Naturally, there are a lot of particles present in water some of which constitute valuable minerals while others are contaminants. Contaminants in water have profound health consequences on the health of the users of water. Despite the negligible influence which is not noticeable in the short run, there are dangerous health risks that are associated with the presence of these contaminants in the long run. Such is the case with the presence of perchlorate in public water systems. Perchlorate has negative influence on the health of water users and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) came to the realization that more than 4% of the public water system in America contained perchlorate as a contaminant.
This prompted EPA to increase research and this research resulted to public awareness of the presence of perchlorate in water. As a result, EPA formulated regulations as to the amount of healthy perchlorate that should be present in public drinking water. This essay intends to analyze the effect of the EPA rules on perchlorate in drinking water. Since perchlorate causes health risks on its users, the percentage of it in water should be regulated to reduce the possible health risks it poses.
Perchlorate is a naturally occurring chemical but it can also be synthesized. It is employed in the manufacture of rocket fuel and explosives. Perchlorate can also be found in bleach and other varieties of fertilizers. The crisis associated with perchlorate is the fact that there is the possibility of adverse health problems evidenced by research carried out by scientists. According to this research there are disruptions caused by the contaminant on the thyroids ability to efficiently produce hormones that are vital in support of normal growth.
The contaminant hinders the thyroids ability to effectively absorb iodine thus resulting to hormonal deficiencies. The thyroid is responsible for the production of developmental hormones that are necessary for usual growth and development and the contaminant negatively impacts on development such as hampering brain development in growing fetuses, newborns and children. The chemical is not only present in drinking water but a considerable amount has also been found in breast milk and infant formula as well as the environment.
This has led to increased concerns over the health implications of this chemical in drinking water and has led to voiced concerns over the issue Since there is no question about the low-dose toxicity of perchlorate, maybe its time for Americans to stop drinking rocket fuel, perchlorate contamination from industrial, agricultural and natural sources will continue to pollute us through other food exposures, it demands robust safeguards in water to protect public health (Siobhan 4). As a result of this concern, EPA decided to introduce a formal rule that would regulate the presence of perchlorate in drinking water.
In 2008, the Bush government had opposed the regulation of perchlorate in drinking water but this move was countered by Obama when the levels of perchlorate were noted to have increased and around 17 million Americans were drinking water contaminated by perchlorate. However the EPA has faced long years of bureaucratic resistance concerning the regulation of perchlorate from the Defense department where large amounts of perchlorate are used. A report filed by GAO revealed that the defense department had a perchlorate level in their installations that far exceeded the expected level by 71%.
Most of the Defense Department sites were found to be heavily contaminated by perchlorate in addition to the fact that the DOD has been interfering with EPAs endeavors at handling the level of this contaminant in drinking water theres been a lot of interference by DOD in terms of stopping EPA from doing anything, they want the limit to be as high as possible so they wont have to clean up (Siobhan 7). There have been high concentrations of perchlorate in areas surrounding military installations where the chemical is used during tests on rockets. Defense as well as military contractors find it difficult to respond to these regulations claiming that the other substitutes that can be used in place of perchlorate prove to be more expensive.
In response to the increased vigilance of perchlorate by EPA, the Defense Department has taken a significant action that consists of measures beyond the early sampling of the 48 out of the 53 facilities. They have taken measures to remediate whichever contamination that is caused by their department. However, there are discussions into the role played by the defense department in contributing to the increased level of perchlorate in water citing that the defense does not present a major threat as one of the key sources of perchlorate found in drinking water.
In addition to this response by the defense department, the Lockheed Martin Corp, a defense contractor and American Pacific Corp, a perchlorate maker have decided to challenge the EPA by arguing that there is no verifiable research which has shown evidence of the adverse effects of the perchlorate on human health. The two Corporations have formed a group known as Perchlorate Information Bureau and they continue to argue that the level of perchlorate has not yet been found in drinking water used by the public in levels that pose a threat to public health.
Despite the arguments raised by the two groups and the defense department, EPA can reveal the presence of more than the already known defense sites where large amounts of perchlorate exist if they increase their monitoring strategies. The NRDC supports the move adapted by EPA by encouraging continued reduction of the levels of perchlorate from 15 to 1 part for every billion. As a result there is continued research being carried by EPA in evaluation of the effects of perchlorate in drinking water and the impact it has on health.
In order to handle this problem and ensure effective implementation of the rule, EPA has decided to assess the feasibility as well as the affordability of the available technologies that would be utilized in the treatment and removal of perchlorate in drinking water. EPA will also asses the costs that will be involved in the process in addition to the benefits that would be brought about by the potential standards EPA is hard at work on innovative ways to improve protections for the water we drink and give to our children, and the development of these improved standards is an important step forward, our decisions are based on extensive review of the best available science and the health needs of the American people (Broder 6).
Another effect that has resulted due to the increased level of perchlorate, EPA will include as part of its regulation an additional 16 chemicals that might be responsible for causing cancer. This will constitute volatile organic compounds otherwise abbreviated as (VOCs), several industrial solvents and other contaminants. As a constituent of EPAs rules on drinking water, the VOC will also be developed. The awareness brought about by perchlorate and drinking water has caused EPA to address contaminants in the environment as groups instead of analyzing them individually to facilitate protection of public health.
As an additional effect, the rule formulated by EPA to check on the amount of perchlorate present in drinking water will create a situation of economic growth. This will come about as a result of the investments that will result due to the new rules since water purification companies will spring up. The purification companies will create employment opportunities for individuals thus increasing the per capita income of the nation.
Along with these benefits, there are operational costs that will be incurred in running these industries but the expenses do not override the benefits since there will be fewer cases of thyroid gland cases which result to impaired growth in infants and toddlers. The medical costs that would have been devoted to the treatment of these diseases is cut down or completely cancelled if the purification systems prove to be efficient. This, together with the peace of mind of a healthy nation will put many individuals at ease which will help them concentrate on better activities like jobs.
The move adapted by EPA is arrived at a strategic time since the current presence of perchlorate in drinking water has health risks for both pregnant women and growing children. Even though the presence of particles in water is quite normal, perchlorate poses dire health risks and attention has to be brought to this case. As a result, EPA came into action and formulated rules that would regulate the percentage of perchlorate which can be allowed in drinking water. The Defense Department and manufacturers of perchlorates are two departments that are aimed at for the reduction of perchlorates as much as the contaminants occur naturally. This way the amounts of this chemical present in drinking water would be greatly reduced.
Works Cited
Broder, John. E.P.A. Plans First Rules Ever on Perchlorate in Drinking Water. New York Times, 2011. Web.
Siobhan, Hughes. EPA Seeks New Limits on Chemicals in Drinking Water. The wall Street journal, 2011. Web.
On July 8, 2013, a storm occurred that produced Torontos record rainfall in a day. The precipitation mechanism resulting in the downpour involved the advection of a weak low-pressure system and a mass of warm and humid air, which made its way over Ontario (Boodoo et al., 2015). The advection developed into several short-lived, pulse-type thunderstorms. However, these storms were not accompanied by any damaging winds or hail (Sandink, 2016). They were only characterized by heavy rain, which fell across Southern Ontario to cause significant flash floods. The mid-afternoon saw the development of a weak surface pressure trough in the north of Toronto. The high humidity resulted from the proximity to Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. The conditions were an indication of highly precipitable water, weak winds, and weak shear.
Normally, moisture, instability, and lifting are required for the development of a convectional storm. Apart from these three components, Boodoo et al. (2015) mention wind shear as the fourth component that produces severe thunderstorms. The surface dew point must also be at least 55 degrees Fahrenheit to trigger a surface-based thunderstorm. The type of convective precipitation which occurred in Toronto was caused by both lifting and instability. In this case, air rose on its own after being lifted to the troposphere. According to Park and Min (2017), instability makes air to rise faster compared to the case of forced lifting alone. During these processes, there was an increase in relative humidity due to a subsequent rise of unsaturated air. Upon saturation, the lifting produced clouds, hence precipitation. As a result, there was thunder and heavy precipitation of almost 140 mm which lasted just two hours.
Surface and Groundwater Hydrology
Land cover under the management of Toronto and Region Conservation Authority ranges from mostly rural areas to large urbanized cities, in this case, the Don River Watershed. According to the Toronto and Region Conservation (2009) report, groundwater hydrology in these watersheds is affected by the physiography on the surface and underneath the waterfront. Urbanization poses the greatest challenge to the watershed within the TRCA Region. In this regard, urbanization has created an impervious cover in the watershed, which limits the natural infiltration of precipitation. The effects of the impervious cover caused by urbanization are evident in Mansoor et al.s (2018) comparison of the rivers stream hydrographs. Artificial pipes and channels have, therefore, been used to direct rainwater straight to the watercourse.
