization. Their strong armies made them very successful. Many people were moving to urban centers where more job opportunities were becoming available in the construction and trade sectors of the economy. Both Mesopotamia and Egypt had a well established government structures with authorities responsible for various tasks. According to Houston, the two kingdoms played a major role in enhancing technological development and civilization (65). In this study, the researcher will look at the differences that existed between the civilization development of Mesopotamia and that of Egypt.
Discussion
The two kingdoms shared a number of factors in their civilization process. In this paper, however, the researcher will look at the differences in the civilization process. The following are some of the areas where these two ancient kingdoms had differences.
Religious
In Mesopotamia, religion played a central role in governance. In fact, Burger says that religious leaders were highly respected even by the rulers, unlike in Egypt where Pharaohs were the absolute authorities in their land (38). The Sumerians believed that they were created by gods for the sole purpose of worshiping and serving them at all stages of their lives (McKay et al. 13). For this reason, they erected a large temple at the center of the city with large granaries where grains were kept. These agricultural products were at the disposal of the Sumerian priests. The central role played by the religious leaders in the economic development of Mesopotamia is not evident in the Egyptian kingdom. Religious leaders had the distinct role of leading religious services and sermons among the Sumerians.
Diplomatic
The diplomatic structure of the Egyptian kingdom was different from that of Mesopotamia in a number of ways. According to Burger, the Mesopotamians maintained diplomatic ties with their neighboring kingdoms through practices such as royal marriages (73). This helped in forming strong family ties among the neighboring kingdoms. This helped in creating peaceful expansion of the kingdom. However, the Egyptians had a different approach of coexisting with their neighbors. They used direct negotiations and if this failed to work, they would use military force to bring down kingdoms they considered unfriendly.
Economic
The economic systems in the two kingdoms were almost the same. However, there is one striking difference in the economic structure of Mesopotamia and that of Egypt. The Mesopotamian women were allowed to own wealth under different contexts (McKay et al. 15). Women who held senior positions in government or religious settings such as queens and priestesses were allowed to own parcels of land. Their husbands did not have authority over such lands, but would occasionally help them in the management process. Women also retained ownership of their dowries paid to them by their husbands at the time of marriage.
They had the liberty of choosing the right people who would take care of such dowries. They would either choose their husbands, parents or brothers to be the custodians of such wealth. However, the Egyptians did not allow women to have wealth of their own, especially when it came to the issue of land. Egyptian women, irrespective of their positions in the society, had to rely on the wealth of their husbands or parents to survive.
Legal
Under the rule of Hammurabi, the legal systems in Mesopotamia improved significantly. The Hammurabi’s Law Code is one of the popular legal structures that were put in place under his era. One unique factor about this law code is that the king claimed that he was directed by divine spirit to come up with governing principles. This demonstrates the importance of religion when it came to issues relating to the development of legal frameworks.
The society revered gods and all that was associated with religious spirits. They respected all that which was related with religion. In the Egyptian kingdom, although the society also had a strong religious system, most of the laws were made in the royal courts and the people would be informed that the decision had been made by pharaoh and his royal court. They had to respect such laws because of the strong military systems that were put in place to ensure that everyone followed principles put in place by their ruler.
The principle of an eye-for-an-eye must have emerged in the Mesopotamian kingdom (McKay et al. 19). The Hammurabi’s Law Codes developed a legal principle that demanded for an equal treatment of a criminal as he did his victim. This means that if a criminal killed a victim and it was confirmed so in a royal court, the criminal was to be killed in the same manner. This aspect of law was not common in the Egyptian kingdom.
The consumer law in Egypt was very different from that in Mesopotamia. In Egypt, one could demand for his money back if he realized that he had been offered a substandard product by a seller. However, this had to happen within two days of the purchase, and the buyer had to prove that he had not done anything to jeopardize the quality of the product. However, this was not the case in Mesopotamia. A buyer could return a faulty good to the seller for repair even months after the purchase as long as it was confirmed that the supplier was at fault (McKay et al. 19).
Military
The military in the two kingdoms started what Burger described as modern warfare systems (62). However, the Egyptian military was at times led by women, something that was unimaginable in Mesopotamia. Hatshepsut ruled Egypt from 1479-1458 BC, and was considered one of the greatest military leaders the Egyptian empire ever had (McKay et al. 26). She conquered many nations in northeast regions, including parts of Canaan. In Mesopotamia, women were not allowed to hold senior government positions.
Political developments
The political development of the Egyptian Kingdom had significant differences from that of Mesopotamia. There was almost no distinction between the Egyptian rulers and gods (McKay et al. 21). These rulers were considered to be descendants of gods of Nile River. However, Mesopotamia had a clear distinction between their gods and rulers. The Mesopotamian rulers had to get blessings from gods in order to govern the kingdom. Pharaoh, being a living god, had the absolute power, and he did not need to back his orders with religious scriptures (Burger 51). His words were always considered holy. This is a little different from what was the case in Mesopotamia.
Conclusion
It is clear from the above discussion that although the Kingdom of Mesopotamia and that of Egypt shared a number of factors, they also had differences in many areas. These differences are seen in the religious, diplomatic, economic, legal, military, and political developments.
Works Cited
Burger, Michael. The Shaping of Western Civilization from Antiquity to the Present. London: McMillan, 2013. Print.
Houston, Mary. Ancient Egyptian, Mesopotamian & Persian Costume. New Jersey: Wiley & Sons, 2002. Print.
McKay, John, Clare Crowston, Merry Wiesner and Joe Perry. Understanding Western Society: A History. New York: Cengage, 2014. Print.
There have been several civilizations in the history of the world which have represented the changes that took place at different times. Civilization symbolizes evolution as each civilization represents different levels and phases of evolution. Despite the different phases represented, all civilizations have certain similarities. There are particular forms of behaviors and conduct that were prevalent in all the civilizations irrespective of the times they took place. Most of these were cultural in nature and portrayed the manner in which people conducted themselves during the whole period of civilizations. Patterns of social behavior have been similar in different civilizations. This has been a common thing among all the civilizations that have existed in the world. As a result, in the study of world civilization, it is no wonder that certain patterns have remained the same over time. As much as the civilizations took place at different times of history, the patterns have remained the same. There are many reasons for this occurrence; one of the most common reasons is the nature of social behavior. Under normal circumstances social behavior and conduct remains the same over a long period of time. As much as certain trends might change, the basic patterns remain relatively the same. The aim of this paper is to identify the patterns of social behavior that existed in different civilizations that took place.
