Category: Water

Introduction

As the surface of the earth is covered with 70 % of water, it looks like a blue ball from far above. The well known fact is that water is the most valuable natural resource that exists and without which survival of life is impossible. About 97 % of the earths water is in the oceans or locked away as ice. Groundwater is the major source of freshwater accounting for about 0.6 per cent of the total. Only about 0.01 per cent of freshwater is present as lakes, streams lochs, reservoirs, ponds, rivers canals, ditches, coastal waters and estuaries (Vale, 2006).

Specifically, the groundwater is present below the surface of the ground in the saturation zone which is located below the water table and is in direct contact with the ground or subsoil. Unfortunately, these are the only fresh sources available for humans and other terrestrial organisms. Pollution of this precious resource is a major problem globally.

Arsenic abbreviated as As occurs in the rocks present in the earths crust. It is also present in soil, all natural sources of exposure. For instance, arsenic can be traced to subterranean water brines that are used to produce oil and natural gas. It is in general through the drinking of contaminated water arsenic exposure occurs in humans and other terrestrial organisms. Exposure to arsenic at elevated levels poses serious health effects as the element itself is a well known carcinogen.

Besides, arsenic has been reported to affect the vascular system. Several researchers have also linked this to the cause of diabetes. The over-exploitation of groundwater results in the dissolution of naturally occurring arsenic from the rocks present in earth. This is a major source of arsenic pollutant in the groundwater. Additionally, arsenic is an element that is present in the pesticides, fungicides, and also industrial wastes that leach into the ground water (Wilkes University, N.D.).

Arsenic Pollution a Global Concern

Arsenic has been recognized as causing serious problems only in the recent decades. It was only in the 80s that the World Health Organization (WHO) had set specific standards for drinking water as 10 ¼g/l or 0.01 mg/l. Presently, there are many countries that have reported high levels of arsenic in part of their groundwater resources. For instance, it is a major problem in the Asian countries such as Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, etc. There are several studies from these regions that reported and published results of arsenic contamination in the ground water (Mandal and Suzuki, 2002; Polya et al., 2005).

Researchers also have found that the increased concentration of arsenic in ground waters the Asian region is considered to be of mainly geogenic origin. The main chemical reaction that results in the release of arsenic into the ground water is the reductive suspension of iron (hydr)oxides abbreviated as FeOOH. This reaction occurs due to the stimulation by microbial activity and organic materials present in the soil. Studies by researchers such as Ahmed et al. (2004) and McArthur et al. (2004), have proven beyond doubt that this is the main channel in which arsenic reaches the aquifers.

Combating Arsenic Water Pollution

The status of groundwater arsenic contamination in different parts of the world especially in Bangladesh is so serious that the instant plans and strategies need to be taken in order to solve this problem. It is essential to deliver adequate drinkable water to all seriously affected areas. Though there is yet no proper channel to decontaminate the arsenic contaminated ground water, the following are a few measures that need to be employed based on the cost effectiveness:

• Provide a substitutive source of drinking water especially in the heavily contaminated regions. Methods such as pond sand filters, infiltration galleries, or Ranney wells, and even rainwater harvesting can be of great help.
• In places where good source of surface water are available, it can be used after purification by filtration and chlorination. There are also methods such as ultraviolet disinfection or solar radiation that can be utilized to purify drinking water.
• There are chemical methods to remove the arsenic from the contaminated water. For instance, arsenic can be removed by chemical precipitation using coagulants such as the salts of aluminium and iron. However, this method cannot be used in a large scale. Arsenic can also be removed by the process of oxidation. The use of oxidants such as free chlorine, ozone, permanganate, hypo-chlorite, and Fenton reagent (H2O2/Fe2+) aid in removing arsenic from the contaminated drinking water.
• One of the best ways to avoid arsenic in drinking water is drawing out arsenic free groundwater from deep aquifers.
• Filtration is yet another method by which arsenic can be removed from contaminated water. This filtration can be at the household level of at community level.
• Government need to take action to remove arsenic from the existing water sources. Additionally, it is also important to control the anthropogenic sources of water contamination through stringent law.
• In-situ remediation of arsenic contaminated groundwater by the use of iron filings permeable walls (Safiuddin and Karim, 2001).

Additionally, the implementation of some of the proper mitigation measures such as intensive water quality monitoring, need to be taken up in order to prevent the health hazards. It is important to supply arsenic free drinking water in the affected areas by following any of the above mentioned cost effective methods. It is also important to diagnosis and treat patients initially in order to avoid serious health problems.

There is a need to create awareness especially in the third world countries regarding arsenic poisoning. Research and development is another are that need financial support and motivation. Epidemiological studies in regions where the contamination of arsenic in water is high need to be taken up on priority basis. Additionally it is also essential to take up hydro -geological that will aid in assessing the extent of leaching of arsenic in ground water (Majumder, 2008).

Conclusion

Arsenic pollution particularly in the ground water and its impact on health is a global issue. Though there are no universal methods to decontaminate the polluted water, various methods need to be employed depending on the region and cost effectiveness. Since arsenic pollution occurs more due to the natural reasons when compared to anthropogenic activities, the control of this is difficult.

One of the important steps that can be taken up is by reducing the contamination through anthropogenic sources especially from the agricultural and industrial activities by following sustainable development. Awareness and education will also play important role in avoiding the use of arsenic contaminated water for drinking purposes. If these measures are not taken up seriously in the heavily polluted regions of the world, human health will be jeopardized.

References

Ahmed K.M., Bhattacharya P., Hasan M.A., Akhter S.H., Alam S.M.M., Bhuyian M.A.H., Imam M.B., Khan A.A. & Sracek O. (2004). Arsenic enrichment in groundwater of the alluvial aquifers in Bangladesh: an overview. Appl Geochem, 19: 181-200.

Majumder, A. (2008) Mitigation of Arsenic Contamination in Groundwater  Experiences. Web.

Mandal B.K. & Suzuki K.T. 2002. Arsenic around the world: a review. Talanta, 58: 201-235.

McArthur J.M., Banjeree D.M., Hudson-Edwards K.A., Mishra R., Purohit R., Ravenscroft P., Cronin A., Howarth R.J., Chatterjee A., Talukder T., Lowry D., Houghton S. & Chadha D.K. (2004). Natural organic matter in sedimentary basins and its relation to arsenic in anoxic ground water: the example of West Bengal and its worldwide implications. Appl Geochem, 19: 1255-1293.

Polya D.A., Gault A.G., Diebe N., Feldman P., Rosenboom J.W., Gilligan E., Fredericks D., Milton A.H., Sampson M., Rowland H.A.L., Lythgoe P.R., C. J.J., Middleton C. & Cooke D.A. (2005). Arsenic hazard in shallow Cambodian groundwaters. Mineral Mag, 69: 807-823.

Safiuddin, M. and Karim, M.M. (2001) Groundwater Arsenic Contamination In Bangladesh: Causes, Effects And Remediation. Proceedings of the 1st IEB international conference and 7th annual paper meet; Chittagong, Bangladesh: Institution of Engineers, Bangladesh. Web.

Vale, J., (2006). Water Quality, The Environment Agency. Web.

Wilkes University, (N.D.) Arsenic in Drinking Water and Groundwater, Center for Environmental Quality. Web.

Introduction

Lake Mattoon is a man-made water reservoir located in central Illinois. It was created in 1957 to provide an additional source of water for the population of Mattoon and Neoga. Moreover, the lake is continuously stocked with various fish species, including catfish, bluegill, brass, and crappie. Today, lake Mattoon is both one of the primary water suppliers and the favorite recreational site for the local community  in my opinion, the lakes main importance lies in these two features.

Main body

Lake Mattoon was not the first man-made lake in Illinois  Lake Paradise was created first in 1907 to supply the population with water. However, throughout the years, as the population had grown, it became clear that just one lake was insufficient. Thus, lake Mattoon was established by building a dam a short distance southwest of Mattoon city. The new lake was and still is bigger than lake Paradise: while Paradise has a surface of only 210 acres, Mattoon has around 1,050 acres of surface (Mattoons official website, 2021). Both lakes are of crucial importance for Coles countys population and ecosystem.