The tributaries of Don River West were piped and buried after the reclamation of wetlands. It means that the hydrologic cycle of the watershed was altered by the expanses of roads, parking lots, rooftops, pavements, and gutters (Mansoor et al., 2018). During extreme storm events, the water which once soaked into the ground is currently collected in interconnected underground sewers and taken to the river. However, urban flooding, which is directly linked to heavy precipitation, has been on the rise in the region. In response to this, TRCA implements projects such as natural landscapes for absorbing and collection ponds for holding back runoff (Toronto and Region Conservation, 2009). However, such projects only manage small to medium stormwater.
Flood Management in Urban Settings
Impacts of Flooding in Highly Urbanized Cities like Toronto
Storm events cause problems associated with urban flooding, especially when the floodwaters overwhelm cities sewer systems and flood low roadways and underpasses. Homeowners also cope with losses in terms of irreplaceable damage by the floods and basement flood damages which reduce the liveability of homes (Jha et al., 2012). This especially occurs when homes flood with raw sewage. Water damage due to failed household plumbing systems has been a significant reason behind many insurance claims in Canada (Sandink, 2016). It, therefore, portrays the extent of anticipated losses due to flooding in highly urbanized cities.
Apart from damage to infrastructure, flooding in highly urbanized cities produces health effects linked with dampness and growth of mold which have become common, especially when there is a recurrence of flooding. The fact that floodwaters are directed to sewage lines result in disease transmission through fecal-oral contamination (Sandink, 2016). This occurs when floodwaters containing sewage material contaminate building materials, therefore facilitating the growth of human pathogens. Jha et al. (2012) also mention that flood events in highly urbanized cities have implications for local governments. Toronto, for example, experienced losses in terms of operational and capital costs following the flood event. Local governments are also prone to facing lawsuits from residents being affected by sewer problems.
The Role of Policymakers in Terms of Emergency Preparedness
Flood risk mitigation and response form the basis of policy development. It included identifying the hazard, assessing the potential impacts of the hazard, and coming up with strategies to manage current and anticipated flood events. Policymakers address the increasing stresses subjected to watercourses (Toronto and Region Conservation, 2009). With the continued sprawl of cities, policymakers have come to acknowledge that flooding will is bound to become a significant risk. Moving into the future, they continue working to adapt to new flood management strategies. In Ontario, for example, it has taken the joint effort of all levels of governments, TRCA, non-governmental organizations, and community members to reduce risk and manage flooding events (Mansoor et al., 2018). Policymakers, therefore, create more resilient cities to future floods associated with climate change.
Considering that land use has been the centre of attention when floods occur for decades, policymakers focus on the issue as an effective tool to reduce community-level risks. In this sense, policies are developed to guide how land is used in particular areas (Jha et al., 2012). In the case of cities, zoning is undertaken by multiple levels of government through the formulation of national and local policies which designate land for specific uses. Where appropriate, constructions in a particular area such as public parks are prohibited. Notably, policymakers design and implement Strategies for Flood Risk Management in fragmented settings. This includes allocating complex and resource-intensive tasks to federal governments.
Policy Recommendations
Current policy context addresses issues such as land-use planning, the protection of water bodies, maintenance of the river water quality standards, and prevention of natural hazards. However, there is yet to be legislation guiding the implementation of these initiatives at the provincial level in Ontario. It would, therefore, be necessary to establish an Act that will have a direct impact on the management of wet weather flows. Furthermore, the Act will ensure that all municipal policy documents are formulated under common legislation. There will also be consistency in the approach taken to manage flood risk across the entire province. Moreover, municipalities will be held accountable for the standards of flood risk management, which ultimately reduces flood risk.
Through an analysis of the impacts of flooding in highly urbanized cities such as Toronto, it is clear that there is a need to manage urban water cycles as a single system. This means that the province should develop a holistic systems approach that integrates all aspects of water management such as the vulnerability of water for industrial and domestic use, the effectiveness of sewerage systems, and management of floodwaters. In this sense, Toronto will form part of a larger management system encompassing all watersheds along the Don River. Having more agencies manage a natural system increases the risk of conflict and prolongs the time required to implement projects. Consolidating all the nine watersheds under the jurisdiction of the TRCA will ensure that all tasks are effectively implemented.
Lastly, Toronto needs to change how it perceives its river basins and waterfronts in its holistic approach to water management. This requires shifting from the traditional idea of flood control to adopting the thought of welcoming floodwaters. It means that the city residents and authorities must reacquaint themselves with floodwater and change their perception of it, considering that it will always shape the way they live. Risk acceptance creates room for resilience rather than resistance to flooding. The city can reduce the risks associated with flooding by accepting the existence of floods. Furthermore, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicts more precipitation in Southern Ontario because of climate change. It is, therefore, upon the city and its residents to identify the social and ecological benefits of flooding. With increasing populations in Toronto, functional environments such as the Corktown Common Park to integrate civic park design while protecting against floods.
Jha, A. K., Bloch, R., & Lamond, J. (2012). Cities and flooding: A guide to integrated urban flood risk management for the 21st century. The World Bank.
Mansoor, S. Z., Louie, S., Lima, A. T., Van Cappellen, P., & MacVicar, B. (2018). The spatial and temporal distribution of metals in an urban stream: A case study of the Don River in Toronto, Canada. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 44(6), 1314-1326. Web.
The change of climatic conditions across the globe has necessitated partial shift from the over-reliance of natural rainfall for crop production, to the application of irrigation for production of food and other types of crops. The need to continually produce food crops to feed the rising global population has placed special demand on the water used for irrigation because adverse climatic conditions have pushed more people to engage in irrigation. Water management and handling has had a considerable contribution to the global carbon emissions. There is need to reconsider the manner in which irrigation is administered in our farms and ensure that loopholes that lead to rise in energy consumption in irrigation are sealed. Areas of interest include the pressure employment of pumps in irrigation, efficiency of systems (Gilley, James & Darrell; cited in Hardin, & Ronald, 89) and the possibilities of reduction of water used for irrigation purposes.
Carbon Footprint and Irrigation
Water processing and handling systems involving heating, moving, and treatment contribute to at least 290 million metric tons of carbon footprint per year. Of all the U.S carbon emissions, 5% is embedded in the countrys water as Carbon Dioxide (Bevan, & Wendy, 1). The carbon footprint in water for irrigation has been aggravated by the fact that people have been adopting technologies that favor usage of pressurized systems that raise energy consumption (up to 163%) even though they present opportunities for saving water in surface water irrigation ( by between 10% and 66% ) (Cawood). Furrow irrigation also makes soil produce more Green House Gas. However, although drip irrigation may be used to achieve reduction of carbon footprints, care must be taken not to apply nitrogen fertilizers that may increase production of Nitrogen Dioxide in the soil. About 32% of all the water used in the United States is for irrigation purposes. This water amounts to 128389 Mgal/day. Water for irrigation contributes to energy usage by 25,639 MkWh and to carbon emission by 15,813,624 Metric Tons every year in the United States.
The amount of water used to irrigate crops may also disrupt the balance within the soil and the structure and thus affect the normal production of green house gas from the soil. It has been argued that 25% of all the carbon emission emanates from agricultural activities. These activities also result in the emission of 65% of methane and 90% of nitrous oxide. The impact of water irrigation in production of Nitrogen dioxide has been captured in that microbes may produce either more of it or less depending on if moisture is high or low respectively. Thus irrigation with water will influence the levels of carbon emission from the soil. One strategy that could reduce the production of Nitrogen dioxide from the soil is the application of frequent and low-volume irrigation. Decomposition of organic matter and microbial activity in the soil increase emission of carbon dioxide. The emission is increased by the soils being wet. Storage of carbon in permanent structures and the growth of vines which can be encouraged by increasing irrigation can help offset Green House Gas emissions. The impact may be great if these vines have prolonged life according to Practical Winery & Vineyard.