Civilizations
The Beatles made a lot of contribution to the course of revolution in Europe. With their most popular revolution songs, they made a lot of contribution to the events of politics. In 1968 there was a demonstration by students; this took place all over the world though the strike was more pronounced in Paris. This culminated in the end of Charles DeGaulle’s government in France (Jacob et al 132). John Lennon, who was the brain behind the revolution song, was motivated by the 1068 upheaval in France. Lennon believed in revolution and wrote this song with the intention to inspire young people who believed in revolution like him. The song contained several political tones; first Lennon doubted the intentions of leftist movements even though he stood for their beliefs initially. The song contains lines taking a jab at communism. The line of Mao gave the indication of the aim of the song in one way or the other.
The song played a significant role since at the centre of its message was mental and psychological emancipation. War poetry has been synonymous with the political events of Europe since the era of world war one. Poetry was as a form of expression of opinion and reaction to the military events that plagued Europe during the early 1900. With specific reference to the First World War, poetry was an important tool through which poets most of which were soldiers at one time discussed the conflicts that took place in Egypt. The waste Land is a famous poem written by T. S. Eliot. The poem explores the fall of civilization together with the loss of ‘the meaning of life’. The poem is satirical and includes aspects of prophecy. The changing of location, time and speaker makes the poem to cover a wide range of culture and literature. As a result, the poem has a lot of significance to the changing events of Europe. At the same time it has become a major pillar in modern literature.
Siegfried Sassoon played an important role in the whole aspect of war poetry. His poems were mostly based on the military conflict that took place during the First World War. Sassoon mostly wrote about the involvement of Germany in the war. Through his poems Sassoon expressed the dilemma Europe found itself in as the war took its toll on humanity. More pronounced was Siegfried exploration of the negative effects of the war on families and life in general. Through the many poems which he wrote, he expressed the agony of women who were left home lonely as their husbands went to war. Through this, we see the nature of consequences that the events of the moment had on life in European countries during that time.
Ten Days that Shook the World by John Reed is a book which focuses on the October revolution in Russia in the 1917. The author of the book was a journalist and a socialist in America. The book is based on the first hand experiences of the author who witnessed the revolution. The author consequently followed the lives and contribution of many leaders of the time. The book thus provides a detailed history of Russia during the time when the Bolsheviks took over the power of the state and handed it over to the soviets. In the Ten Days that Shook the World, the author provides a detailed description of the events that took place during the October revolution in Russia (Spievogel 100). This had a lot of significance not only to the history of Russia and Europe but also to the history of the whole world. This is due to the significance of the Russian revolution. It was the beginning of anew Russia which lead to the formation of the Soviet Union. Later the Soviet Union was to play a key role in the definition of history in Europe. The author himself was on a different mission during the Russian revolution. John Reed was working for a socialist magazine at the time of the revolution. The book tends to favor the Bolsheviks through out the revolution (Bova 76). It is against this background that the author was given a great honor when he died. He was among the few Americans who were buried in Kremlin Wall Necropolis.
Conclusion
Patterns of social behavior tend to be the same in virtually different times. As a result a study into the various civilizations that have taken place in the history of the world shows that social behavior retains similar trends over a long time. Since the beginning of civilizations several changes have taken place is social behavior. However, the basic patterns of social behavior have manifested similar trends throughout the civilizations. Civilizations have often represented the change in behavior that took place in the different time that the civilizations occurred. As a result, civilizations have represented the changing times, trends and evolution. Certain elements of social conduct, however, have betrayed the changes in trends. This has manifested itself in similar trends in different civilizations that have taken place in the world. There have been certain patterns that remained the same in virtually all civilizations. These forms of social behavior have been found in all civilizations. The paper has analytically evaluated the aspects of social behavior that have been common in the civilizations. Several patterns have been identified and analyzed in the paper. The paper has also given certain reasons why the patterns remained the same in the changing phases of human nature.
Works cited
Bova, Russel. Russia and Western civilization: cultural and historical encounters. Washington: M. E Sharpe, 2003.
Jacob, James et al. Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society. New York: Cengage Learning, 2008.
Spievogel, Jackson. Western Civilization: Alternate Volume: Since 1300. New York: Cengage Learning, 2003.
During the early periods in Mesopotamia, cities, as exemplified by Ubaid and Uruk settlements, were characterized by sporadic village settlements and primal forms of agricultural or sedentary activities. These villages are set up around alluvial regions wherein rich river soil is very suitable for agriculture. Mesopotamians planted wheat and other produce in these fertile areas for consumption and trade.
Archeological artifacts as evidenced by mounds that were formed during this period indicate varied groups of people utilizing the different resources that are available to them. Through these raw materials, food and crafts were produced in artisan communities. Pollock (1999) argues that cities were born to serve as a trading place among these villages producing unique goods of their own. This means, he adds, that cities can also be seen as the siphoning force that depletes the raw materials or resources of a particular region since cities served as a marketplace among villages in the outskirts of the city. Agricultural produce and crafts require raw materials from the environment where villagers live which were traded in a city where people do not inherently possess natural resources thus the siphoning effect.
Nonetheless, the accumulation of settlers in the alluvial lowlands was not seen to be primarily the trend since the process can be more aptly described as dynamic. There were fluctuations in the size and density of people living in an area. People are moving in and out, for reasons that may have served them wherein not just environmental factors are to be considered but economic, political, and regional factors as well.
Mesopotamian Ubaid and Uruk periods
In other words, cities in Mesopotamian Ubaid and Uruk periods were originally formed to accommodate an exchange of goods but then gradually evolved into more complex activities such as the preservation of power and practice of religion as evidenced by city walls and the construction of temples. Food crops are not the sole source of livelihood for people since herding, trading, and other lines of work were widely practiced in the said period. Due to this, concurrent multifarious activities constitute the interaction among villages which are mainly dictated by the nature and availability of environmental resources. These characteristics of the environment, in turn, dictated the manner of city-state emergence and structure in Ubaid and Uruk. The more varied and richer a particular environment is, the faster and the larger the city-state that will emerge. This follows the logic that the city is brought into the scene due to the need of people to trade for other products which they cannot produce.