On lake Paradise, most recreational activities such as camping, skiing, swimming, and boat renting are prohibited. It is a No Wake lake, and boating is also limited due to the lakes small size and its main role as a primary source of water. Therefore, when a much bigger lake  lake Mattoon  was established, it quickly became peoples most visited recreational site. Lake Mattoon provides a lot of opportunities for a good holiday: fishing, boating, camping, and many other activities are allowed here. Mattoons official website (2021) states that on lake Mattoon, boating and fishing are available almost year round (pp. 3). It can be safely said that lake Mattoon is quite valuable for the local community.

Conclusion

Lake Mattoon remains one of Coles countys best recreational sites and major water reservoirs. It is a big, man-made lake with lush green shores, well-stocked with fish populations. For the community, lake Mattoon is important as both a water source and a place to relax, as it provides ample opportunities for all sorts of activities. This lake, indeed, means a lot to the population of central Illinois. Therefore, it is crucial to preserve it.

Reference

Mattoon Parks & Recreation Department. (2021). Lakes & Camping in Mattoon, Illinois. Official Government Website for the City of Mattoon, Illinois. Web.

Although the formula of H2O is relatively simple, this compound is still not fully understood. A large number of types and uses of water greatly expands the range of possible investigations. Water has a number of unique and animating properties, one of which is its high heat capacity. It is necessary to analyze this characteristic of water in more detail and identify why this property is significant.

The heat capacity of water is abnormally high. To heat a certain amount of it by one degree, more energy must be expended than when heating other liquids. This results from waters unique ability to retain heat. The vast majority of other substances do not possess this property. This exceptional feature of water contributes to the fact that the normal human body temperature is maintained at the same level and a hot day and a cool night (Sharma, 2020). It follows from the above that water plays the main role in the regulation of heat transfer and allows a person to maintain a comfortable state with minimum energy expenditure. Due to considerable values of heat capacity and latent heat of transformation, huge volumes of water on the Earths surface are heat accumulators. The same properties of water determine its use in industry as a heat carrier (Sharma, 2020). The thermal characteristics of water are one of the most important factors of biosphere stability.

Water is more transparent than soil and, at the same time, denser than the atmospheric layer. Therefore, it absorbs more energy than land or air. The stored heat spreads between the different layers of a body of water, so water is often colder at the surface than the land. Almost all of the stored heat is retained by the water column until the cold season (Sharma, 2020). Even after the upper layers freeze, the temperature under the ice remains higher than on the land surface.

Thus, the heat capacity of water greatly affects the planets climate. At high temperatures, water absorbs heat, and when it gets colder, it gives it away. Thus a maritime type of climate is formed: in such regions, winters are warmer, and summers are colder. This unique property of water is only one of several but vividly illustrates the vital importance of this compound.

Reference

Sharma, S. K. (2020). Green chemistry and water remediation: Research and applications. Elsevier Science.

The Venturi effect is of particular importance in fluid dynamics, characterizing the pressure drop of a fluid as it flows through narrow spaces. The Venturi effect is named after the Italian scientist Giovanni Battista Venturi, who is also known for his work in optical physics (Gallitto et al., 2021). The Venturi effect determines the hydrodynamics in heterogeneous tubes, whose cross sections differ from each other. If one refers to Fig. 1, one can observe an example of such a tube: the cross section of the central part turns out to be significantly smaller than the cross-section at the edges of cone-shaped regions. In simple words, the pipe narrows in some places and expands in others  space inhomogeneity is a key requirement for the realization of the Venturi effect.

An explanation of the Venturi effect can be realized from two sides: through velocity vectors and through Bernoullis equation. In terms of velocity vectors, the motion of fluid molecules is physically restricted because the tapering walls of the pipe prevent active flow (Shi & Nikrityuk, 2020). As a

consequence, the velocity vector is reoriented towards the direction of least resistance. Since any fluid is represented by a huge number of such molecules, the total velocity vector converges as the space in the pipe shrinks, which creates an increase in the flow velocity. However, it is possible to consider the Venturi effect from another side, namely as a consequence of Bernoullis equation [1]. In equation [1], it is shown that the sum of pressure P with the product of density ???? by height h and acceleration of gravity g, as well as with the half-product of density by the square of velocity v, is a constant value.

Bernoullis Equation can be used in practice to demonstrate why the pressure decreases as the speed of the molecules increases. Figure 2 shows two points from areas with different cross sections. For both points, the expression from Bernoullis Equation applies, and therefore Equation [2] is valid. Since points 1 and 2 are on the same height, the terms associated with height are excluded. Since it has already been determined that the flow velocity in a narrow space increases, the term ^! naturally ! increases on the right-hand side. In turn, since equality [3] determines the constancy of this expression, it follows that the pressure P2 must decrease in response to an increase in velocity. In other words, the Venturi effect determines that the pressure of the flow of a non-viscous and incompressible fluid decreases due to the increase of its velocity through the narrowing spaces. In turn, in response to a decrease in pressure in a narrow space, the fluid cannot also push air out much, and as a result, h is observed in a measuring device based on the physics of communicating vessels.

The Venturi effect finds its application not only in laboratory tests but also widely used in the applied sense. For example, if one compresses a water hose with a finger, that is, artificially creates a constriction of the tube, the speed of liquid flow increases, and the pressure decreases. In addition, the effect also works in relation to air masses when the wind speed increases in the space of the city as a result of dense development. The pressure differential caused by the Venturi effect is also used: when a fluid flow with higher velocity enters a narrower space, it results in a vacuum. In contrast, by measuring the pressure of the fluid, including the height of the column, the flow velocity can be calculated, allowing the flow rate to be determined. Thus, the Venturi effect is widely observed in nature and is actively used in the laboratory. This report examines the results of a laboratory study of the Venturi effect.

Methodology

The design of this study is based on an experimental paradigm to obtain preliminary quantitative results and analyze them. Figure 3 shows an example of a device that could be used to observe the Venturi effect. The flow rate or flow rate was controlled by means of a red tap at the bottom of the unit connected to the fluid source. Several experiments were performed depending on the actual flow rate of the fluid controlled by the red tap. The liquid was discharged into a measuring flask upon reaching the 0.012 m3 mark, in which the experiment was terminated. Different sections of the heterogeneous pipe were connected using vessels to the meter, which allowed to determine the height difference when the uniform flow was established. Based on the height difference and the time required to fill the measuring flask with 0.012 m³ of liquid, calculations were made, and the patterns associated with the Venturi effect were determined.

Results and Discussion

The present laboratory work was designed to investigate the Venturi effect in terms of determining the actual flow rate of the fluid and investigating the relationship between height difference and flow velocity. The height difference measured from the liquid column by means of a ruler was evidence of

the pressure drop resulting from the flow moving into the narrower space of the pipe. Table 1 below shows the results of the direct measurements of the height difference measured in meters. Primarily it can be seen that the height difference decreases as the experiment progresses  given that the flow rate was decreasing, one can conclude that as the fluid head decreases, so makes the pressure difference between the different sections of the heterogeneous pipe. Since the fluid flow rate was measured in l/min, it was paramount to convert the value to m3/s. For this purpose, the formula shown in equation [4] was used.

Table 1. Results of Measurement of Height Difference and Calculation of Theoretical Fluid Flow Rate.

Dependence between height difference and flow rate was measured with MS Excel. Figure 4 presents a graph of this functional relationship: in general, it can be seen that as the height difference increases, so does the theoretical fluid flow rate, and vice versa. It is well seen that the relationship between the variables is not strictly linear, as the flow rate increases non-uniformly as the height difference

increases. If one again refers to Bernoullis equation but slightly rewrite it, one can obtain equation [5]. This transformation clearly shows that the relationship between the two variables is actually quadratic; that is, the height difference (pressure difference) is defined as the difference in squares of velocities (flow rates) and vice versa, and the fluid flow velocity difference is defined as the square root of the pressure difference. Indeed, a linear relationship from Bernoullis equation is found for the pressure difference as a function of fluid density since these variables are related in direct proportion.