Climatic change has played an important role in the increase of carbon footprint in water because it has led to limited availability of clean water and cheap energy. The increased risk for increased Carbon footprint as relates to agricultural activities has been captured in the fact that overuse of groundwater (say for any usage) up to a average fall of 10 feet in the level, may increase energy demands by approximately 1.1 million MWh per year because of the increased pressure needed to pump this water. Some of the impacts of the increase in the energy consumed in irrigation include the decrease in the water pumped (Moore) among others (Bevan, & Wendy, 33; see LePori & Ronald; cited in Hardin, & Ronald, 89)
Reduction of Carbon Footprint for Irrigation Water
Research ahs captured the impact of drip irrigation in the reduction of the amount of carbon foot print in water for irrigation, in addition to reduction of the amount of water to be used. The preparation of land for drip-irrigation is more easier because it requires a tractor to pass through a particular size of land only about two times as compared to six times passage to prepare a land that is for flood irrigation. This reduces the amount of vehicle emissions as well as the amount of fuel used (Giampaoli, quoted in California Tomato Farmers). The amount of carbon footprint can be reduced by a number of strategies including Low Impact Development (LID), reuse, efficiency and water conservation. There is need to exploit opportunities such as those for reduction of energy use and water used in irrigation, through the use of pressurized micro-irrigation systems where irrigation is carried using groundwater. This is because of the lesser amount of water to be pumped (Cawood). In particular, observation has pointed to a reduction of up to 44% of energy consumption according to the aforementioned author. The carbon emission for drip irrigation for a 12m lift is about 22%-33% as compared to 15%-23% for center-pivot type of irrigation. The corresponding emissions for 35m lift are 2.12%-5.52% and 2.82%-8.48%.
Water management techniques may be applied to address the problem of carbon footprint by eliminating the unnecessary procedures and waterways during irrigation. The fact that water management techniques can improve on the amount of carbon released points to the concept that companies and governments can introduce regulations requiring the disciplined use and handling of water for irrigation. The opportunity and the potential for reduction of carbon emissions need be well understood by policy-makers and water managers. These policies must focus on reuse, efficiency in the water usage and promote water conservation, among other techniques. The fact that the efficiency of the systems being used in the irrigation sector can affect the carbon footprint levels touches the importance of efficient technology use in irrigation.
This means that the irrigation system must deliver water to the irrigation site in as amount fed into it. Efficiency of machines such as pumps (Hardin & Ronald, 89) may also be impacted by the maintenance of the system because poor maintenance may result to leakages. Leakages contribute to the wastage of energy in that the water leaking is pumped but does not help to achieve the target. It has been found that avoiding leakages for water distribution systems could save the globe about 225,000 metric tons of Carbon Dioxide gas emissions by saving 270 MGD of water and 313 million kWh of electricity annually (Bevan & Wendy, 2). Among the recommendations posed by the aforementioned authors is the integration of those policies touching energy and water and ensuring they are managed well. One of the measures that can help in the implementation of strategies for reducing carbon footprints is the tracking of the energy emission and the intensity of the water supply for all water utilities. It is important to establish or develop standard methodology which will allow tracking or determination of their energy consumption. All water end-users in the irrigation should be required to report on their usage of water.
Usage of grey water for substituting some irrigation needs such as vegetable or vegetation in the garden can also save on carbon emissions. Grey water is one that has been used to wash hands, for bath and showers and from washing machines. Through specific and suitable designs for the location of the irrigation fields, and properly instituting the drainage system, it is possible to utilize this water flowing from homes to water crops. There is need to rethink the regulations which restrict the usage of such water on the basis of environmental quality. Grey water Usage of grey water is regulated and restricted in some parts of the United States, with a permit for usage of this water being required in Pima and Tucson County. Grey water presents an opportunity to lower energy and chemical use. Other opportunities that may present saving of energy on water for irrigation purposes includes collection and usage of rain water for irrigation purposes.
Some of other techniques that have been thought of as of help in reducing the emission of nitrous oxide, methane and carbon dioxide include poly-cropping and usage of citrosa rather than insecticides and pesticides. There is need to venture more into the research to exploit the possibility of planting crops which use lesser amounts of water to save on the costs of pumping where such is a requirement. Plants being irrigated may also be shaded so as to reduce the chances of draught thus there is lesser need for constant irrigation. Less constant irrigation lowers the amount of harmful gases being released in the atmosphere. There is evidence that reduction of the amount of water pumped for irrigation may reduce consumption of energy in the irrigation sector. These and other previously addressed techniques such as lowering the pressure requirements for water, and improving on pumping efficiency may reduce carbon emission (Condra et al.; cited in Hardin, & Ronald, 89).
Determination of Carbon Footprints
The quantification of carbon footprint/emission also captures human activities that involve energy emissions. These activities include that involving energy release such as refrigeration, power, light and heat. It has been possible to determine the total amount of carbon footprints using tools such as carbon calculators. It is possible to calculate ones contribution to carbon footprints by the use of tools such as SafeClimate carbon footprint calculator by determination of the amount of energy consumption and usage. The aforementioned tool allows individuals to enter the distance they travel with their car and plane, then describe the energy used at homes and it is possible to track the emissions over time. The quantifying of the carbon footprint control can be synthesized in the fact that it is possible to track, control and quantify the amount of carbon released and energy used during irrigation. It is possible to workout the energy consumed by the water handling systems such as pumps, and estimate on the carbon footprint contributions and thus it is possible to track the improvements on these carbon emissions.
Conclusion
Production of crops through irrigation has partly arisen because of the inconsistent and unreliability nature for rainfall. Shortage of rainfall has partly been a consequence of climatic changes. There is still demand for water for irrigation as population continues to grow, because there is need for enough food to sustain the masses. Water has substantially contributed in the amount of total carbon emitted. There is need to rethink the manner in which irrigation water is currently handled, in order to exploit the opportunities available for reduction of energy consumed in this respect. Energy consumption in water handling increases with raise with the amount of water and the pressure used to pump this water. The opportunities for reduction of energy consumption in the handling of water includes usage of grey water, improving on the efficiency for pumping and other water-handling systems through continuous maintenance, tapping and usage of rainfall water among others.
Work Cited
California Tomato Farmers. Drip Irrigation Means Reduced Water Use and a Smaller Carbon Footprint. Web.
Cawood, Matt. New light on carbon footprint of irrigation . 2009. Web.
Condra, Gary, et al. Texas Econocot System, Upland Cotton Demonstration in Pecos County, 1976 . 1977. Texas Agricultural Extension Service, Texas A&M University, Final Demonstration Report for Pecos County.
Gilley James & Watts Darrell. Energy Reduction through Improved Irrigation Practices , pp. 187-203 in Agriculture and Energy , William Lockeretz, (ed). 1977. New York: Academic Press, Inc.
Hardin Daniel & Lacewell Ronald. Implication of improved irrigation pumping efficiency for farmer profit and energy use . 1976. Southern Journal of Agricultural Economics.
Hardin Daniel, Lacewell Ronald, & Petty James. The Value of Improved Irrigation Distribution Efficiency with a Declining Groundwater Supply . Contributed paper. 1978. Annual Meeting of Western Agricultural Economics Association, Bozeman, Montana.
LePori Wayne & Lacewell Ronald. Impact of Increasing Energy Costs on Irrigated and Agricultural Production . 1976. Presented at Conflicts and Issues in Water Quality and Use Seminar, The Water Resources Committee and the Resource Economics Committee of the Great Plains Agricultural Council, Denver, Colorado.
Moore, Charles. Impact of increasing energy costs on pump-irrigated agriculture . California Agriculture, Web.
The stream water levels reduce during summer mainly due to the climatic changes that have taken toll in the environment. Pernetta (1994) states that, the global warming is affecting most climates and resulting to droughts that occur frequently. The observation made is that some droughts, which have been occurring since the early 1970s, are to blame for the declining ground water levels. These have led to problems with water shortage with some area experiencing major problems.
The scum observed in the stream can be because of two things as will be shown. One of them is that maybe the introduction of chemicals from factories has polluted the stream leading to the scum formation. Zhen-Gang (2008) found that, the second reason could be due to the free-floating algae in the stream that thrive during the warm temperatures of summer and the ideal sunlight. The algae will flourish almost to the surface of the stream and this may appear like scum that is easy to notice.
Approximately one week later, a reddish film formed towards the surface of the stream and it affected a large area. Sheath and Cole (1990) have shown that, as bloom of the algae continues the water may appear to develop a reddish film. This is mainly because the algae have reached the required population where some may begin to collapse. As they die, the cells settle to the bottom of the stream and release organic nitrogen and phosphorous and the former appears reddish in the water. The water from this stream turns toxic to animals and the Green pond solutions have explained this situation, which points out that the algae, competes for oxygen with the organisms beneath them such as the fish (Zhen-Gang, 2008).
This is harmful and may lead to death of the fish in the stream. The algae in this case as explained by Sheath and Cole (1990), is the species of algae that is toxic to animals than it is to human beings, wildlife and even the livestock that may drink water from the pond.
Procedure used
The main procedure that helped to explain the problem is through the thorough reading of scientific material to draw the knowledge behind some of the occurrences in the stream. The information originated from articles that point out similar occurrences in the water stream and hence derived the relationships.