Crop growing groups cannot live with their products by themselves but would need milk or meat the way craftsmen would need bread and shelter. If pasture areas, alluvial fertile soils, and raw materials can be found in a particular region, different types of settlers would occupy this region and pursue their interests. The structure of the city-state, again, would be highly dependent on these groups of people. Diversity is the key to a more stable and prosperous city-state wherein every individual serves a particular purpose or position. Should there be a dearth of a particular resource, then workers that benefit from this resource would not be able to proliferate and can lead to a gap in the cycle of goods in the city-state which may lead to instability. A city-state, as Robert Adams (Mieroop 1996) defines it, is a society with a hierarchical organization based on political and territorial order instead of familial or kinship ties. In other words, this autonomy arises from a population possessing social stratification.
According to Mieroop (1996), the emergence of the city-state in Mesopotamia was due to the diversity of the said region. The abundance of natural resources was very apparent in the case of Mesopotamia. There were the rivers, alluvial plains, mountainous areas with forests and pasture lands, steppe, river valleys, and other forms of land. The large variety of sources of livelihood resulted in the myriad of groups of people exploiting these unique niches. Once these groups of people have settled in their particular interests, their industry had no other way but to grow or prosper leading to a surplus of goods and products. Nevertheless, a particular village can never be sufficient on its own. There are other goods or materials that it may need but cannot produce. This the reason why trading became a routine for every civilization. The problem with trading is the needed time and resources of traveling goods from one village to another. The problem of distance was solved by setting up trade areas which eventually gave birth to cities.
In other words, as Mieroop (1996) and Pollock (1999) indicated, Mesopotamian cities emerged from the development of diverse natural resources during the early times. Because of the diversity, groups of people became specialized with their line of work. With this specialization, people became stratified and occupied particular positions in the same manner as priests or their equivalent were held in high regard and exempted from labor. Stratification and the delegation of authority for the efficient management of resources characterized the rise of Mesopotamian city-states.
Social stratification
Although there is social stratification in Mesopotamian city-states, there is a complex interplay in the relationship between the city and the society as evidenced by their socio-political structure. According to Stein (1994), there was a very complex social organization in Ubaid Mesopotamia. The differences in the archeological artifacts composed of dwellings and wares that were used by different groups of people suggest the differences in their position in society. High rises are naturally reserved for the chief or priest. Alongside this privilege, are the tools and wares for daily use. Leaders are not only reserved for particular possessions since soldiers were supposed to own weapons and laborers tools for construction or agriculture.
Aside from the distribution of power, there was also the distribution of wealth or goods. This process transcends political positions since there is some evidence of kinship playing role in the preservation and accumulation of wealth in Mesopotamian cities (Stein 1994). Therefore, apart from the city-state’s social organization, religion, kinship, and other relationships dictate the functions of the sometimes stable and sometimes unstable city-state existence in the Ubaid and Uruk Mesopotamian cities. Whereas the original function of the city which is the production and distribution of goods among its population, the emergence of religious leaders and political authorities gave rise to the changes in the social structure brought about by alternative ways of allocating and managing wealth.
Conclusion
The Ubaid and Uruk are contrasting studies in the emergence of cities in early Mesopotamia. The Ubaid city was formed when people, for an extensive period, settled and developed agriculture in alluvial plains, forests, and steppes began trading and exchanging goods to negate the effect of distance. According to Pollock (1999), the emergence of the city was gradual since this required the production of agriculture or livestock surplus before realizing the use of trade and distance. On the other hand, the formation of Uruk immediately after Ubaid was characterized by the sudden emergence of this city and was attributed by scholars, according to Pollock, to the sudden influx of sheep and goat herders and semi-agricultural villagers in the region. This sudden settlement of various types of people from different parts of the region was evidenced by the rise in the population which cannot be caused by natural growth. These two examples provide models in the development of cities one from a gradual agricultural and economical progress and to another which arose from the sudden settlement of producers and traders from different parts of the region.
Studying history is rather important for every student and for every person in general. They say that those who know their past are ready for any hardships in the future. Thus, if history is our past, we all need to be well aware of its happenings in order to build our future lives. Special attention in the study of history should be paid to the study of the initial stages of the existence of mankind. Thus, the present paper will be focused on the development of the oldest nations of western society, the Near East and the Mediterranean. This paper is going to consider all the major aspects of their development in order to find out the reasons for the success of some of them and the failure of others in their attempt to exist eternally. To start with, it is necessary to enumerate all the major factors that have ever influenced the development of the earliest nations that constituted Western Civilization. Among them, there are such factors as the geographical position and climate of the territories where the first nations formed, socio-political factors, relations with other nations and states, etc. As far as the geographical factor has always been considered by scholars as one of the dominant in nation formation, it would be logical to start the essay with it.
Main body
Thus, the first nation in the Western civilization ever to appear in the international arena was Ancient Greece. This civilization was formed in the conditions of the land that had access to the sea and was surrounded by mountains that defended it from the outside rivals. The rather convenient position of the land where Ancient Greece was established gave its inhabitants the opportunity to develop their navigation skills and become skillful seamen in the future. Moreover, the geographical position also provided for the regular development of agriculture, trade, and culture. The first forms of democracy in the Western civilization were also established in Ancient Greece and this can also be explained by its geographical position as far as Greeks could freely travel abroad, for example to Sumer or Ancient Egypt, and either take up or reject what they liked or not in the political systems of those nations. The Roman civilization, as another greatest one in the Western world, was also formed under the influence of certain geographical and climatic conditions. Close location to the Mediterranean Sea, fertile land, and rather acceptable climatic conditions made it possible for the Romans to develop their nation in the atmosphere of peace and contact with other neighboring nations. However, their being naturally strong people and great abilities in navigation and warfare made them into one of the most powerful nations in the history of the whole world. Thus, from the examples of the two most significant nations in the history of Ancient Western civilization, it is obvious that geographical conditions and climate affect the further development of nations greatly.