In addition, measurements were made of the rate at which the liquid was drawn into the measuring flask depending on the actual liquid regulation with the red tap. Table 2 shows the results of such measurements for each of the tests, given the time taken to reach a volume of 0.012 m³. It can be well seen that the obtained values of practical fluid flow are generally similar to those found theoretically,

taking into account the Bernoulli equation, but do not repeat them completely. The maximum difference between the two results was actual for the lowest fluid velocity (12 LPM), at which the difference between theoretical and actual flow rates was up to 21.4%, and the minimum was only 3.0% for the maximum fluid velocity. Equations [6]-[11] show the calculation results for the actual difference between the values.

Table 2. Results of Direct Measurements of Time and Actual Fluid Flow Rate.

Potential sources of error associated with the divergence of the determined flow rate through the Venturi effect prism is the treatment of the fluid as a perfectly incompressible model, which in reality is not the case. In addition, this experiment was associated with several limitations, namely the lack of consideration of temperature effects on the fluid, the lack of verification of the applicability of the results to fluids other than water, and the non-automated time-keeping system leading to the accumulation of errors.

References

Felföldi, A. (2021). What is the Venturi effect? SimScale.

Gallitto, A. A., Zingales, R., Battaglia, O. R., & Fazio, C. (2021). An approach to the venturi effect by historical instruments. Physics Education, 56(2), 1-12.

Neill, S. P., & Hashemi, M. R. (2018). Fundamentals of ocean renewable energy: Generating electricity from the sea. Academic Press.

Shi, H., & Nikrityuk, P. (2020). The Influence of Inflow Swirl on Cavitating and Mixing Processes in a Venturi Tube. Fluids, 5(4), 170-180.

Did you know that more than 60% of the human body is water? Likely yes, it is one of the well-known anatomical facts, but the extent of it and complex mechanisms which regulate water in the bodies are often underestimated. It is important to start with statistics, with 73% of the brain and heart made up of water, 83% of the lungs, 64% of the skin, 79% of muscles and kidneys, and even bones contain up to 31% water (USGS, 2019). Water is the critical nutrient to life in every cell which acts as building material for the organs, as well as serving secondary functions such as being a coolant for body temperature and transport for proteins in the bloodstream. It is evident that without water, humans cannot survive, with a health adult needing between 2.2-3 liters (2-3 quarts) per day of water consumption. Water has many unique aspects such as being a universal solvent that is able to participate solutions and non-covalent interactions of human cells, that is why it is a universal presence in the various body compartments and organs that play a role in human physiology (Riveros-Perez & Riveros, 2018).

For healthy function, the human body requires water balance as one of the key mechanisms, where the average daily water intake and output are relatively equal. The balance is maintained by combined workings of various systems including respiratory, digestive, endocrine, cardiovascular, urinary, and lymphatic. There are two major mechanisms of water intake  metabolic and preformed. Metabolic water is a by-product of aerobic respiration and dehydration synthesis. Preformed is water consumed with food and drink. Meanwhile, the main mechanisms of water output are urine (1500 mL/day), feces (200 mL/day), expired breath (300 mL/day), and sweat (100 mL/day). At the same time, as much as 400 mL/day are lost through cutaneous transportation which is water that diffuses through the epidermis and evaporates, similar to glandular secretion (Saladin, 2003). The body seeks to maintain water balance by regulation of excretion as well as driving fluid intake through intrinsic survival mechanisms of thirst.

References

Riveros-Perez, E., & Riveros, R. (2018). Water in the human body: An anesthesiologists perspective on the connection between physicochemical properties of water and physiologic relevance. Annals of Medicine and Surgery, 26, 18.

Saladin, K. (2003). Anatomy & physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill.

USGS. (2019). The water in you: Water and the human body.

Introduction

The issue of improving the process of labor and mitigating the post-labor consequences is a significant healthcare concern. Waterbirth remains to be a controversial approach, mainly because not many studies were conducted to examine this method. Some evidence suggests that waterbirth has many benefits both for women and neonates, while other researchers point out a lack of evidence, especially for patients who have diabetes or preeclampsia. Waterbirth can improve labor by decreasing the time of delivery, minimizing the risk of postpartum complications, and reducing adverse neonatal events.

Context

Waterbirth is a new technique applied in some hospitals across the United States. It can be defined as a process of labor that occurs in a water birth pool, or a neonate being intentionally born underwater (Bovbjerg, Cheyney, & Everson, 2016, p. 11). The process when women who are in the water during labor by giving birth in the air are not considered as waterbirth. Next, postpartum complications can include a variety of adversities women may experience after birth, including infections, pain, and others. Similarly, neonatal complications include any difficulties of the newborn. Finally, a waterbirth pool is a specific instrument designed for labor, which functions similarly to a bathtub and allows for freedom of movement.

One issue with the waterbirth technique is that because this approach is new, there is not enough data to make certain conclusions about its safety and applicability it for all patients. However, the studies examined in this paper provide some evidence for the benefits that waterbirth has. Most of the studies that focused on reviewing waterbirth were small and observational (Bovbjerg et al., 2016). However, some studies report the cases of successful waterbirth and highlight the benefits of this technique.

1^st Pro-Point

Waterbirth can help reduce the overall duration of labor. According to Neiman, Austin, Tan, Anderson, and Chipps (2019), women who use waterbirth experience a faster second stage when compared to women who do not use it. This stage lasts until the delivery of the baby and thus is an essential element of determining the benefits of waterbirth. Hodgson, Comfort, and Albert (2020) state that this benefit is questionable since the average duration is reduced by approximately ten minutes. However, through large-scale waterbirth studies, the researchers will be able to gain more comprehension about the relationship between waterbirth and labor duration.

2^nd Pro-Points

Children delivered through this method have a lower risk of developing neonatal consequences. One of the concerns of waterbirth is the health risk for the neonate. The main issue is the possibility of inhaling water during the process. However, Bovbjerg et al. (2016) state that in this case, the diving reflex allows neonates to avoid breathing underwater, although this reflex is not present in adults or children. Moreover, the comparison of neonatal measures suggests that waterborne neonates fare better when compared to other babies. Hodson et al. (2020) report a lower occurrence of neonatal adversities for the waterbirth cohort. Therefore, the waterbirth method reduces the risks of neonates developing complications.

3^rd Pro-Point

Waterbirth mitigates the likelihood of having postpartum consequences and complications. According to evidence collected by Neiman, Austin, Tan, Anderson, and Chipps (2019), women who use waterbirth are hospitalized less often when compared to those giving birth through traditional methods. Mainly, the risk of infection or trauma is less significant for women who have waterbirth. Moreover, the observation during six weeks after giving birth suggests that women who use waterbirth are less likely to be hospitalized (Bovbjerg et al., 2016). Thus, waterbirth reduces short-term and long-term health risks for women.

Conclusion

Overall, waterbirth can help reduce the duration of labor as well as the possible risk of having postpartum or neonatal consequences. The evidence reviewed in this paper report many cases of successful waterbirth, although more large-scale studies should be carried out to collect more evidence. In general, the risk of neonatal and maternal complications, as well as hospitalization for six weeks, is reduced. Moreover, the duration of the labor, more specifically the second stage, is usually reduced when using waterbirth.

References

Bovbjerg, M. L., Cheyney, M., & Everson, C. (2016). Maternal and newborn outcomes following waterbirth: The Midwives Alliance of North America statistics project, 2004 to 2009 cohort. Journal of Midwifery & Womens Health, 61(1), 11-20.

Hodgson, Z. G., Comfort, L. R., & Albert, A. A. (2020). Water birth and perinatal outcomes in British Columbia: A retrospective cohort study. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada, 42(2), 150-155.

Neiman, E., Austin, E., Tan, A., Anderson, C. M., & Chipps, E. (2019). Outcomes of waterbirth in a US hospitalbased midwifery practice: A retrospective cohort study of water immersion during labor and birth. Journal of Midwifery & Womens Health, 0, 1-8.

Introduction

Evidence does exist of the rise in the global mean surface air temperature in the twentieth century. More so, even if there are several uncertainties about the level of climatic change in the future, several types of research carried out show that in the future, global warming is quite likely. Among these scientists, we have some of them who believe that climate warming will bring about increased evaporation and precipitation which will then result in the increase of velocity of the water cycle. The acceleration of the water cycle could have some effects on the availability of the water resources and may in turn result in a rise in the occurrence and the strength of the tropic storms, droughts, floods, and the intensification of global warming in the course of the water vapor response (Thomas, 1).