The second procedure was to visit streams around the area and interview people about the various changes that they may observe in the water streams when summer occurs. The various observations made from the different people is collected and the conclusions begin to be drawn relating to the problem at hand. Most of the people gave valid information that is useful and reliable with no bias.
The other most important procedure was that, after establishing a water stream that exhibited most of the signs as those in our problem after summer, samples collected from the stream were for laboratory use for further investigation to produce the findings that the problem is based upon.
The procedure to establish various ways of tackling this problem was the next to be undertaken and part of the solution was found with some environmental scientists who offered to provide some of their mechanisms to be used in the water stream as a way of assisting the study of this problem. This solved the problem of the dying fish in the water stream considerably and there were no chances of experiencing the same problem later.
Methods of solving the problem
The only way to control the water levels of the water stream is simply by countering effects the global warming brings. It is advisable to plant trees near the water stream to prevent excess evaporation of the water during summer and to serve as rain attractors.
The control of free-floating algae can be through the establishment of a shadow such as the one that the trees in the water stream forms. Other methods apply such as the use of pond algaecides in extreme cases though control is necessary to ensure that there in minimal pollution in the water. Using advanced technologies, a sterilizer that uses ultra-violet rays help to eliminate the algae.
According to News-USA, Inc (2011), the death of organisms in the water stream, especially the fish that the overlying scum causes living filters in the water stream can help to reduce it. The system aims at treating the water in the case of chemical pollution by increasing the microbial activities beneath the water. The introduction of a particular moss helps to do this, which creates the favorable conditions for the organisms to carry out the microbial activities and continue living.
Fields of science consulted
The various fields consulted were the aquatic science that explained the death of the fish, agricultural science that showed the various ways that the planting of trees might be effective in solving the problem and the field of biology that explained the microbial activities and their relation to life continuity.
References
A History Lesson for the World, Artificial Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment (AWTS), News-USA, Inc, Web.
Pernetta, J., 1994. Impact of climate change on ecosystems and species. IUCN: Gland.
Sheath, R. and Cole, K., 1990. Biology of the red algae. Cambridge: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.
Zhen-Gang, J., 2008. Hydrodynamics and water quality: modeling rivers, lakes, and estuaries. Hoboken: John Wiley &Sons, Inc.
It is important to treat some ground water and all surface water before consumption. This ensures that they do not pose any health danger, caused by chemical, microbiological, radioactive or physical contamination. The treatment is usually done in stages. Contaminants can be removed by physical means such as filtration, settling and chemical addition, as well as, biological means to remove microorganisms. This method is known as multiple barrier principle. Different circumstances make the process of water treatment selection to be complex (Logsdon, Hess & Horsley 1999, p.31). Some of the factors that are considered during the selection of water treatment processes, as described by Logsdon, Hess and Horsley (1999, pp.3-13) include:
Removal of Contaminant
This is the primary purpose of water treatment, especially surface waters. The treated water must satisfy all drinking water regulations, as discussed by Pontius (1998). He not only gave the status of the regulations, but also elaborated the looming effects on health and the sources of regulated contaminants that are to be expected.
Quality of Source Water
It is essential to note the contrast between the quality of source water and the quality of the desired treated water for better selection of the treatment process. It is possible to select processes of water treatment that would bring about appropriate changes in the quality of water, if knowledge on the quality of the source is known.
Reliability
Not only is the process of reliability a vital factor to consider, but also it could be key in the selection process. Since it is mandatory to disinfect surface water, the treatment process must be dependable. Robustness for filtration, which is an important element for reliability, is defined by Coffey et al. (1998), as a systems ability to brilliantly remove particles or pathogens with minimal deviation from normal operating conditions under all circumstances.
Existing Conditions
The choice to upgrade or expand a treatment plant also determines which treatment processes are to be selected.
Process Flexibility
The treatment plant should have the ability to accommodate future amendments of regulations or quality of source water.
Utility Capabilities
After selection, design and installation of the treatment processes, the plant should be able to operate them effectively so as to achieve the preferred quality of water quality.
Costs
The cost of the process is another key factor in the selection process. Both capital and operation and maintenance costs of each process must be evaluated for the whole life cycle of the process.
Environmental Compatibility
The effect of provision of clean and safe water for drinking goes beyond the water treatment plant. The treatment processes should have proper residual waste management; incur minimal wastage of source water, and utilize adequate energy for treatment. The plant should not cause grave environmental problems. Harmon et al. (1998) notes that water utilities consume about 3% of the total electricity produced in the US. This is generally used for pumping the water. Treatment plant applies a mixture of filtration, disinfection, sedimentation, coagulation to ensure that the public consumes clean and safe water. The following process is followed during the conventional water treatment:
Prefiltration
Water prefiltration is used to reduce the amount of suspended solids. Prefiltration utilizes coarse sand or gravel. The types of prefilters that are used are vertical prefilters, which are more popular, horizontal prefilters and pressure filters, which makes use of pressure in removing suspended solids. Prefilters are vigorous, do not need chemicals and their parts are regulated which makes them very advantageous. However, they not only require regular cleaning and maintenance, but also are ineffective removers of fine particles such as silt and clay particles (Harmon et al., 1998, p. 21). Prefiltration does not remove viruses and bacteria that are linked to fine particles.
Sedimentation
The particles that move around the pool at a slow speed are usually suspended through a process known as sedimentation. A grit chamber is helps to remove big and grained solids through a simple sedimentation process. In this chamber, the slow moving water passes by while at the same time, the solids are suspended and felled. How, this process does not remove small particles as the water moves at relatively high speed hence limited time for suspension.
Coagulation
To remove the fine particles chemicals such as polymers, salts and aluminum is included in the water. Some examples of these coagulants are aluminum sulphate, ferric chloride, ferric sulphate or polyelectrolytes. After the occurrence of this neutralization reaction, the particles coagulate in a process known as flocculation. These large particles now called floc, become heavy and promptly sink to the bottom of the water tank through sedimentation. The sedimenters outlet, located near the top of the tank, makes it possible to remove water by a surface channel.
Fig. 1: Coagulation, Sedimentation and Flocculation Processes.
The dose of coagulants placed in solution is determined by the quality of raw water at the inlet of the mixing tank. Polyelectrolytes or synthetic polymers have gained popularity as coagulants since they rapidly form flocs due to their highly charged nature. Moreover, polyelectrolyte coagulation is an effective remover of viruses, bacteria and protozoa. Although coagulation is an effective process, it is also costly, requires greater accuracy when dosing and jar testing in addition to regular monitoring.
Filtration
Filtrations rid the water of particulate matter by compelling it to go past permeable media. This system comprises filters of varying pore sizes. Frequently, it is composed of charcoal, gravel and sand. From the diagram below, it is possible to note the composition various-sized particles in a homemade filter.
Fig. 2: Homemade Filter.
The fundamental categories of sand filtration that exist are slow and rapid sand filtrations. This does not mean that the difference between the two types lies in their filtration speeds. Slow sand filtration is in actual fact, a biological treatment process. This process makes use of bacteria, which digest contaminants, in treating the water. On top of the layer of sand, the bacteria set up a community which cleans the water as it passes through. When the schumtzdecke, layer of microbes, becomes very thick and subsequently reduces the flow rate, it should be cleaned. This is usually done after a few months. After this layer of microbes is removed, the bacteria should be given ample time (a few days) to reestablish another community before embarking on filtration. The slow rate of filtration, 0.1- 0.3 meters per hour, and the fine sand enhances the setting up of this microbial community. It rids the water of suspended particles.The filters are then immediately put back into operation (Logsdon et al., 1999)
Slow sand filtration produces microbiologically clean water that could be used without disinfection, but it is still advisable to disinfect the water as a protective measure. This process is rather labor intensive to manage and sustain. The comparatively high rates of flow, up to 20 meters per hour, relatively low labor costs and the use of fairly little space of operation, makes rapid sand filtration more popular. However, water that has passed through rapid sand filters requires disinfection, since it is not of the same quality as that of slow sand filtration (Coffey et al., 1998)
During filtration, whatever particles are removed is dependant on the size of filters employed. The reduction in the size of pores leads to retaining of a bigger fraction of material as water passes through the filter. The use of finer material, such as expanded clay or sand, or even application of a coagulant, ensures that smaller particles, ranging from 1-100 microns in size, are removed.
In most cases, filters of varied sizes are utilized so as to avoid quick clog up by large particles.