However, there were a lot of other conditions and factors that played their roles in the development of Western civilization. Some of them were positive, for example, the favorable relations with other nations, military power, absence of natural disasters, etc., while others were negative. They are the major obstacles on the path of development of the first civilizations in the world’s history. The most important among them are the military conflicts, the inability to defend themselves from the outside invasions due to the exceeding forces of rivals, or to the inner conflicts that undermined the power of this or that particular nation. Thus, for example, the power and wealth of ancient Greece were destroyed by the inner disagreements that did not allow the country to fight against the invasion of the Roman Empire which finally resulted in the absolute subjugation of the country and making it into one of the Roman provinces. Moreover, the Roman Empire itself was affected by the inner conflicts and was destroyed by the barbarian tribes who used those conflicts to their advantage. However, there were the nations in the ancient world that succeeded in solving and overcoming the above-mentioned problems and obstacles. For example, Ancient Greece, although subjugated military by the Roman Empire, managed to preserve its self-identity and spread its culture over the numerous countries of the world and stayed in centuries as the greatest culture in the world’s history which is also referred to as classical one. Another example is the Chinese civilization which managed to preserve its identity and originality despite numerous conquests. What helped these civilizations survive was their eternal values and stable customs and traditions that told people always to keep to their roots and be proud of their ethnicity. Moreover, the clever policies of the rulers of those nations that never conflicted with other nations unless they were sure about their power were also a rather important factor.
Conclusion
The Roman Empire managed to conquest many countries and territories and to rule them for over 5 centuries. As contrasted to other nations of the Mediterranean and Near East, Romans directed their major focus to create military forces able to fight every other army. Warfare was the central concept in children’s upbringing and education and this resulted in having numerous skillful generals. Moreover, policies implemented by Romans including the division of powers and territories allowed them to control their huge possessions and acquire new ones. Thus, it is obvious that the combination of favorable geographical factors, a properly organized political system and military forces were the dominant factors in the development of the Western civilizations in the initial periods of their existence.
Ancient scientific traditions differed from modern science in form and content. In many ways, the prediction methods utilized the casual observations of omens or introduced practices, such as fortune-telling on an animal’s entrails, which were probably performed to impress the public. Ancient scientific traditions also included modern science elements, such as medical diagnosis and prescription of drugs. This paper aims to discuss and compare the role and purpose of prediction methods in Egyptian medicine and Mesopotamian omen divination.
Mesopotamian Systems of Divinatory Interpretation
The important divination disciplines in Mesopotamia included extispicy or divination by entrails of a sacrificed animal and Omen astrology which referred to planetary and lunar phenomena to make predictions regarding a king’s or community’s welfare. The divination had the traits characteristic of religion, magic, science, and scholarship (Koch 2011). It existed on the border between these domains and did not fully belong to any of them. The priests resorted to fortune-telling to answer questions about life, health, and the fate of a person, family, or social group.
Fortune-telling could answer any question, from the future harvest to the ruler’s success in the coming battle. For example, in The Omen Series Šumma Izbu probably used the semantic codes, saying: “If a ewe gives birth to a lion, and it has two necks – the land will have a different ruler, and will follow the stronger one” (Leichty 1970, 74). The Babylonian Planetary Omens is an example of supernatural omens: “If Venus rises in the morning watch and her light is terrifying, there will be a massacre in the land,” or “if Venus at her appearance flickers like fire, there will be a weakness of cattle” (Reiner and Pingree 1998, 41). Likewise, the Weather Omens of Enūma Anu Enlil forecasts: “If in the east and in the west lightning flashes up to seven times, Adad roars, again and again, comes down either once, twice, three, four, five, six or seven times as if he was a servant and if the earthquakes everywhere, a deluge will come” (Gehlken 2012, 133). As can be seen from the above examples, the source of the divinatory information had supernatural or superhuman qualities.
Mesopotamian divination used the interpretation of signs or relied on the oracle’s answers obtained during special rituals. In fortune-telling, a fixed semantic code was used, which was applied depending on the prediction system and utilized social, ethical, and normative biases that formed the cultural context of the community, city, or state (Koch 2011). Mesopotamian divination, including extispicy, planetary, and weather-based predictions, made forecasts based on the nature of the deviations from the norm, such as the color of the rising moon or the direction in which lightning struck during a thunderstorm.
In general, all divination genres used similar approaches to interpretations, associating an ominous phenomenon with the community or its enemy. With the development of the divination system, the classification of interpretations became more complicated. It could depend not only on the binary of good or bad patterns but also on other schemes. Colors (green, red, white, yellow), time (day of the month), spatial divisions (top, middle, bottom), orientation (right, left, or north, south, east, west), and various models of associations, analogies and contrasts allowed the creation of more complex and comprehensive predictions (Koch 2011). Therefore, fortune-telling, which relied on observations of more or less complex and diverse natural or supernatural phenomena, could probably be used depending on the complexity of the issue.
The reliability of the interpretations was guaranteed because the experts in fortune-telling were considered respected members of the community. The divination ritual required special technical skills, and the rules could be pretty complex. Both common groups of divination – extispicy and astrology – were practiced by the two groups of experts (Koch 2011). The seers were the first group who specialized in interpreting the provoked omens like extispicy and lecanomancy, and scribers from the second group interpreted the astrological and other unprovoked omens.
Steps of Mesopotamian Divinations
All the divination types followed a similar procedure that included experiment, interpretation, application, and actualization. The experimental part included the observation or manipulation of a particular phenomenon in specific ways and at a certain time (Koch 2011). Interpretation and application meant applying the divinatory code, looking for omens, and relating this information to the situation in question. The actualization meant that the expert had to decide how the given prediction will affect the questioner.
In astrology, the omens were considered signs sent from the gods, and most predicted the ruler’s fate. Other omens regarded the community affairs like harvest, flood, rain, war, starvation, or locust attacks. The experimental part meant that an expert had to determine the phenomenon as a sign. That is why Neo-Assyrian and Babylonian astrologers observed the sky every night, paying particular attention to the moon and its phases (Koch 2011). Then, the decisions of what phenomenon should be considered an omen were made based on the experts’ knowledge of tradition. The interpretation was made by writing down all relevant omens and counterbalancing signs using unfixed technical terminology. Finally, astrologers actualized the celestial omens, but they rarely advised the questioners to make particular apotropaic or appeasement rituals.
In extispicy, the divine answers were given through the rituals. The experiment stage meant that the expert performed a ceremony and listed the recognized ominous phenomena. Then, an interpretation was given based on the traditional knowledge. During the actualization stage, the diviner could perform the procedure up to 3 times if no omens were found. Therefore, the two main Mesopotamian divinatory disciplines of astrological divinations and extispicy followed a similar format, and the traditional knowledge determined the distinctions.