According to the European Commission (1), an American researcher tried to study the probable connection involving global warming and the amplification of the water cycle, projected previously by other scientists. The scientist carried out a review of the present condition of science concerning past patterns in hydrological variables including precipitation, rivers flow, soil moisture among others so as to examine the feedback of the water cycle to the past and future climatic changes. The main characteristic of this research is that it involves fresh insights linking to the world continental stream flow, tropospheric water vapor, trends in glaciers, evaporation, and evapotranspiration. The researcher found out that, on global average, precipitation had been said to be risen by about two percent within a period of almost one hundred years beginning from the year 1900 up to the year 1998. More so, the rise in precipitation on land has been linked to the rise in the main rivers in several regions of the world. An examination of the patterns in continental flow in the main rivers between the year 1910 and the year 1975 realized a rise in the flow of approximately three percent. A more recent examination done again of such patterns for the period ranging from the year 1920 up to the year 1995 established a rise in the streamflow in the course of the twentieth century. Genio, Dai, and Fung (1) also comment on the issue of precipitation. They concur that the impact of the future global warming will be felt on precipitation trends and there will be recurrent droughts and floods.

More so, according to the European Commission (5), this scientist gave a report that the last half of the twentieth century realized amplification in the soil moisture, evapotranspiration, water vapor as well as ice buildup on mountain glaciers. Even if the recent researches have given a suggestion about a connection between patterns towards warming sea surface temperature and hurricane strength in the Atlantic, his research gave a suggestion that the experimental data to this time do not, without fail, support a rise in the rate of recurrence of tropical floods and storms.

Nevertheless, there are considerable uncertainties concerning the patterns in the hydrological and climatic variables due to the very variable excellence of the information and the regional variations and occasionally ambiguous results. Despite the uncertainties, the observed pattern in most of the variables examined gives a suggestion that global warming may actually have amplified the global hydrological cycle during the twentieth century. Because of the prospective effects of such a variation of the human life, it would be quite vital to bring about the improvement in the ability to check and forecast the impacts of altering the global water cycle.

Observed trends in precipitation

Other than the changes in temperature itself, conceivably the most significant prospective impact of global warming in time to come will be this global warming effect on global precipitation trends and recurrence of extreme droughts together with floods. Changes in precipitation may not just be a result of global warming but this may affect global warming also. A unique characteristic of this warming that was noticed in the previous century is that there has been warming of the temperatures in the course of the nighttime than during the daytime. This brings in some advantages in agriculture since the unfavorable frost may occur less frequently. But on the other hand, there may be adverse effects on the growth of some plants and cause the crop pests to thrive.

Soil Moisture

There exist a general small wetting pattern in the global soil moisture brought about by the rising precipitation, that is weighted by positive soil moisture patterns over the Western hemisphere and particularly in North America. But there are variations depending on the region. In West Africa, there is drying overdue to the reducing Sahel precipitation. Europe seems to have not experienced great changes in the soil moisture and this also applies to other parts like Southern and southeast Asia.

Runoff and streamflow trends

Following the climatic change, it is projected that by the year 2050 there will be an increase of between 10 and 40 percent in runoff in North America, Eurasia, eastern equatorial Africa and the La Plata basin. There will be a decrease of between 10 to 30 percent in the runoff in regions like Southern Africa, Southern Europe, Western North America, and the Middle East (Milly, Dunne and Vecchia, 1).

Groundwater trends

The changes in climate are experienced through changes in the hydrological system. Groundwater is the number one store of freshwater that can be accessible but it still remains chiefly marginal to the present analyses and discussions of climate change adaptation (Anonymous, Groundwater and climate, 1). The observations on the groundwater levels show that recharge volumes may change in considerable terms from one year to the other in relation to the changes in climate.

Trends in reservoir, lake, and wetland storage

In the last decade, there have been suggestions that the occurrence of drought in key regions of the world may have brought about a reduction in global reservoir storage. The overall area of lakes has experienced an increase in the continuous permafrost zone by about 12 percent. On the other hand, there has been a reduction in the isolated permafrost areas of western Siberia by 11 percent. Considering the case of wetlands, it is estimated that about fifty percent of the wetlands are found in the high latitudes. There is fear that permafrost dilapidation may cause wetlands to be exhausted and their place be taken by grasslands and this can cause a very grave impact on the global carbon cycle and likely responses to global climate change.

Trends in glaciers

The latest research indicates that most glaciers are getting thinner especially in Greenland and Antarctica implying that more water now is in the sea and there is less frozen water on the land. These glaciers are as well flowing at a higher rate than in previous times and their rate of shrinkage is seemingly under acceleration. If the present trends persist, most of the glaciers will completely disappear.

Snow trends

There has been a decrease in the average snow extend of 3.75 million square kilometers in the Northern hemisphere within a period of the past thirty-nine years. This decrease has mostly been occurring during the month of June and July. In the Southern hemisphere, there has been not much significant change. The reduction in the snow, as well as ice cover, brings about increase in the rate of warming.

Changes in evaporation and evapotranspiration

Changes that are long-term in evaporation and prospective evapotranspiration can have intense impacts on hydrological processes and at the same time on the performance in agriculture. Both pan evaporation and potential evapotranspiration have gone down in previous years, especially in the case of India. Warming that will come in the future is seemingly likely to bring about a general increase in potential transpiration although this increase will not be uniform between seasons as well as regions. These changes will have noticeable impacts on environmental and economic well-being, particularly when these increases are not alternated with enough increases in precipitation.

Permafrost trends

A general increase in the permafrost temperature has been observed especially in northwest Canada, Alaska, Siberia and the northern part of Europe in the past more than a few decades. During this period, there has been a substantial warming.

Links between the Terrestrial Carbon and Water Cycle

The relationship between the shifting global water cycle and the carbon cycle can be associated with the climatic change. A significant part is played by the terrestrial biosphere in the climate system of the earth since it has taken approximately a quarter of the anthropogenic carbon emissions in the course of the twentieth century. It has not yet been established the time the biosphere can still go on taking in the carbon from the atmosphere at this particular rate. Researches have shown that the rate at which carbon can be taken up is dependent on the land use and hydrologic state. However, some of the observations in the researches have been clear while others have not been very clear in the associations of patterns in both local and global carbon budgets with climate and hydrological factors. Since water has different roles in every stage of the carbon cycle, it is quite necessary that each stage be observed separately. The largest amount of the terrestrial carbon is found in soil and in the vegetative biomass found above the ground. Basically, carbon finds its way into the environmental compartments through the process of photosynthesis in plants and may leave through the process of respiration, transfer of carbon to the lakes and rivers and the alterations of the land use.

As much as the hydrological processes are vital in all stages of the carbon cycle, the patterns in the carbon cycle are only at times strongly connected with patterns in the hydrological cycle. Availability of water may turn out to be a limiting factor as other climatic factors adjust for some ecosystems. Direct observations of carbon fluxes and storages have not often been made over appropriate time periods or regions for significant patterns to be identified but strong confirmation can still exist to indicate possible impacts of hydrologic patterns on the carbon cycle.

Is The Hydrologic Cycle Accelerating?

According to Miller (1), the hydrological cycle is accelerating. The hydrological cycle comprises water fluxes and stores in the air, oceans, lakes, and parts of land. The volume of water in total in the system of the earth is about (1.36 × 10⁹) KM³ of which about 97 percent is stored by the oceans, about 2.9 percent is stored in the rivers, lakes, ice, snow, and as underground water and only about 0.1 percent is found in the atmosphere. The water cycling involves transportation of atmospheric water vapor as well as precipitation, evaporation from the earths surface, transpiration from the plants, permeation of water into the earth, permafrost, surface runoff, water found in the oceans, snow glaciers, and underground water.

The hydrological cycle is connected directly with the quantity of absorption in the atmosphere together with the reflection and transmission of the received energy of the sun and also the quantity of the longwave radiations given out from the surfaces of land and oceans. The gases that occur in a natural way have played a major role in the regulation balance of the atmospheric radiation and the resultant temperature. Yet, the rising rate of emissions of carbon dioxide as well as other gases that absorb heat like methane has altered the balance bringing in warming of the lower atmosphere.