Slow sand filters get rid of viruses, protozoa and bacteria. Rapid sand filters only removes suspended solids, but normally cannot remove viruses, protozoa or bacteria. Current advancement in technological proficiency has not only encouraged but also allowed the effective exploitation of slow sand filtration operating at faster flow rates on small parcels of land just like in rapid sand filtration. Disinfecting the water inactivates the few remaining bacteria. Presently, the primary disinfectant used internationally is chlorine even though substitutes, such as ozonation, are increasingly being sought. Disinfection must be done on all water supplies to guard public health (Pontius, 1998).
References:
Coffey, B. M., Liang, S., Green, J.F., and Huck. P. M., 1998.Quantifying performance and robustness of filters during non-steady state and perturbed conditions. In: Proceedings of the 1998 AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference. [CD-ROM]. San Diego, CA: AWWA.
Harmon, R., Abrew, H.F., Beecher, J.A., Carns, K., and Linville, T., 1998. Roundtable: energy deregulation. Journal of American Water Works Association AWWA, 90(4), pp. 26, 28, 30, and 32.
Logsdon, G., Hess, A., and Horsley, M., 1999. Guide to selection of water treatment processes, in Letterman, D.R. (ed.) Water quality and treatment: A handbook of community water supplies, 5th edn. New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 3.1, 3.3-3.11.
Pontius, F.W., 1998. New horizons in federal regulation. Journal of American Water Works Association, 90(3), pp. 3850.
This paper dwells upon the impact of water transportation industry on the underwater wildlife. It is possible to note that emissions and the use of ballast water can be seen as serious issues that pose hazards to maritime animals. There are numerous ways to address the issue. In the first place, it is important to use advance technology (hydraulics to decrease emissions). Secondly, it is essential to develop proper system of risk ranking as well as measures to diminish hazards of invasions. It is also necessary to develop a holistic strategy that could include both issues and could be applicable globally.
Problem
Water transportation industry is one of the most developed industries globally. It accounts for about 80% of all commercial cargo shipments (Ibrahim & El-naggar, 2012). Clearly, this is one of the most important ways to deliver goods, as it is comparatively quick and inexpensive (when compared to air transportation). At the same time, the industry poses numerous hazards to the wildlife. Such issues as oil spills, emissions, and ballast water usage are most common and most serious environmental concerns.
Signification of the Problem
The transportation industry accounts for 23% of all emissions and it is clear that lion share of these emissions is produced by water transportation (Ribeiro et al., 2007). The vast majority of vessels use diesel fuel, which has a significant negative effect on underwater wildlife. It is noteworthy that older vessels (used for more than 30-40 years) are not utilized but are used in developing countries, which leads to additional emissions into air and water (Imura, 2013). Numerous species are dying out or have to migrate in search for more favorable conditions.
Apart from that, the use of ballast water also poses certain threats. The usage of ballast water is important for vessels proper functioning and the crews safety (Hassan, 2010). However, the water is taken from the sea (ocean) with different species. The species are brought to new areas and it increases the risks of future invasions (Keller, Drake, Drew & Lodge, 2011). The invasions may result in the competition between old and new species for food and space, preying on the old species, the change of habitat as well as alternation of the environmental conditions. Keller et al. (2011, p. 94) note that the nature of invasions form the shipping is poorly understood and, hence, it is difficult to predict exact consequences for the environment.
It is necessary to add that there are certain regulations concerning emissions, pollution as well as the use of ballast water. However, the pollution of the oceans and the number of endangered species suggests that the regulations are far from being effective. One of the most serious issues is the lack of a holistic approach and global perspectives. Many countries have specific laws and regulations but many of them are inefficient. There is a need in development of an effective global strategy that will address the issue.
Development of Alternate Action
Researchers have developed numerous strategies to address the issue. One of these possible solutions is reduction of emissions in new vessels by 5-30% and in old ships by 4-20% (Ribeiro et al., 2007). This reduction can be achieved with the help of new energy-saving technologies (hydrodynamics). It has been estimated that the short-term potential of operational measures at 1-40% but the figures differ due to differences in ship utilization terms (Ribeiro et al., 2007, p. 356). As far as long-term reduction potential is concerned, Ribeiro et al. (2007) note that it can reach 28.2% by 2020. Researchers also state that there is a very simple
Another possible solution is associated with the use of ballast water. Keller et al. (2011) note that adequate ranking system is essential to measure risks of invasions. The researchers have developed a particular measurement system that ranks possible risks and the system may be used in ports worldwide. Clearly, this ranking system can be the first step in dealing with the problem.
Recommendations
One of the most important issues to address is development of a holistic approach that could be used globally. All countries have to participate in development and implementation of regulations. Such international organizations as WTO in cooperation with environmentalist organizations and governments of countries have to play essential role in the process of regulations implementation. Thus, it is essential to start the process of upgrading vessels and using advanced technology to minimize emissions. It is also important to introduce speed limits as the speed needs more fuels and results in more emissions (Hassan, 2010).
The measurement system ranking risks of invasions has to be used in all major (and in the course of time) in all ports of the world. It is also important to reinforce regulations concerning the use of ballast water to make sure that all vessels comply with the rules. These steps can significantly improve the situation and address the issues concerning pollution of the ocean and the change of the habitat.
Reference List
Hassan, K. (2010). RW12: Pollution of marine environment in Bangladesh by shipping and the preventive methods. Web.
Ibrahim, A.M., & El-naggar, M.M.A. (2012). Ballast water review: Impacts, treatments and management. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 12(7), 976-984.
Imura, H. (2013). Environmental issues in China today: A view from Japan. New York, NY: Springer Science & Business Media.
Keller, R.P., Drake, J.M., Drew, M.B., & Lodge, D.M. (2011). Linking environmental conditions and ship movements to estimate invasive species transport across the global shipping network. Diversity and Distributions, 17(1), 93-102.
Ribeiro, S.K., Kobayashi, S., Beuthe, M., Gasca, J., Greene, D., Lee, D.S., & Zhou, P.J. (2007). Transport and its infrastructure. Web.
Our world is embracing for years of unreliable climate, with the areas known for natural supply of fresh waters getting increasingly affected. Increasing salinity of water, pose unimaginable health associated risks to the society today. Climatic change that has been encroaching our world is fast approaching with its repercussions such as global warming, acidification of the oceans and severe weather, among others taking shape. Of great interest is severe weather and acidification of oceanic waters that pose great danger to both man and aquatic life. To combat this, various governments and companies as well as individuals are increasingly getting involved in desalination of seawater, and salty waters, to make them safe for human consumption. This paper will try to explore how salty water is desalinated into fresh drinkable water (Fischetti, 2007, p. 118-119).
Process
The main objective of such processes is to convert salty water into one that is suitable for human use or in some cases for irrigation purposes. Several Large ships have been used in desalination of seawater, sometimes in small-scale and at times in large-scale. The focus is on areas that receive less rainfall and consequently need effective ways of desalinating salty waters for use. There are several processes used in this regard, among which are, distillation, ion exchange, the membrane process, Nanofiltration, Geothermal, solar, green house for seawater, and methane hydrate method of crystallization, others include Reverse osmosis, and electrodialysis, among others. The most widely used of these methods, throughout the world, are distillation and reverse osmosis (Fischetti, 2007, p. 118-119).
Machine
The most widely used distillation method is the multi-stage flash method of distillation, which is mainly rivaled by the membrane process known as reverse osmosis. The figures below show the processes of the two desalination processes mentioned above.
Figure 1: Multi-stage flash desalinator and its schematic
A Steam in
B Seawater in
C Potable water out
D Waste out
E Steam out
F Heat exchange
G Condensation collection
H Brine heater
Figure 2: Reverse osmosis desalination plant and its schematic
1:Sea water inflow,
2: Fresh water flow (40%),
3:Concentrate Flow (60%),
4:Sea water flow (60%),
5: Concentrate (drain),
A: High pressure pump flow (40%),
B: Circulation pump,
C:Osmosis unit with membrane,
D: Pressure exchanger
Object
To explore how desalination plant converts salty water into fresh water, ready for human use. To determine weather it is feasible (Eckhardt, 2010, p. 1).
Theory
Due to the ever-increasing unreliability of rainwater and other known fresh water supply regions such as rivers, lakes and the likes, the world has been drawn into processing salty waters for fresh, ready to drink water, by the process of desalination. This process involves the removal of salt from water, and aims to make it consumable to human. Desalination started thousands of years ago, when sailors used the suns solar radiation to separate salt from water. Distillation, although very expensive, has been used widely throughout the world, including electrodialysis method. In recent times, a cheaper method of desalination, known as membrane separation has received much applause as a viable method. Plans are also underway to desalinate the less salty groundwater than seawater, mainly for economic purposes (Outokumpu, 2011, p. 1).