Egyptian Medicine
In Egyptian medicine, the methods and procedures were much closer to the modern scientific approach than in the Mesopotamian divinatory and predictions primarily based on omens. Sometimes the medical practice included prayer chants, and even spells, although they were not the basis for healing. According to The Papyrus Ebers, Isid was considered a healing goddess, as she alone of the gods and goddesses managed to create a recipe for a headache medicine that cured the god Ra, who tasted the pain relievers offered by the rest of the Egyptian gods and goddesses (Cyril 1974). It was believed that Ra was the initiator of sharing the recipe for a miracle cure with humans and that the gods were patrons of the healing qualities of remedies.
Unlike Mesopotamian divinations that utilized the traditional knowledge, the Egyptian medical practice had a scientific approach and was based on examining the patient and the subsequent diagnosis. According to The Surgical Treatise, which presented methods for determining the severity of traumatic brain injury, the doctor first had to examine the patient, then give opinions on the curability of the disease, and then follow the recommendations for treating the injury, following the instructions presented in the papyrus (Smith, n.d.). This approach is very similar to modern techniques in the healthcare practice.
The Egyptians described the complex processes of body fluids’ functioning, including blood, lymph, and urine. They also perceived diseases as caused by body malfunctions that occurred due to the influence of evil spirits. Therefore, to treat the illness, the doctors should charm the evil spirits out of the body (Cyril, 1974). After that, the healer proceeded to eliminate the evil spirits’ damage using drugs prepared following particular traditional recipes.
In particular, The Papyrus Ebers includes the descriptions of mixtures for headache and constipation. One of the remedies for constipation uses only berries-of-the-Castor-oil-tree. Other recipes are more complex, like adding the particular proportions of figs, sebesten, grapes, caraway, resin-of-acanthus, writing fluid, peppermint, gengent-beans, and sweet beer (Cyril, 1974). In general, Egyptians widely used medicinal plants, sweet beer, milk, honey, and onions as active elements for healing.
The Egyptians were believers and considered the heart to be the concentration of the individual’s will rather than merely a pumping organ. They described heart diseases as the consequence of some nervous and spiritual non-wellness or misbalance of elements. The healers suggested various treatments for the heart and circulatory system, starting from milk and honey and ending with complex remedies using medicinal plants and crudely made mixtures (Cyril, 1974). Noteworthy, the heart was called the center of vessels to limbs. The perceived reason for the illness could be determined as connected with other particular organs or systems, and the remedy was developed respectively.
Egyptians also had a deep understanding of breathing, similar to ancient yoga systems. They considered that in the vessels of the ears, the breath of life goes to the right side, and the breath of death goes to the left side. In general, the chapter describing the heart and circular system includes complex descriptions of heart illness in the context of the whole anatomy. It is evidence of Egyptians’ holistic understanding of the body processes, close to the modern healthcare approaches.
Thus, the role and purpose of prediction methods in Egyptian medicine and Mesopotamian omen divination were discussed and compared. The Mesopotamian omen divination practices were far from scientific and mainly used traditional knowledge to interpret signs and actualize predictions. In contrast, in Egyptian medicine, the doctor’s work was similar to modern healthcare workers’ practice. The Egyptian healers used diagnostic methods and performed treatment following the generally accepted written instructions.
References
Cyril, Bryan. 1974. The Papyrus Ebers. Letchworth: Garden City Press.
Gehlken, Erlend. 2012. Weather Omens of Enūma Anu Enlil. Leiden: Brill.
Koch, Ulla. 2011. “Sheep and Sky: Systems of Divinatory Interpretation.” In Karen Radner and Eleanor Robson, eds., The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 447-469.
Leichty, Erle.1970. The Omen Series Šumma Izbu. New York: J.J. Augustine Publisher.
It is impossible to underestimate the importance of Mesopotamia and this region’s achievements for humankind. This circumstance is conditional upon the fact its progress and advanced culture led to a number of discoveries, which provided for further growth of other places (Adhikari, 2019). Therefore, it is critical to examine Mesopotamia’s contributions to our civilization and thereby confirm its impact on all contemporary spheres of human life.
Mesopotamia’s significant role in promoting the successes of people all over the world in exploring the environment is determined by the creation of transportation as such alongside the development of agriculture. The former results were possible with the invention of the wheel, the chariot, and the sailboat, which allowed citizens to make the first trips in history (Adhikari, 2019). In this way, all of the present-day means of changing one’s locations stem from those times. As for lifestyle, the shift from hunting to farming was performed with the help of creating the plow, which was followed by the cultivation of various foods, including wheat and barley (Adhikari, 2019). These advances were complemented by the emergence of the sciences, such as the mathematics and astronomy (Adhikari, 2019). Therefore, both knowledge and practices of the contemporary civilization were possible to achieve due to these factors.
To summarize, the contributions of Mesopotamian people to the present-day world population and their wellbeing can be viewed through the lens of their inventions, which correspond to specific areas. Their activity was primarily focused on agriculture and transportation alongside the scientific approach to cognition in general. Thus, it can be concluded that the principal spheres of human life were promoted by Mesopotamia and their progress in fields, which resulted in the further development of humanity as a whole.
Reference
Adhikari, S. (2019). Top 11 inventions and discoveries of Mesopotamia. Ancient History Lists. Web.
Love as a power of transformation. Traditional Buddhist worldview vs. Western definitions of love/desire. An exploration of if the transformation depicted could be the ultimate sign of true/real love.
There are numerous powers that love appears to depict, yet the one that cokes our strongly from the poem by Jeff Wilson is one of transformation. As the poet has noted, “The scent of the lotus is thick and suddenly you are carried away on a wave of bliss”, this is an indication of the power of love to transform mere mortals into extraordinary beings. However was a mortal man getting carried away in a wave of bliss? In addition, the last sentence to this poem, “For from this sleep will come an awakening like no other, to change the world forever” is a clear indication that following this dream, this person shall never be the same again. There is also an indicating of the witnessing of a miracle, as exemplified by dancing cripples who have already been made whole. Certainly, a miracle may very well be described as a transformation, in addition to accompaniment of love. The blind men also share in the joy of seeing again, once their vision is restored. One could hypotheses that this is an Eastern view of love, as the situation described here resembles events leading to the attainment of nirvana, a state of being that is the ultimate goal in such religions as Hinduism and Buddhism, amongst others, and which have a firm establishment in the East.