According to Miller (7), while there is continuous warming of the troposphere with an increase of between one degree and six degrees Celsius of the temperature in the course, this will make the acceleration of the hydrological cycle be clearly seen. Among the most responsive mechanisms of the hydrological water cycle is the alteration in the water vapor in the atmosphere and the subsequent alterations in the distribution of precipitation, its type together with its distribution. Air masses that are warmer have the ability to carry more water vapor causing events of excess precipitation which are in the form of floods that occur more often and also droughts that are prolonged also result. This alteration in the level of precipitation and water vapor brings an effect whereby there is a great likelihood that dry areas may become drier while wet areas may become wetter.

Assessing Future Impacts of Climatic Change

The accelerated hydrological water cycle brought about by global warming could have significant impacts on water availability. According to the United Nations Global Impact report, the change in climate will bring about an effect on the scarcity of water and the sustainability of its supply (Anonymous, 2). According to this report, climatic change will cause an increase in the shortage of water as a result of alterations in precipitation trends and amount. This effect will be felt mostly in the mid-latitudes and sub-tropics and these areas are expected to become drier. More so, there will be a reduction in the capacity of water storage from melting of glacier and as a result, there will be a reduction in the lasting availability of water for the people who stay in the glacier-fed river basins comprising of parts of countries like India, China, and the United States of America. There will also be a rise in the susceptibility of ecosystems due to the rise in the temperatures, variations in the precipitation trends, weather events that are severe will be more often, and longer droughts. There will also be an effect on the dependability and capacity of infrastructure for providing water as a reason of flooding, severe weather, and rising sea level. Many of the plants that deal in treating and supplying water were not designed to stand the anticipated rise in the sea level and the increased occurrences of extreme weather.

This report also indicates that climatic change will bring about an impact on the quality of the water. Increased precipitation together with flooding will bring up the level of erosion and this in turn leads to pollution of water sources. There will be contamination of coastal surface and groundwater sources as a result of the rising sea level which in turn will lead to saltwater intruding into the rivers and the groundwater reserves. In addition, there will be a rise in the temperature of water which will bring about an effect of enhancing the growth of more algae and bacteria bringing about water contamination (Anonymous, Climatic change and the global water crisis: What business need to know and do. United Nations Global Impact, 2).

Conclusion

So far, from the discussion, it can now be clearly seen that the changes in the climate brought about by global warming have a much bigger likelihood of impacting negatively on the global hydrological cycle. The acceleration of this cycle brings in unfavorable conditions for life on earth such as extreme climatic conditions. Therefore, measures must be taken to deal with the problem of global warming to minimize climate change and this will, in turn, solve this problem.

Works Cited

Anonymous. Climatic change and the global water crisis: What businesses need to know and do, United Nations Global Impact. 2009.

Anonymous. Groundwater and climate. Commission of ground water and climate change. Web.

European Commission. Changes in the Global Water cycle linked to Global Warming, European Commission DG ENV News Alert issue 22. 2006. Web.

Genio Del Anthony, Dai Aiguo, Fung Inez. Precipitation Trends in the Twentieth Century, Goddard Institute for Space Studies. December 1997. Web.

Huntington G. Thomas. Evidence of intensification of the global water cycle: Review and synthesis. Journal of Hydrology 319 (2006) 8395. Web.

Miller Norman L. Hydrological consequences of global warming. Lawrence Berkeley National Library.

Milly, Dunne and Vecchia. Global pattern of trends in stream flow and water availability in a changing climate. Nature Publishing Group.

Introduction

Statement of the Problem

Underground waters form one of the most widely relied upon water sources not only in the United States of America but also in many other parts all over the globe (Maureen et al, 2004). Due to the scarcity and inaccessibility of the surface waters in many parts of the world, a large population of people has been left to rely on underground water sources to surface their daily water needs (Howard, 2008). The United States of America is no exception.

In most of the US, especially in the state of California ground waters form the major source of water to almost half of the urban population and provide water to over 90% of the rural inhabitants and supply more than 50 billion gallons of water daily for irrigation purpose (Maureen et al, 2004). As a result of large underground water usage and overreliance on it as the main source of water, it has resulted in serious overdraft on groundwaters (Andrew, 2008).

It is important to note that underground water is the most effective way of water resources storage especially in rather dry arid and semiarid regions since there is minimum loss of water through evaporation compared to the surface waters. In addition, the storages are natural hence there is absolutely no cost that is incurred in the construction of the underground water reservoirs (Howard, 2008). This paper, therefore, discusses the underground water usage in Southern Californias kern and orange counties, the resultant groundwater overdraft, and its overall effects on the countys water economics.

• Topic: Underground Water Usage the effect of underground water overdraft in Kern and Orange counties in southern California.
• Thesis statement: the impact of underground water overdraft in kern and orange counties in southern California

Objectives

This paper sought to achieve two main objectives. These are:

1. To find out the effects of underground water overdrafts in southern Californias Kern and Orange Counties
2. To find out the effects of water overdraft on the development of water marketing in California between 1990 to date.

Hypotheses

This paper adopted two null hypotheses that underground water overdrafts have no significant effects on the southern Californian Kern and Orange countys water economics. Also, the study sought to test the hypothesis that the water overdraft in orange and Kern counties had a significant effect on the development of water marketing in California in the latter years of the 20th century to date.

Research methodology

To attain the information needed to test the hypothesis and make conclusions on the underground water usage, overdraft and its effect on kern and orange counties the paper used a Literature survey in which literature materials, books article, prior thesis, and journals were comprehensively reviewed to obtain topic information.

Literature Review

Groundwater usage in California. History

In the past years, most parts of California were known to have very rich underground water banks. As a result, an artesian well could be sunk via drilling a shallow well (Maureen et al, 2004). Historically, for instance, the debut artesian well to have been sinking in California was recorded to have been bored in southern California as early as 1868 (Howard, 2008). Since then, many more such wells water developed such that by the end of the 19th century close to eleven thousand artesian wells had been developed and in full use in the area. Most of these wells were typically shallow with most of them not exceeding 50 feet deep into the ground.

Water could freely and effortlessly flow out of them and no pumping costs were incurred in obtaining the water. Due to overdraft of the underground waters, however, the underground waters in California have greatly reduced (Howard, 2008). As a result the artesian wells, from which water used to flow freely, have since dried up or experienced a massive reduction in water volumes (Andrew, 2008) consequently, it has necessitated the sinking of deeper wells and massive pumping.

Declining Underground water sources in southern California kern and Orange counties

In California, most of the water storages are underground aquifers (Robert, 2003).

According to Andrew (2008), underground water especially in the Californian states makes one of the most significant resources. The famous California River forms the most reliable form of underground water to the state. In addition, the Salina River in particular provides the state with the most reliable source of water to the Californians. Presently, in southern California, there are more than 30 thousand underground water pumps (Andrew, 2008).

The largest decline in the underground water resources in California has been recorded in the last few decades. For instance, an artesian well belt that existed between Stockton and Bakersfield and which had more than 600 free-flowing artesian wells has been by the hardest drop in underground water volumes due to pumping, hence wells have since stopped flowing. As a result, sinking deeper well and subsequent pumping of such waters have been left as the only alternative. Today the belt is the worlds biggest concentration of irrigation pump population with water being pumped from more than 50,000 wells (Robert, 2003).

Significance of underground water sources to Kern and Orange counties population

The regional underground water resource is so important to orange county that it provides more than 50% countys drinking water (Maureen et al, 2004). According to the latter, the other half is outsourced from the nearby northern California and Colorado rivers as make-up to the reservoirs deficits. The underground water resources significance in the state of California is typically evident. Today, over 75% of the water that is used in the state for irrigating the farms is solely obtained and pumped from underground sources as the water imports from Colorado and Owena rivers is not at all used for irrigation (Maureen et al, 2004).

Instead, it is used in industries and domestic consumption. Similarly, most parts of Salinas, as well as Clara valley underground water, forms the major source of water with most of these regions relying wholly on the latter. In the same way, most towns and cities in California rely on underground waters (Andrew, 2008).