Membrane process has come out as the most cost-effective method of desalination. The demand for potable water has necessitated need to sustain it with fresh water. Regions where fresh water sources are fragile and unreliable are the worst affected areas; moreover, climatic change poses a great threat to the formerly consistent water supply areas. Population increase being another factor, rapidly exploits the already depleted fresh water sources, this has prompted governments and companies to resort to desalination. Several countries, including the United States, Australia and China are now desalinating public supply to curb the increasing demand for potable water (Outokumpu, 2011, p. 1).
Concept
The once reliable water sources are increasingly facing depletion, prompting governments to opt for the more expensive desalination process. There are many processes of water desalination, among which are distillation and membrane separation process. Distillation was widely used until considerable developments were made on membrane separation, which applies filtration process. Filtration between the membranes is therefore used to separate salt from water, thereby getting fresh water (Eckhardt, 2010, p. 1).
Technical explanation
Figure 3: Desalination process
Desalination of salty water has been on the rise as demand for potable water supply swells, the population surges and climatic changes effect depletion on reliable sources. Several processes can be used in desalination, among which include distillation and filtration. The method considered in this paper and of great interest for its emerging use is the reverse osmosis plant. This method uses membrane to separate salty concentrated solutions from fresh water. It is more viable and cheaper to construct compared to distillation method like, multi-stage flash desalination plant (Eckhardt, 2010, p. 1).
Reverse osmosis method, which is similar to osmosis process in biological systems, involves the movement of solvent water molecules across the semi-permeable membrane. When salty water try to pass across the membrane, usually through application of pressure, only fresh water is allowed to pass, while the more concentrated solution continues as shown in figure 3 above. Fresh water is then collected and supplied for consumption (Pascoe, 2011, p. 1).
Summary
Desalination is the process of separating salt from water. Several processes have been employed for this purpose. They include distillation and filtration, among others. These methods are expensive and are only applicable when there is no alternative source of fresh water. However, due to the increasing demand of potable water as the rapidly surging population takes shape and the once dependable sources gets depleted due to climatic changes, governments and companies are forced to ponder other alternatives like desalination. Distillation was the most widely used of these methods; nonetheless, the membrane separation has overtaken distillation since it is more viable and cheaper. Reverse osmosis method helps in separation of salt from water through a semi-permeable membrane (Pascoe, 2011, p. 1).
Conclusion
Desalination is the process of acquiring fresh water from salty water by separation. It involves different processes, which include distillation, and filtration, among others. Reverse osmosis, a form of filtration through osmosis is the most viable and can be used in converting salty water into fresh potable water (Heimbuch, 2010, p. 1).
Reference List
Eckhardt, G., 2010. Desalination. The Edwards Aquifer Website. Web.
Fischetti, M., 2007. Fresh from the Sea . Scientific American. 297 (3): 118119. Web.
Heimbuch, J., 2010. Desalination Plant Helps Save a California Coastal Community. Planetgreen. Web.
Outokumpu., 2011. Process and Resources. Outokumpu. Web.
Pascoe M., 2011. Desalination. International Water Centre Pty ltd. Brisbane. Web.
Shortage of water in modern society due to increased demand of water has compelled people to devise various ways of conserving water. Increasing population and changing patterns of rainfall due to global warming have made water shortage a common phenomenon in the 21st century. To conserve water and optimize its uses, the application of water-absorbing polymers has proved to be effective. Water-absorbing polymers conserve water in the soil, and thus reduce excessive wastage during irrigation of crops in arid and semi-arid regions or in areas where sandy soils are dominant. Jhurry (1997) states that, increasing water-holding capacity of soils, increasing efficiency of water use, enhancing soil permeability and infiltration rates, reducing irrigation frequency, reducing compaction tendency, stopping erosion and water run-off, and increasing plant performance are the benefits of water-absorbing polymers in agriculture (p. 109). Hence, water-absorbing polymers have significant benefits to farmers. Therefore, the research paper examines a case study of water-absorbing polymers and highlights their mechanisms of function and importance in agriculture.
Case study
Farmers across the world have applied water-absorbing polymers when growing different crops that are in arid and semi-arid regions, which require irrigation. Growth of onions in Australia, Murray-Darling Basin, is a case study that shows the application of water-absorbing polymers in agriculture. In Murray-Darling Basin, sandy soils are favorable for growing onions because they are fertile. Moreover, the sandy soils allow robust penetration of roots and optimum growth of onions. Sandy soils also ease harvesting because they cause minimum damage to the onions. However, in spite of such huge benefits accrued from sandy soils in the growth of onions, leaching of nutrients, soil erosion, and wastage of water increase the cost of producing onions considerably. Philips and Cutting (2008) argue that, non-wetting soils are difficult to wet up, create preferential flow pathways so that water and nutrients are readily leached and plant production is low (p. 2). Thus, to improve wetting properties of the sandy soils, prevent leaching of nutrients, and improve the yields of onions, the use of water-absorbing polymers is essential.
In Murray-Darling Basin, agriculturalists use polyacrylamides (PAM) in improving properties of the sandy soils to conserve water, retain nutrients, and sustain growth of onions. PAM is a type of water-absorbing polymer that enhances water retention, prevents leaching, stabilizes soils, and controls soil erosion (Bai, Zhang, Liu, Wu, & Song, 2010). PAM enhances water retention capacity of soils because it improves adsorption and absorption properties of soils. According to Sojka, Bjorneberg, Entry, Lentz, and Orts (2002), since sandy soils have poor retention capacity of water, PAM enhances their retention capacity through adsorption and absorption processes. Consequently, with increased retention capacity of water, PAM prevents leaching of nutrients and pesticides, stabilize soil structure, and prevent surface run-off in irrigated farms. Hence, the use of PAM has proved to be effective in growing onions in Murray-Darling Basin because it increases yields and reduces the cost of production in terms water, fertilizers, and pesticides.
Polymers Classification
Soluble and insoluble polymers are two main classifications of water-absorbing polymers. Agriculturalists developed water-soluble polymers first and applied them to prevent soil erosion, improve percolation of water, and stabilize soils. Sojka, Bjorneberg, Entry, Lentz, and Orts (2002) state that polyacrylamides, hydrolyzed polyacrylonitrile, polyvinyl alcohol, isobutylene maleic acid, vinlyacetate maleic acid, and sodium polycacrylate are some of the common examples of water-soluble polymers used in agriculture. The anionic character of water-soluble polymers supports retention and percolation of water. In contrast, insoluble polymers are gel-forming polymers, which comprise of cross-linked network of polymers (Rigi, Vazirimehr, & Keshtehgar, 2013). Starch-graft copolymers, cross-linked polyacrylamides, and cross-linked polyacrylates are examples of insoluble polymers that agriculturalists use to improve water retention, prevent erosion, stabilize soils, and prevent leaching.
Statistics
Statistics show that the use of water-absorbing polymers has a significant impact on conservation of water in irrigation. For instance, PAM absorbs the amount of water that is about 300 to 400 times its own weight. According to Ekebafe, Ogbeifun, and Okieimen (2011), PAM increases infiltration rate by about 15-50% and prevents surface runoff by approximately 80-99% in furrow irrigation. The insoluble polymers can absorb water that is approximately 1000 times its own weight. Normally, the capacity of a polymer to retain water decreases with the increase in cross-linkages. Jhurry (1997) states that, cross-linked polyacrylamides hold water up to 400 times their weight and release 95% of the water retained within the granule to growing plants (p. 111). These figures show that water-absorbing polymers retain a significant amount of water in the soil for the plants to utilize.
Harvest Quality
Water-absorbing polymers improve the quality and quantity of agricultural yields. Sivapalan (2002) states that PAM has improved farming practices in Australia as farmers are able to produce quality rice and soybeans. Since water-absorbing polymers prevent leaching of nutrients, crops do not experience any deficiency of essential minerals. Barihi, Panahpour, and Beni (2013) assert that the use of water-absorbing polymers has enhanced quality of tomatoes, flaxseed oil plant, maize, and kidney beans because the polymers release fertilizers to the plants and encourage the growth of crucial microorganisms. The case study of onions has also proved that water-absorbing polymers improve the quality of onions in Australia.