Like Hinduism, Buddhism shares a related concern in as far as an overcoming of desire is concerned; by way of celibacy. Even then, celibacy as an issue has received a varied metaphysical context amongst Buddhists. The notion of suffering and impermanence are fundamental to the Buddhist worldview. As a result, the human race undergoes suffering, one that bears a connection with desire. The objective of practicing Buddhism, therefore, is to bring to an end this suffering, by way of “extinguishing of desire (Kornberg 2007). From such a context, therefore, celibacy occupies a central role in the Buddhist religion, seeing also that it is a requirement of both nuns and monks to assume celibacy as they take their vows. Through sexual activity renunciation, coupled with the associated complex actions and intentions series, renunciants have a chance to “begin to detach themselves from the impermanence of the world and transcend the ‘craving’ that characterizes human life” (Kornberg 2007). Following quenching of this craving, desire dissipates “like the flame of a flickering candle and the state of nirvana is obtained wherein no return to the endless cycle of birth and death exists” (Kornberg 2007).
On the other hand, the Western view of love and desire appears to contradict that from the East. The Western context of desire seems to tie sex with desire. In this case, sexual intercourse is seen as an act of gratifying the needs of the body, and as such, could be seen as more of a craving.
Mortimer and Weissman (2000) wonder whether a world that lacks sex would find the desire or better still, love. One cannot but help wonder what would happen in the vent that both love and desire existed in the world and if at all these two entities would be quite distinct. It is important to note that even in the absence of sex, desire would also be there for man tends to go thirsty, hungry, tired, and cold. In addition, the passions or emotions of fear and rage would also be present, as these too are man’s desires.
The transformation that Jeff Wilson describes in the Buddherotica could be described as the unlimited sign of true love, at least within the context of the Eastern version of love. This is because such a state that borders Nirvana is the ultimate goal for everyone to attain. It goes beyond the love for material things or the self. It is an experiencing of a state of mental and spiritual bliss, coupled with a divine transformation. If at all a mortal man could experience such a vision in their lifetime, then, without doubt, this very action may very well be regarded as the discovery of true love. Nowhere in this depiction do we see a desire for the happiness of self only. Rather, it is a situation that seeks to make life more bearable to the less fortunate, like giving sight to the blind and letting the crippled walk.
Conditions necessary for adultery to occur. An assessment on why societies in North American appear to place more emphasis on the act of adultery, as opposed to its root causes
The conditions that are necessary for adultery to take place are varied and diverse. One thing that we ought to put into consideration is that since adultery by definition reflects on sexual intercourse that involves adults, there must have been consent from the two parties. Fr. McSorley’s, through his publication, “The violence that is war”, offers conditions that must be present in order for ‘just adultery ‘to take place. To start with, adultery ought to be viewed by a couple as the last resort (Dines 2002). This means that over time, they should have tried and failed in pursuing other means of helping them get along well with their sex life. This could entail receiving advice from a third party, discussing amongst them, failed attempts at expressing affection, and reconciliation of differences.
In addition, just adultery means good intentions, that there is no intention of a participant harming either their spouse or the one with whom they are engaging in sexual intercourse. It is important to note that revenge as a result of one partner being unfaithful to the others might as well be considered a very probable cause of adultery. There are also other trivial things worth considering, like a desire to have more children, or even another home. This publication supports the notions of looking at adultery as a defense to love. In light of this, the writer argues that the cause behind committing adultery ought to be genuine affection and love for the one with whom a spouse is committing adultery, seeing that the very needs for adultery may not be satisfied through any other means (Dines 2002).
As such, there is a need to have pure intentions for both two parties (Foster & Froman 2006). Another condition for adultery is that it must be seen as protecting the innocent. What this means is that the partner that gets aggrieved ought not to be harmed. As such, it is necessary that efforts be made to maintain the action as a secret.
Consequently, not only should there not be open flaunting but that the aggrieved partners should also not get wind of the development. In the event that children get born as a result of adultery, then it is important both the partners in adultery take care of these. There is also a need to strike a balance between on the one hand, good intention and on the other hand, ban ones (Soble 1998). What this implies is that it is important that the foreseeable harm to both the absent partners as well as the children be weighed, relative to love and affection that the two partners are enjoying. A dwindling respect towards the bondage that is marriage, couple with the ensuing family life damage, gets offsets by the discernible escalation in human affection, love as well as respect for that person jeopardized by adultery’s social effects.
It is important to note that it is the indifferences that crop up within the relationship of a couple that drives them towards committing adultery. Without suffering and worry, life at times tends to be uninteresting and dull, and an individual interests wanes (Soble 1998). The need for adventure then sets in and this is how adultery is brought to the fore. Love, according to St. Paul, is kind and patient. It is thus the principle virtual of human beings. When a married person commits adultery however, his/her inner peace gets destroyed. That sacrament of marriage hinges on love as the unifying factor for a couple in “one flesh”. Furthermore, such love ought to be both mutual and sincere. Adultery, on the other hand, tends to hurt such a union, leaving in its wake suspicion, doubt, betrayal and deceit, and an eventual eroding of love. As can be seen, a better understanding of love in the first place goes a long way into reducing episodes of adultery.
The societies in North America appears to place more emphasis on the actual act of adultery, while at the same time turning a blind eye to the conditions that lead up to it. One would presume that it would be easier to fight the vice from its roots, as opposed to nurturing and growing it, only to condemn its end-product. However, there is a need to point out here that over time, the very definition of adultery has received diverse manipulations. As such, some actions that would otherwise have been regarded as being adulterous, ends up not being so. This is a true mark of a tolerant society. For instance, in New York, an adulterer is defined as that person who “engages in sexual intercourse with another person at a time when he has a living spouse, or the other person has a living spouse” (Foster & Froman 2006).
On the other hand, the state of North Carolina has defined adultery as the act taking place at a time when a woman and a man “lewdly and lasciviously associate, bed, and cohabit together”(Foster & Froman 2006). The law in Minnesota on the other hand, indicates that “when a married woman has sexual intercourse with a man other than her husband, whether married or not, both are guilty of adultery” (Trevas et al 1997). As can be seen, there are various discrepancies that surrounds the very definition of the term adultery, amongst the various states. All of these definitions of course explore the final act that is adultery, and no mention is made therefore of the causes of adultery. In virtually all the societies in the East, adultery bears a significant inclination towards religion. As such, adultery is frowned upon by the society and religion as well.