For instance, the San Francisco downtown region has well over 150 underground water aquifers mostly constructed in the basements of buildings, from which waters for hotels use, use in the departmental stores, and domestic consumption in most buildings is obtained (Howard, 2008).

In North America, underground waters form the major source of domestic waters providing a continuous water supply to more than 90% of the inhabitants especially in the rural areas (Robert, 2003). Also according to the latter, underground waters provide water to almost half of the total North American people. Although underground water is more susceptible to pollution, it continues to constitute one of the most relied upon water sources not only in America but also in many other parts across the whole world (Maureen et al, 2004).

Underground water overdraft

Californias overreliance on underground water resources is unmatched perhaps the greatest cause of underground water overdraft prevalent in the state especially in orange and kern counties which have the states richest and largest water aquifers (Andrew, 2008).

According to Robert (2003), Underground water overdraft means a situation where the rate at which water is drawn from an underground source or aquifer exceeds the rate at which such a source produces water or the rate at which the water is replaced at the source. An increase in population that depends on underground water sources increases, water demand also goes up hence if the water resources do not expand with such increase, therefore, the water demand will be higher than the available supply causing overdraws of water from a source.

Consequences of over-pumping of underground waters

Due to this great overreliance on underground waters, a crisis looms in that the wells are drying up as demand for the waters exceeds the supply and expansion of such resources. Consequently, the costs of obtaining these waters have greatly gone up since as the number of underground waters goes down at this alarming rate individuals are forced to incur more well-sinking costs as well as pumping costs since it has necessitated sinking deeper into the ground to obtain this valuable resource (Andrew, 2008).

If not checked, overdrafts of underground resources are likely to cause exhaustion of available water reserves, drying up of wells, severe water shortages, deterioration of water quality and increased water rates as well as increased pumping cost as individuals are forced to sink deeper into the ground in search of more waters. When water lies many feet inside the ground it will require more power and sophisticated technology to pump it up to the surface for the use which is an implication of more costs (Robert, 2003).

According to the United States Water News Online on October 27th, 2002 (Robert, 2003), it was reported that the orange county underground water aquifer one of the largest underground water source points in southern California had been overdrawn by more than 133 billion gallons representing the biggest deficit of underground waters in its history. The underground water resource that was known to be relied upon by close to 2 million Orange County residents was at the risk of drying up a crisis that the countys authorities attributed to the drought and increasing demand as a result of a rapid increase in the counties population.

Although the county had experienced worse overdrafts in the past, the orange county water district expatriated believed that the overdraft was enough to sound an alarm to the states authorities saying that it could degenerate to serious water shortages causing water rationing and pushing up water rates. As a reaction to this overdraft and the resultant deficit the orange and kern county water districts moved with aptness to find alternative measures to take care of the deficit.

Consequently, they contracted the south California metropolitan water district (MWD) to pump between 90000 and 100000 acre-feet into the orange county underground water reservoir annually as a preliminary measure to mitigate the problem caused by massive overdrafts. In addition, the water overdraft in major soaring demand and over-exploitation of underground waters leading to overdrafts led to the federal government of United States to intervene by establishing major federal water projects in the early 1990s.

Such projects included the CVP and SWP in Orange and Kern Counties respectively. Currently, Californias state water project (SWP) and the central valley project (CVP) are the largest water projects in California and have to a greater extent succeeded in making up for the shortage of water caused by overdrafts from the underground aquifers and severe droughts that have been affecting the lower parts of California.

Scarce and declining underground water resources and its effect on water marketing development in California

Underground water reserves in the state of California have been declining at an alarming rate from the onset of the 20tth century to and until today (Andrew, 2008). This fact has often been compounded and further complicated by the long droughts that hit the state and other parts of the United States in the latter years of the 20th century and which led to the region experiencing severe water shortage and massive decline of the existing water reserves (Robert, 2003).

Going by the fact that Californias population largely relies on underground waters these calamities especially the drought of 1976 and 1977 had very adverse effects on the Californian water reserves. As a result, alternative sources of water had to be identified to keep up with the ever-increasing demand caused by the increase in Californias population (Andrew, 2008).

Consequently, the authorities embarked on a water marketing strategy as a tool to offset the shortage by allowing individuals who traditionally held the underground water usages (farmers in the farming strongholds) to sell water to the rest of the population. As a result, the marketing of water was highly supported by Californias state, introduced reforms to the states water code, and established water banks as a more explicit form of water marketing in 1988 after the state was hit by more serious droughts that lasted for many years thus complicating further the issue of water crises. The direct result of this support was the increased water exchange to the tune of an annual average of up to 600000-acre feet.

Irrespective of the rains returning at around 1995, the state authorities didnt relent in their efforts to support water marketing but rather enhanced it to reach a remarkable transaction rate of more than 1.2 million acre-feet annually as a total of water exchanged for industrials, agricultural municipal and other domestic uses. However, the rural authorities had remained opposed to the idea of exporting water arguing that it only had the effect of complicating the underground water decline and shortage further (Andrew, 2008). Typically, the rural population in various Californian states counties

were so opposed to underground water sales and exports that until recently (2002) almost half of the 58 Californians counties had enforced underground waters regulations, aimed at fundamentally guarding against underground water selling or exportation

Challenges facing underground waters resources regulations in California

Initially, the move by the California rural counties to come with and enforce underground waters sales and export was mainly faced by stumbling blocks. During the 1980s for instance such a move by Inyo and Nevada counties were struck out by the court after they were challenged by the states authorities. Nevertheless, the third county went through successfully, which later saw many other counties establishing a similar decrease. In California, state authorities are yet to set up clear and comprehensive laws and regulations to govern groundwater usage.

As a result, it has proved very difficult for the counties to enforce their efforts to control usage of their underground water resources a factor that has contributed greatly to the overdraft and exhaustion of underground water reserves. The underground waters have greatly been overexploited due to the absence of clear laws governing its use in California. Personal countys efforts to regulate it greatly lack support since such laws do exist at the states level. Ironically surface water usage is well regulated in California despite its little usage relative to underground waters (Robert, 2003).

Due to the lack of such important controls on mining of underground waters in California, the access to and usage of this valuable resource is greatly uncontrolled in many rural Californias counties, the effect of which is the overexploitation of aquifers leading to critical overdraft of groundwaters (Robert, 2003, Andrew, 2008).

Consequently, the resource is nearing exhaustion at a very high rate a condition that if not arrested well in time could lead to severe water shortage in California in a few years time (Andrew, 2008) To achieve this more than just the counties effort to restrict the export of water resources is needed as the restriction by the counties do not necessarily solve the underground water overdrafts but rather complicated the economic use of underground water resources and banking space via underground water substitution transfers as well as importation and storage of surface waters to the underground reservoirs

Summary Conclusion and Implication

Underground water forms a major source of water in any part of the world and provides water to a large population which is used for irrigation, industrial or domestic purposes. In California, the usage of underground waters is so extensive that almost 90% of the total water used in the state is obtained from underground aquifers and which has caused over-reliance on underground waters. Going by the findings of this paper, it can be concluded that the overdraft of underground water resources in the orange and kern counties is a reality. As a result, the demand for such water has exceeded the rate of sources replenishment causing underground waters overdraft and which spells a threat of future water shortages since the current water banks are getting depleted at a very high rate.

The most adverse effects of the overdraft are the drying of several artesian wells especially in the Bakersfield artesian well belts that traverses between the two counties. In addition, individuals are forced to sink deeper into the ground and thus incur more sinking and pumping costs an effect that has greatly increased the water rates (costs). Consequently, the farmers and domestic users have been forced to bear additional water costs which are an implication for increasing cost of production and hiking of cost of living.

In addition, the overdraft, intervention of metropolitan water district as well as the establishment of the federal state water project and the central valley project to make up the underground water deficit. The establishment of additional water projects also has especially the construction of the Central Valley Project and the state water projects that were inspired by diminishing waters resources had adverse effects on the federal governments budget since they were funded as contingency budgets.