Mechanism of Water-Absorbing Polymers
The capacity of water-absorbing polymers to retain water depends on the nature of polymers and the degree of cross-linkages that they possess. Regarding the nature of polymers, water-soluble polymers hold more water than polymers that are insoluble in water. Moreover, the degree of cross-linkages determines the water capacity of polymers as a highly cross-linked polymer has low capacity of water, while a lowly cross-linked polymer has high capacity of water (Elliot, 2009). This means that modifications in terms of the nature polymers and degree of cross-linkages determine the capacity of a polymer to hold water. Furthermore, water-absorbing polymers hold water through the mechanism of hydration, hydrogen bonding, and other electrostatic forces. Vashuk, Vorpbieva, Basalyga, and Krutko (2001) argue that, the combination of intermolecular interactions in water solutions such as hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic, and electrostatic interactions, enhances the capacity of polymers to hold water (p. 350). The presence of these forces is dependent on the nature of polymers. Overall, the nature of polymers, the degree of linkages, and the intermolecular forces explain the mechanism of water-absorbing polymers.
Conclusion
Water-absorbing polymers are very important in agriculture because they do not only conserve water, but also prevent soil erosion, avert leaching, and improve the quality and quantity of yields. The case study of Murray-Darling Basin in Australia depicts the use of PAM in growing onions. The case study shows that polymers conserve water, prevent leaching, and enhance agricultural yields. The use of soluble and insoluble polymers in agriculture varies according to the nature of soils. Statistics show that PAM increases the infiltration rate of water by 15-50%, prevent surface runoff by 89-99%, and release 95% of their water to plants. Moreover, the use of polymers increases the quality and quantity of crops such as onions, maize, tomatoes, soybeans, and kidney beans amongst others. Fundamentally, the nature of polymers, the degree of cross-linkages, and the intermolecular forces determine water capacity of polymers.
References
Bai, W., Zhang, H., Liu, B., Wu, Y, & Song, J. (2010). Effects of super-absorbent polymers on the physical and chemical properties of soil following different wetting and drying cycles. Soil Use and Management, 26(1), 253-260.
Barihi, R., Panahpour, E., & Beni, M. (2013). Super Absorbent Polymer (hydrogel) and its application in agriculture. World Science Journal, 1(15), 223-228.
Ekebafe, L., Ogbeifun, D., & Okieimen, F. (2011). Polymer Applications in Agriculture. Biochemistry, 23(2), 81-89.
Philips, S., & Cutting, M. (2008). The Role of Polyacrylamides (PAM) in Onion Production. Web.
Rigi, K., Vazirimehr, & Keshtehgar, A. (2013). The Effect of Waste Water in Agronomy. International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Sciences, 5(24), 2969-2971.
Sivapalan, S. (2002) Use of PAM in Australian irrigated agriculture. Australian Grain, 12(3), 24-25.
Sojka, R., Bjorneberg, D., Entry, J., Lentz, R., & Orts, W. (2002). Polyacrlamide in Agriculture and Environmental Land Management. Advances in Agronomy, 92(1), 75-162.
Vashuk, E., Vorpbieva, E., Basalyga, I., & Krutko, N. (2001). Water-absorbing properties of hydrogels based on polymeric complexes. Materials Research Innovations, 4(1), 350-352.
Introduction: A Complex Investigation of Water Management Issues
This paper provides a complex overview of the relevant water management concerns in the United Arab Emirates. Moreover, in this paper, the central implication of the key water control problem is analyzed. The suggested solutions and recommendations, which regard the management area, are differentiated.
The fundamental concerns, which determine the regulation of water delivery in the UAE, stem from the recent demographic increase. According to this fact, the demand for water resources is going up quite rapidly as well. The problems, which encompass water management, can be regarded, due to the specific domains, which apply these resources.
The Crisis of Agriculture in the UAE: Irrigation Implications
The United Arab Emirates is the country, which possesses a highly developed agricultural sphere. Thus, due to the beneficial weather conditions, as well as the relative fertility of the soils, the individual and state productions make extensive use of planting. The central problem, which connects water management and Arabic agriculture, is the inefficiency of irrigation. Currently, the plants in the fields of the country receive precipitation through the application of traditional spray irrigation methodology. Due to its use, approximately one-third of the water resources are spent in vain. Specifically, the method of spray irrigation inflicts a high percentage of evaporation. Therefore, in the course of water delivery, 35% of the supplied resources get wasted. Therefore, it is critical to the central authority of the country to take some decisive measures so that to find an alternative way of agricultural irrigation. In this context, the specialists suggest the use of drip irrigation since it directs water straightly to the soil without being exposed to the sun for a long time. Therefore, it does not evaporate (Drip irrigation system components and their function, 2012).
Private Household Concern: Water Misuse
The second considerable consumer of the water supplies in the United Arab Emirates is the domain of the private household. Naturally, every microsphere of human activity requires water resources. Thus, people need water supplies for the preparation of food as well as the maintenance of basic operational facilities such as air-conditioning system. Therefore, the regularity of delivery manages basic human needs.
The fundamental problem, which brings some serious problems to the household management of water, is the poor quality of tap resources. Due to the negative conditioning and low level of purification of the water pipes, the resources, which are brought into the individual houses, become contaminated and, therefore, can not be consumed. As a consequence, the citizens of the UAE are forced to drink water, which they purchase in the magazines. Moreover, the experts deduced that the water, which is delivered through pipes, can not be used even for irrigation since it can damage the quality of soil and the production. Therefore, a huge amount of water resources is spent for no purpose.
Due to global warming, as well as the peculiarities of the Asian climate, the demand for water among the individual consumers increases annually, which limits the accessibility of bottled water and enhances its price. Thus, it might be helpful for the government to launch an operation of water pipes purification, for the edibility of tap water would increase the amounts of the valuable resource considerably. Furthermore, much water is spent on air-conditioning systems support. Mainly, the systems employ a large quantity of the resources in the form through pumps. Consequently, water management should improve along with the renovation of water conservation techniques as well (Dakkak, 2015).
Industrial Water Management: The Issue of Reuse
The sphere of industry employs water resources in smaller amounts than the other spheres of human activity. Still, a considerable amount of water is wasted for cleaning the industrial facilities and machinery. As a result, a huge amount of wastewater is generated throughout the country. In this context, the concept of water reuse might be relevant, for the resources, which are spent for cleansing can be gathered after the operations are completed. The reused wastewater, then, can be directed to the irrigation centers or allocated for household supply. The most consistent and optimal method of water reuse is desalination, which might be sustained through building special plants, which would withdraw the employed water and turn it into cleansed resources. Currently, the separate cities in Arabic world already managed to employ the strategy and established desalination plants. This particularly regards such urban centers as Dubai and Abu Dhabi (Matlock, 2008).
Nevertheless, the issue of water reuse is doubted and questioned in the United Arab Emirates, for the experts claim that it can inflict some consistent damage on the natural environment. Thus, it is claimed that the brine, which is generated in the course of water purification, is directed to the Arabian Gulf. This tendency, consequently, leads to the contamination of the ocean. In this context, the issue of basement water protection evolves.
Water Basement Cleansing: The Issue of Environmental Protection
It was mentioned previously that desalination plants serve as the sources of river and ocean contamination. The ecologists argue that the quality of water in the Arabian Gulf reduced to the level, on which it can no longer be used for irrigation or household delivery. Desalination functioning is not the only threat for the natural water basements. Thus, it is acknowledged that multiple industrial machines and tanks are illegally entering the Gulf for the purpose of cleaning. The tendency provokes a considerable discharge of gasses and the other contamination subjects into the water. Therefore, it is a challenge for the central authorities to impose a strict control over the process of Gulf entering so that to eradicate pollution (Todorova, 2009).
The Controversy of Irrigation in UAE: Management Proposal
Introduction: The Relevance of the Issue
The proposal outlines the major implications and functions of the irrigation system, which is employed in the United Arab Emirates, as well as the central suggestions as to the water management improvement.
According to the primary estimations of the water delivery in the Arab world, one may conclude that the system of the resource control lacks precision and innovation. Due to the analysis of the water use in the country, it was deduced that the domain of agricultural production belongs to the primary consumer-directed areas. The sphere of plant cultivation is optimal and highly successful due to the territory peculiarities as well as the appropriate climate conditions. The basic problem, which hinders the successful sustention of agriculture, concerns the issue of irrigation. Due to the high level of evaporation, the poor quality of the Gulf water as well as an inefficiency of irrigation facilities, the domain faces considerable losses. Therefore, it was decided to select the issue for the further contemplation with an aim of developing a consistent implementation proposal for the further improvement of the irrigation system.
The Aim of Proposal and Study Design
The primary objective of the work is to provide a complex estimation of the appropriate water management methods, which are applied to Arabian agriculture. In this context, both the traditional and innovative techniques of water delivery are reflected. The overview of the professional literature and the evidence-based studies provides a link between the climate conditions and agricultural needs, which exist in UAE. Thus, the study assists in verifying the advantages and disadvantages of the current water management methods as well as points out the most optimal technique of water delivery treatment, which may be used in the country so that to avoid the resource shortages.