In North American and especially in the United States, there exists a separation of church and state and for this reason, one could hypothesize that at times, the Church may want to condone adultery while at the same time also focusing on the root causes of adultery. On the other hand, there is a state that stands out to protect the privacy of all, regardless of their religious affiliations. As such, a conflict of interest may ensue. Furthermore, criminal penalties have also been instituted in the United States and these tend to vary from one state to the other (Kornberg 2007). Besides, the United States Supreme Court issued out a decision in 1965 that relates to sexual intimacy and privacy amongst consenting adults.
There are numerous reasons as to why a person may engage in adultery. More often than not, the underlying causes of adultery get overshadowed by the secondary ones. For example, a woman may resort to adulteration when she feels that her spouse no longer satisfies them sexually. It could also be as a result of waned affection and consequently, attraction. Nevertheless, all these issues point to the fact that such a couple have a poor form of communication for if they were communicating in an effective manner, certainly they would be in a position to resolve such matters without jeopardizing their marriage. It may also be insinuated here that adultery could also be an indication of selfishness on the part of one partner (Trevas et al 1997). When a couple gets married, the idea is to have them united as one. With time, they get to knowing each other better. Affection and love then develops over time. Therefore, adultery may be deemed immoral to the extent that one partner is deceiving the other. Even in the absence of deception, the morality of adultery may be less likely a plausible option as it is a betrayal to trust and friendship.
A comparative assessment of Taoist idea of participation in sex with participation in prostitution and pornography
The issue of morality and prostitution has enjoyed along relationship with religion. As such, these issues may very well be seen as quite inseparable. From the biblical perspective, it is often the women that engaged in prostitution that were the targets. They are often seen as immoral and therefore unclean, so to speak. No mention is made of the men that they had sex with. Seeing that oppression and violence was mainly directed to the women, it is important though to appreciate that in the society in which we live today we have believers and non-believers alike, Christians, Hindus and Muslims, amongst other religions. Nevertheless, all these distinct faithful are unified by virtue of their human nature, seeing that their religious believes may differ. As humans, there we ought to respect the laws that govern us. Even then, the legality and morality of prostitution should be a counterbalance between the biblical teachings on the one hand, and the laws of the land on the other hand (Ditmore 2006). This way, we give each of us space and privacy. However, it is important that we respect the decision and view of the church, as it has moral basis for arguing against prostitution.
The Taoist teaching on sexuality dates as far back as the 2nd century. In addition, these teachings appear to have been “closely integrated in its overall cosmology” (Clarke 2000). As Clarke has further noted, “ the sexual act was viewed primarily not in terms of pleasure, or even the production of offspring, but rather as an active participation in the life enhancing processes” (Clarke 2000). These ‘life enhancing processes’ Clarke has noted, are deemed as a significant in the self-cultivation process. Such an observation is in sharp contrast to participation in prostitution and pornography. Here, money and self-gratification appears to be the driving forces. In prostitution and pornography, the participants do not engage in these acts for purposes of procreation, health to their bodies or happiness. It is more of a craving or desire, as opposed to mutuality.
Clarke has also quoted Douglas Wile, a sinologist, who asserted that “The followers of the sexual school of Taoism encouraged the development of a sexual sensibility that invested every act of coalition…. with an indelible metaphysical significance” (Clarke 2000). What this appear to imply is that the immediate goal techniques of sex was for purposes of enhancing ‘life-giving’ sexual essence, by way of sexual stimulus. In addition, care was also taken not to lead to a possible loss of the same. Apparently, sexual essence for purposes of love giving seems to lack in both prostitution and pornography. Instead of glorifying and respecting the act of sex, it has instead been commercialized, meaning that it is more of a money making venture as opposed enhancing ‘life giving’.
Taoism teaching holds the view that the female orgasm, relative to that of a male, appear to augment their vital essence, in addition to that of the man with whom they have sex with. For his reason, it was quite fashionable that a man could engage in sexual intercourse with numerous partners, in a bid to “absorb as much as possible the vital essence released by the women in orgasm” (Clarke 2000).Taoism harbours a general view to the effect that abstaining from intercourse tended to be harmful. In addition, Clarke writes that “the drawing together of yin and yen elements produced health, harmony and long life” (Clarke 2000), and so the more reason why a lack of sex was deemed harmful. In reference to sexual activity, domination has more to do with “playing with power dynamics” (Ditmore 2006).
Prostitutes, along with other sex workers are usually inclined and willing to incorporate these kinds of activities, in as far as their work is concerned. Apparently, sex workers may have less control when faced with humiliating scenes from clients, seeing that most of the clients tend to objectify them. Such dehumanizing activities may include burning them with cigarettes, spanking and hair pulling. On the other hand, the sex workers have a controlling effect on the finances of a client, such as a management over their credit cards, in addition to going shopping at the expense of their clients.
The issues of decriminalizing and legitimizing of prostitution have enjoyed a fare share of hot debate amongst proponents and opponents alike. Nevertheless, there is a need to ensure responsibility over one’s life, especially in a case whereby sexually active people are involved. Making prostitution illegal may not be the way forward, seeing that it is the oldest profession, older than even a majority of the religions. That said there is a need to impose legal penalties to the brothels that operates without a license, and therefore fails to remit taxes. This should also apply to licensed sex pros that fail to pay tax. In addition, brothel officials that subject their sex workers to causal sex with clients without protection should also be charged.
Exploring heterosexism as a sub-category of sexism. A view of the Western culture as primarily hetero-centrist
Heterosexism refers to bias, negative attitudes as well as discrimination in preference to relationships and sexuality of the opposite sex. This definition goes on to take the assumption that all are individuals are heterosexuals, a rather generalized approach. In other words, heterosexism rests on a premise that relationships and attraction of the opposite sex are often the norm and as such, they take the center-stage. It is quite possible for individuals with divergent sexual orientations to harbor such an attitude. Dines (2002) has described heterosexism as being “encoded into and characteristic of the major social, cultural, and economic institutions of our society” (Dines 2002).
Heterosexism, though a term that has established itself quite well, often times gets described as having been coined from the term sexism. If we were to portray heterosexism as a set of attitudes and beliefs, we would then find out that this term hinges upon fundamental tents, and this therefore appears to distant itself from bisexuality and homosexuality (Kornberg 2007).
Within the mindset or ideology of a heterosexist, sexual orientation as a concept in either deemed irrelevant, or rejected altogether. On the other hand, sexism as a term was first coined during the 20th century, in reference to the attitude or belief that one of the two sexes of genders could be less valuable or inferior to, in comparison with the other.