As a result the result of hypothesis one is negative since the paper found out that underground water overdrafts had significant effects on the Kern and Orange counties water economics. Similarly, although the development of water marketing was mainly inspired by the droughts that have continued to hit California, the overuse of underground water reserves and the resultant overexploitation (overdraft) led to a serious water resources deficit. As result, water marketing was enhanced to make up for the extra demand for water by the two states since underground water reserves could no longer service the demand. In conclusion, therefore, the second hypothesis also tested negative

Work cited

Andrew stone, Competition for Americas Ground Water Resources: The Public Perception: American Ground Water Trust, Concord New Hampshire (2008). Web.

Howard Pertman, Ground Water Use in the United States of America: US Department of the Interior, Geographical Survey (2008). Web.

Maureen B, et al. Ground Water in Central America: Its Importance, Development and Use with Particular Reference to Its Role in Irrigated Agriculture: GWP-Centraamerica, Correo, and Electonico (2004). Web.

Robert L, Water Follies: Ground Water Pumping and the Fate of Americas Fresh Waters: One Woodrow Wilson plaza, Washington DC (2003)

Introduction

Nowadays, it became a statement of good taste, on the part of neo-Liberal politicians, to look at issues of socio-political importance through the lenses of perceptional irrationalism, without being unable to understand that such their attitude can hardly be held in any value, whatsoever. The shortage of drinking water in countries of Third World and the public controversy, surrounding the issue, illustrates the validity of this thesis better then anything else. Somehow, neo-Liberals twisted sense of logic, bring them to conclusion that, once peoples ability to drink clean water will be proclaimed as their essential human right, the problem of water shortage in Third World countries would be effectively dealt with. In his article Clean Water is a Human Right, Kevin Watkins provides us with the insight on innately irrational subtleties of such logic: So what can be done to tackle the global crisis in water and sanitation? The starting point is to legislate for water as a human right& we urge all developing countries to invest at least 1 percent of GDP in accelerating progress in water and sanitation, with an emphasis on reaching the poor rather than subsidizing the rich (Watkins 2006). Author has obviously failed in understanding one very simple fact  the very concept of human right implies it being taken, rather then given. But what it the most important  by proclaiming that people are entitled to utilize a specific natural resource (water), within a context of them taking an advantage of the concept of human rights, will not result in increasing the physical amount of these resources. Those who scream bloody murder, over the fact that today, there is an acute shortage of drinking water in Africa, never bother asking themselves a question  why this was not the case even as recent as fifty years ago? Had they done it, they would realize that the shortage of drinking water in countries of Third Water simply reflects these countries much bigger problem  the problem of overpopulation. For example, the population of Ethiopia has tripled, within a matter of last twenty five years, while being subjected to never-ending famine and civil wars. After being liberated of white oppression, people in countries of Third World had found themselves at liberty to indulge in socially-irresponsible mode of behavior. The overwhelming majority of these people do not know how to farm, how to assemble cars or how to design computer programs  all they know is how to make babies. And, after the living standards in Third World countries started to decline rapidly, as a result of these countries experiencing demographic explosions and as a result of white oppressors being chased away by locals, people as Kevin Watkins now suggest that it is up to citizens in Western countries to actually help countries like Haiti, Nigeria or Bangladesh dealing with their own problems. For those, who were able to retain their sense of logic, despite being subjected to politically correct brainwashing for years, it is quite impossible to think of such suggestions other then preposterous. If there is anything we can do to help citizens of Third World countries dealing with their sense of hunger and thirst, it would be reducing the number of such citizens by distributing them with condoms and encouraging them to undergo the process of sterilization. The idea of spending money of Western taxpayers to make drinking water universally available in countries of Third World is just as productive, within a context of relieving locals suffering from thirst and hunger, as Catholic help the needy children of Africa charity campaigns. In his book The Death of the West, Patrick J. Buchanan points out at the conceptual inconsistency of humanitarian initiatives, associated with Christianity: Great folly of Christian doctrine was probably never as glaringly revealed as by the insane policies the Christian churches implemented in the Third World. The churches oppose contraception, sterilization, and abortion among their members. This results in exploding population growth which is further abetted by the medical care and food provided by the same churches (Buchanan p.125). After having benefited humanity by organising Crusades, burning heretics at the stake, encouraging people to indulge in witch hunt and now, by preventing citizens in Third World countries from practicing safe sex, Catholics have came up with another bright idea, as to how they can help poor Blacks. In her article Access to Clean Water is a Human Right, Stresses Vatican, Kathy Shandling talks about this idea at length: According to the Pope, the public and private sectors must work together to ensure that all people, especially the poor, have access to clean, potable water. As noted by the Pope, water is a universal and unalienable right for all people (Shandling 2008). We do not doubt Popes ability to come up with nicely sounding but utterly meaningless suggestions, but we do doubt whether these suggestions can have any practical effect. It is perfectly understandable that devout Christians are not entirely normal; therefore, it would be naïve to expect that they can be reasoned with. It is their right to do whatever they want in their free time. However, the idea that ordinary citizens in Western countries are responsible for providing drinking water to exploding Third World populations does not only concern religious fanatics, which is why it is absolutely inappropriate. It is not only that newly arrived immigrants from Third World countries now celebrate diversity at our expense on our soil, but that we also must pay for their countless brethrens in these countries to have plenty of drinking water! And the reason we have to do it is because this is a right thing to do. It might very well be the case, but in this paper, we will dare to disagree with Christian moralists and with their neo-Liberal cronies, as we believe that Western countries experience plenty of their own problems, in order to be in position of throwing money into the air, while financing numerous humanitarian initiatives that concern Third World countries.

Main body

For the duration of last 30 years, not a single U.N. Session has been conducted, without delegates spending a great amount of time, while discussing what can be done to eliminate hunger in developing countries. Yet, despite milliards of dollars being poured into these countries economies, over the course of decades, people in Africa did not become less hungry. The reason for this is simple  developing countries are not really developing, they are rapidly descending in primeval savagery. Therefore, only very naïve people can expect that monetary donations, on the part of Western nations, can somehow improve peoples living standards in Third World. The promoters of neo-Liberal agenda deliberately divert citizens attention from the fact that the problem of drinking water shortage in Third World can be easily solved by issuing locals with shovels and showing them how to dig welds. Instead, these self-proclaimed lovers of mankind hold expensive conferences on elimination of worlds thirst, while staying at seven stars hotels and while quenching their thirst with champagne that cost $1000-$1500 a bottle. During the course of these conferences, self-appointed delegates supply Medias with shocking statements: world stands on the brink of water bankruptcy, universal draught is a hand, African children need water now! etc. This makes gullible citizens in Western countries to experience some sort of moral guilt over the shortage of water in Third World, which in its turn, causes them to be more willing to open up their wallets, when being approached by collectors of donations. Then, these donations are being laundered through Nigerian banks and placed on private accounts of spokesmen for worlds thirst, so that can they again get together, while holding conferences on how to make water universally available. And so it goes on and on.

The professional moralists have long ago turned their whining about worlds injustices into a highly lucrative commercial enterprise. Today, in order to increase the emotional appeal of their water shortage agenda, they even bring in the issue of AIDS: Children and adults living with HIV/AIDS require clean drinking water to survive. In sub-Saharan Africa alone, millions of people lack access to the necessity of clean drinking water. In this same region, some 25 million people are living with HIV/AIDS (Grist 2009). They however, do not tell us why it is a matter of such an importance to insure that AIDS affected people survive (which is an absurd idea in itself), given the fact that African countries are grossly overpopulated by even healthy people. Apparently, these moralists have a hard time, while addressing the realities of post-industrial era. Their moral narrow-mindedness prevents them from realising a fact that there is simply not enough room for all on this planet. What they seem to be absolutely incapable of understanding is that governments of Third World countries actually strive to reduce the number of their citizens, because these citizens represent a heavy demographical burden. Therefore, whatever cynical it might sound, the more people die from the lack of drinking water in such countries, the better are the chances for these countries to remain more or less economically competitive. Thus, the idea that Western nations should insure a steady flow of drinking water to people who live in Third World slums is not just utterly inappropriate  it is criminally insane. Those who promote such idea should actually be charged with undermining the national integrity of their own nations.

Bibliography

Buchanan, P. (2001). The Death of the West: How Dying Populations and Immigrant Invasions Imperil Our Country and Civilization. NY: Thomas Dunne Books.