In addition, sexisms could also be used while referring to a prejudice towards or hatred of either of the two sexes, as a while. In addition, it might also refer to stereotypical applications of femininity with respect to women or masculinity in terns of the men (Ditmore 2006). Other authors have also referred to it as female and male chauvinism (Ditmore 2006). Sexism has led to “the subjugation of women to men” across diverse cultures, historically. In light of this, a majority of the women and men espousing masculinsm and feminism, in addition to other forms of ideologies, have attempted to dismiss beliefs about sexism.
As long as there continues to be a discrimination against the sexual inclination of a certain groups by say, the larger majority, then it can be expected that such individuals that may almost always get drawn to members of the same sex, with whom they have a chance of finding acceptance and accommodation in, seeing that they share similar values. This in itself acts to propagate same sex relationships and marriage. In the absence of such discrimination as depicted by sexism, then there is also a possibility that they might get an approval and acceptance from the society.
The Western culture has been depicted as one that is hetero-centrist. What this means is that we as a society have come to appreciate and include in heterosexism as a form of sexuality. This behaviour has mainly been propagated by the numerous magazines and newspapers that seem to glorify heterosexual beings, at times depicting these as being successful role model worth of emulation (Ditmore 2006). Furthermore, pornographic movies also seem to glorify heterosexism.
After answering questions from the “Are My Attitudes Heterosexist?” Test, I realized that in most of the instances, we as the society condone the heterosexual actions of individuals without first minding about how they might have landed in the situation that they find themselves in, in the first place. For starters, a person may become a heterosexual genetically, by way of socialization, as a result of pressure from parents who may be heterosexual themselves, or even as a result of a prior traumatic experience from a heterosexual person. In addition, this test has enlightened me in the sense that it is quite possible for one to group out of this condition. Furthermore, the root cause of heterosexual behaviour could be as a result of a neurotic fear of individuals of a similar sex. If at all individual could be exposed to these findings, then it would be quiet possible to make individual diagnoses regarding this problem. As such, people may also be helped to get out of this situation after making a discovery of their problem.
An assessment of the question, “What in life might fit into this category of mediocre, convenient, or conventionally expected? Can it be changed?”
The societies in the Western culture have time and again been accused of being too fast-paced, reactive and too detracted, to the extent that we are not able to learn who we really are. Moreover, the very idea of loving ourselves is almost alien. In the absence of learning us first, how then, do we expect to love other? What yardstick might we use to love others, seeing that we lack a standard fro loving us first?
Dollimore (1998) describes love as being the ultimate surrender of ‘oneself in the other, even in this most extrinsic being of death, the death of the absolute representation of the limits of life”. (Dollimore 1998). Here, Dollimore refers to the love of Christ over the church, one that led to his eventual dying on the cross. Dollimore further adds that the death of Christ could be a symbol of a sacrificial death, which in itself depicts “an act of absolute satisfaction” (Dollimore 1998). The dialect depiction of love by humans offers the promise of significant “sense of completion in the other; the sublime transcendence of bad infinity which also entails a loss of the self” (Dollimore 1998).
Love appears to distinguish between on the one hand, the self and on the other hand, the other. Nevertheless, it is quite difficult for one to differentiate one from the other. Indeed, it is the feeling of consciousness of the identity of the two that is a true manifestation of love. This is what happens when we, as human beings get to be at peace and satisfied not just with ourselves only, but also with this other (Dollimore 1998). This other referred to as here, by virtue of its existence outside of ourselves only bears a correlation with us due to our being conscious about it. By the mere act of human beings experiencing their own identity within themselves and in this other, this is what gives them feeling, intuition and identity of their unity. It is this phenomenon that Dollimore has referred to as love.
It is important to note here that the individuals in the western culture may not be said as loving themselves, literary, as they ought to, if the amount of distractions, reactive-ness and speed that characterizes this culture is anything to go by. In this haste, the individuals of the Western culture ends up not loving themselves enough, or at least as we ought to. In addition, their portrayal for the love of others is also quite wanting. Ours is more of a materialistic culture, in which personal advancement and enhanced wealth appears to be our overrated virtues. This is in sharp contrast with the cultures in the East or indeed the developing countries in Africa. Here, love is manifested more by the art of giving, and despite these communities not being endowed with material wealth, they at least have been blessed with much love for others, and self too.
Nevertheless, this should by no means be taken to mean that we hate ourselves, far from it. Being egocentric and arrogant is not a mark of loving oneself, characteristics that appear to be more common amongst our culture more than any other. What this could imply is that we are awake to the realization that before you can love another you have to love you first. Indeed, it is a mark of a culture of people that are alive to the notion of humanness, coupled with compassion and acceptance. Nevertheless, all this love for self in the long run, does not entirely fulfil our desires, and gain with seek for love in other forms. This is a void that not even material possessions may fill. At this point, it would be vital if we as a people, could be honest with our feelings, and explores to cultivate love and affection that would ultimately quench our thirst.
Even a total alignment with an ethnic orientation or religious inclinations may not offer us much hope if at all we do not find peace and happiness amongst ourselves., therefore, it is only by way of becoming aware of our predicament, coupled with being honest with our feelings, intuitions even, that we could be on our path towards salvation. These are key elements which when accompanied by the truth, prepares the ground for the planting of the seed of love.
Works cited
Clarke, James. The Tao of the west: western transformations of Taoist thought. London: Routledge, 2000.
Dines, Gail. Gender, Race, and Class in Media: A Text-Reader. New York: Wiley, 2002.
Ditmore, Melissa. Encyclopedia of prostitution and sex work. Oxford: Greenwood Publishing, 2006.
Dollimore, Jonathan. Death, desire and loss in Western culture. London: Routledge, 1998.
Foster, John & Froman, Wayne. Thresholds of Western culture; identity, postcoloniality. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006.
Kornberg, Greenberg. Encyclopedia of love in world religions. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2007.
Mortimer, Jerome & Welshman, Max. How to think about the great ideas. London: Wiley, 2000.
Soble, Alan. Sexual investigations. New York: NYU Press, 1998.
Robinson, Richard. The Buddhist religion: a historical introduction (3rd Ed). Belmont, Calif: Dickenson Pub. Co., 2000.
Trevas, R, Zuker, A & Borchert, D. Philosophy of Sex and Love. New York: Prentice Hall, 1997.