Shandling, K. Access to Clean Water is a Human Right, Stresses Vatican. (2008). Maxims News Network. (2009). Web.

Thirsty Planet. (2009). Grist Environmental

News and Commentary. (2009). Web.

Watkins, K. Clean Water is a Human Right. (2006). International Herald Tribune. (2009). Web.

Introduction

The city of Houston in Texas has a developed water conservation strategy which is fragmented into various segments. The city leadership endeavors to provide clean drinking water to all the city residents. It is against this background that a comprehensive water treatment and conservation program was incepted years back. From the treatment of waste water to the reduction of the consumption of the same Houston is an epitome of the increasing need to conserve resources especially water.

Population, Temperature and Annual Precipitation Depth

• Population: The population of Houston city is 2.14 million. This is according to the US census Bureau of 2006.
• Temperature: Houston city has an area of 601.7 square miles (1,558 km²). This is divided in 579.4 square miles (1,501 km2) of land and 22.3 square miles (58 km2) of water. The highest temperature ever recorded is 109 °F (43 °C).
• Annual precipitation Depth: According to the US survey data and site information the water Depth off current stage is 3.47 ft at 21:15 UTC.

Water Conservation

The city of Houston being part of the Texas state is subject to the states programs which endeavor to conserve natural resources water included. Water conservation has been identified as a key parameter towards meeting the increasing water demands of the city (Houston City 2010). Various programs have been incorporated in the water conservation endeavor. From water wise habits to efficient technologies the city of Houston has not left no stone unturned. Among the many means used by the city to conserve water include, water reuse, less wastage and the eradication of hazardous water approaches.

Conservation Potential for Municipalities in Texas

The states water consumption and evaluation statistics indicates that much of the states water is consumed by the municipalities, agriculture and industries. As far as agriculture is concerned much of the states water is used for irrigation purposes. Most this happens during the summer. The city has developed various programs through which the use of water saving technologies and techniques is encouraged. Through this the city has been able to achieve the goal of reducing the total amount of water used for irrigation (Texas Water 2010). Municipalities use up to 25% of water in the state. With the increase in population the consumption is likely to rise. The state has therefore launched various projects through which the consumption of water can be reduced. The manufacturing sector consequently accounts for a majority of water consumption in the state. The State in conjunction with the relevant municipalities have come up with programs to reduce the water use by the construction and manufacturing industry (State of Texas 2010).

The citys Efforts

Mandatory Practices

System Water Audit and Water Loss: Being one of the councils supported program, the audit is meant to ascertain the progress of the conservation efforts (Griffiths & Houston 2008). Incidences of water misuse are reported and subsequent action take to avert more misuse.

Water Conservation Pricing: The concept of pricing was incepted so as to accommodate other aspects of the conservation program. The proceeds of this program go into the financing of the technological aspects of the conservations endeavor. Also rain water barrel is sold at a subsidized rate so as to encourage the use of rain water (State government of Texas, 2010)

Prohibition on Wasting Water

The issue of careless use of water has been prohibited in the city of Houston. Breaking this law attract harsh punishment from authorities which makes the program successful.

• Showerhead, Aerator and Toilet Flapper Retrofit: The application of technology in Houston has been in the fore front in the conservation of water in general. Under such an arrangement the use of water saving technologies is widely encouraged so as to serve the purpose of water conservation (Griffiths & Houston 2008).

• Residential Toilet Replacement Programs: The program of replacing toilets in residential places was incepted so as to install the toilet gadgets that use little water compared to the normal. This is a way of arriving at wise water use through technology.

• Conservation Coordinator: For the sake of focus and efficiency it was deemed necessary to formalize the program of water conservation. The coordination of all the water conservation activities has brought about more success in the entire city of Houston.

• Metering of All New Connections and Retrofit of Existing Connections: Metering was deemed necessary so as not to rely on prior connections which are not in line with modern water conservation techniques (Griffiths & Houston 2008). Therefore all old and new connections were brought under one roof so as to usher in more effectiveness.

Voluntary Practices

• Rainwater Harvesting and Condensate Reuse: In order to reduce the strain on regular sources of water, Olympia has started a program where rain water is collected and put to constructive use. This has gone a long way in assuring water conservation.
• New Construction Gray water: The new construction water gray water has brought about a ray of hope in the construction sector (Institute of Medicine 2005). Under this the construction enterprise needs not interfere in the ordinary sources of water.
• Landscape Irrigation Conservation and Incentives: Irrigation has a lot of significance in the city of Houston as far as farming is concerned. However the methods normally used for this purpose lead to a misuses and overuse of water (Sorrels 2009). Under this program water saving methods is taught to the masses.
• Water Reuse: In order to prevent unprecedented misuse of water reuse and recycling has been popularized in the city. Various programs for the reuse of water have been put in place so s to free the common source of utility strain (Municipal of Houston, 2009)
• Residential Clothes Washer Incentive Program: In order to bring about the water saving clothes washer machines the city has embarked on an incentive program. Through this project customers get incentives to change their machines and acquire water saving ones (Institute of Medicine 2005).
• Water Survey for Single-Family and Multi-Family Customers: Water surveys are normally conducted to monitor the progress of the water conservation projects (Sorrels 2009). The single user and multi user family customer survey however is meant to ascertain the level of water use. This is then followed by remedial measures to control the same.
• Wholesale Agency Assistance Program: This is to provide assistance to the agencies that are working in the endeavor of water conservation (Institute of Medicine 2005). This has gone a long way in ensuring the success of the parameter.

Educational Practices

• School Education: Through the school system the city has spread the knowledge about the water conservation and its wise use to all students. This has been included in the curriculum of the school and also practice as a field study (Sorrels 2009).
• Public information: The city has perfected the art of spreading information regarding the entire concept of wise water use and conservation. Through seminars and other forms of media the public is educated on the importance of water conservation.
• Athletic Field Conservation: The education of the masses has been given much relevance in water conservation in Houston (Institute of Medicine 2005). Athletic field conservation has taken centre stage in various forums to spearhead conservation.
• Youth Program: The youth movement has been practical in the water conservation program. The youth program involves the youth in the whole endeavor of conservation (Municipal of Houston, 2009)

Online Water-Saving Information

Online water conservation efforts have taken a step higher. With the development in technology, the internet has become useful for the purpose.

Policies and regulations

The states laws and regulations are applicable to the city of Houston. For instance there are laws that limit the homeowners association in restricting landscape practices of water conservation. There is also a law that obligates cities to clear their current stocks before receiving new ones. Mandatory conservation plans are made for municipalities to achieve. The requirements of regular audits by water utilities are also being enforced.The prohibition of water wasting has been in place for some time now. Under the program the officials monitor the use of water in the whole city. Case of water misuse and wasting are reported. The culprits of theses practices are imprisoned or sometimes a heavy fine is imposed upon them (Sorrels 2009). Water replacement and retrofit program is aimed at installing the necessary water conservation technology in which a heavy punishment is imposed upon those who go against the rule (Institute of Medicine 2005). The city has many other policies and ordinances are in place many of which information is not available on the on line sources. However the fact is the water conservation program has brought ion place many rules that enhance discipline in regard to water use.

Conclusion

Through education and public awareness Houston boasts of a comprehensive water conservation program. The city has perfected the use of public forums and seminars to enhance water conservation among its citizens. The programs have recorded success for the time they have been in practice. This is a very unique way of addressing the entire issue of water conservation. Educating the masses to take good care of water so as to avoid misuses and future scarcity has borne fruits for the city. Indeed its water conservation efforts have been of great success.

References

Griffiths, R., & Houston, W., (2008). The Final Resource: How the Politics of Water Will Impact the World. Texas: Harriman House Limited.

Houston City (2010). Web.

Institute Of Medicine. (2005). Rebuilding the unity of health and the environment: the greater Houston metropolitan area.

Municipal of Houston. (2009). Web.

Municipal of Houston. (2009). Web.

Sorrells, C., (2009). Flyfishers Guide to Texas Golf Coast. New York: Wolderness Adventures Press.

State government of Texas (2010). Web.

State of Texas (2010). Web.

Texas Water (2010). Web.