The design of the work constitutes a logical organization of a qualitative research analysis. First, the literature, which serves as a background for the suggestions, is estimated. Second, the general account of the functioning irrigation systems is provided. Third, the supremacy and effectiveness of the drip irrigation technology is approved and justifies as well as some practical illustrations of the efficacy are emphasized. Finally, the recommendations and suggestions as to the further use of the system are specified.
Methodology
The qualitative research employs the method of data analysis. Thus, the description of the basic irrigation systems, which are used in UAE, is sustained on the basis of five evidence-based studies. According to the data extraction results, the optimal irrigation technique is outlined.
Literature Review
The study paper refers to several academic sources as well as some media-based information, which reflect the relevance of the irrigation concern in UAE. Specifically, five peer-reviewed scientific articles and five web-sources are referenced in the work.
The scientific articles reflect the primary evidence, which certifies the efficiency of drop irrigation and its supremacy over the other technologies of water delivery. Thus, the article Soil solarization for weed management in UAE emphasizes the influence of the drip irrigation use on the quality of the cultivated crops. The work Subsurface drip irrigation of row crops introduces some data about the improved system of drip irrigation, which is based under the ground. The evidence-based articles Impact of land disposal of reject brine from desalination plants on soil and groundwater by Mohamed, Maraqa, and Handhaly, Water problem in the UAE mountain areas by Qaydi, and Review future concerns on irrigation requirements of date palm tree in United Arab Emirates by Shahin and Salem provide a general background for the problem. In particular, these studies explain the reasoning of spray irrigation inefficiency as well as underline the principles of farming and climate conditions, which stimulate water scarcity in UAE.
The web resources illustrate the directions for irrigation systems construction. For instance, the reports under the names Drip irrigation design guidelines and Drip irrigation system components and their function offer an overview of the specifications of drip irrigation pipes usage. The information promotes understanding of the basic advantages of the water delivery facility.
The media releases provide a general understanding of the water management solutions that exist in the Arab world today, which helps to figure out what the primary concerns of water delivery are. The web articles Water profile of United Arab Emirates by Matlock Water management in UAE by Dakkak present a picture of climate environment, which ensures water shortage. The media release Desalination threat to the growing Gulf by Todorova presents information about the threat to the natural water reservoirs in UAE.
Therefore, the cited works provide a solid background for the research design for they reflect the major implications of water management in the Arab world as well as help in focusing on the problem of irrigation.
The Systems of Irrigation in UAE
The methods of delivering water to the Arabian plantations and fields differ in their technology parameters and the specifications of usage. The primary techniques of irrigation include the traditional spray irrigation and the innovative drip irrigation.
The designation of the so-called sprinkler or spray irrigation follows the pattern of the natural water delivery. Thus, it represents a complex system of pipes, which help to distribute water throughout the ground. Ordinarily, the technology of spray irrigation is suitable only for the resistant crops such as tree cultures. However, the experts suggest that the type of water delivery may damage the crops, which are small in size and have a delicate structure. The type of soil is also critical when one selects the methods of irrigation. Thus, it is recommended to apply drip irrigation exclusively to sandy soils. Moreover, it is critical to choose soils, which have high infiltration rates so that the water did not damage the structure of the plants roots (Mohamed, Maraqa, & Handhaly, 2005).
The basic agricultural facilities usually give preference to sprinkler irrigation, for it possesses an extremely uncomplicated design and can be constructed easily and on a regular basis. Specifically, it is comprised of the sources of water pumps, sprinklers, and laterals. Usually, the systems are constructed in such a way so that the pipes remained in close proximity to each other. In this way, there directions overlap, which guarantees the identification of the target areas.
Despite their relative complexion simplicity, the systems of sprinkler irrigation possess specific shortcomings. First, the functioning of such technologies contributes to the consistent waste of the valuable resource. Thus, when the streams of water, which come from pipes, are focused on soil, there is a possibility of waste, for the managers can not control the specific allocations of water that fall on the separate areas. Thus, one may notice the streams of water between the rows, which evolve in the aftermath of irrigation. This tendency signifies that different types of plants need various allocations of water. Therefore, if the crop requires small irrigation, the amount of wastewater, which remains after its irrigation, seems considerable.
Except for water waste, the method of spray irrigation is inefficient in UAE, due to the climate conditions. It is well-known that the weather is quite hot in the Arab world. Therefore, since water is delivered to the plants in a condition of spray, it tends to evaporate quickly. As a result, in the course of sprinkler irrigation, approximately 40 % of water gets wasted.
The second method of providing agricultural crops with water is the underground irrigation. The system of such resource delivery was implemented as a complex web of pipes, which are installed in proximity from plantations or cultures of crops. An underground irrigation consists of pipes, the special preventers, which stop water flows from returning back. The implementation of the technology was quite undertaking in the old times, for the passages for pipes were dug by the specialists.
Today, however, a special pipe-pulling machine is employed. The primary advantage of the system is its susceptibility to regulation and measurement. Thus, the experts may regulate the amount of water, which is supplied through the pipes. Due to it, the crops receive the appropriate nutrition. Still, the method has its considerable flaws. For instance, there is a problem with installing the underground pipes in the mountainous areas, due to the harshness of soil and the scarcity of water reservoirs. In UAE, a huge number of farming centers are situated on the east coast, which is characterized by the mountainous infrastructure. Therefore, the use of the technology is irrational in the given environment (Qaydi, 2012).
Lately, the local and central water management institutions have overtaken the tendency of applying drip irrigation both on the big agricultural fields and household plantations. The system construction is based on the web of pipes with the special taps, through which water is directed straightly to the roots of the crops. The main elements of the system include filters, laterals, emitters, and drippers. The purpose of filtering installations is to provide the consistent cleansing of water. The purification may be conducted manually or automatically. Moreover, the drip irrigation facilities often include additional disk and gravel filters, which provide efficient cleansing of some inorganic materials. Laterals are the small pipes, which hold water before it is emitted into the soil. Finally, emitters and drippers are the automatic components, which sustain water flowing (Drip irrigation design guidelines, 2015).
The primary advantages of drip irrigation are their relative resistance to evaporation since the resources are not exposed to the hot air. Moreover, it is acknowledged that this specific type of water delivery maximizes the effectiveness of soil solarization. This tendency is predetermined by the fact that solarization materials are often damaged through the downward spray precipitation (Al-Masoom, Saghir, & Itani, 2003).
Recently, the innovative method of water delivery, which was called subsurface drip irrigation, was introduced in the United Arab Emirates. This system provides an improved model of water supplying for it can extract moisture even from the deepest parts of the ground. The practical evaluation of the methods functioning revealed that the application of subsurface drip irrigation contributes to the prevention of percolation as well as stimulated the crops growth (Ayars et al., 2000).
Drip Irrigation Installation: Recommendations
The system of drip irrigation provides a foundation for successful agriculture handling today. The practical evidence reveals that the application of the technology in the western regions of UAE increased the efficiency of crop cultivation to 80% in the last five years (Shahin & Salem, 2010). Therefore, the central authorities in the Arab countries have to embrace the method of drip irrigation on the state level so that to enhance the quality of water management.
Today, the government of UAE introduces the system of drip irrigation as the method, through which water is conserved. Still, the application of the technology in the area of farming is still not obligatory. Therefore, today, the organs of water management are responsible for imposing several rules, which regard the renovation of water delivery systems. The basic implementation initiatives include several issues. First, it may be suggested to provide the consistent training for farmers so that to stipulate the knowledge of drip irrigation systems. Moreover, it is critical to show them that the shortage of water delivery can impose some negative effects on the cultivation of crops. For instance, the workers of the agricultural sectors have to be acquainted with the statistic data of cultivation efficiency, which tests the amounts of yield crops that are received through the spray and underground irrigation as well as the amounts of plants that are grown as the follow-up of drip irrigation usage.
The complex comparison may reveal that the fruitfulness of the latter will be much higher than the percentage of sprinkler and underground irrigation results. Moreover, the farmers have to realize that the facilities of drip irrigation are, in fact, much easier I implementation, than their respective counterparts. Thus, they may be regulated from afar, and the systems do not need any preliminary measurements of moisture amount since they allocate water automatically. Second, the authority of UAE has to allocate subsidy for the installation of drip irrigation.
According to the estimations of the general system cost, it is acknowledged that the installation of the pipe-based facility is quite expensive. Thus, the pipes are usually produced of the water-proof aluminum, which is costly. Moreover, big plantations require a huge amount of the materials for every plant has to be grown in proximity to the source of moisture and the distance between them should not be bigger than one meter. Therefore, the independent financing of the irrigation renewal is impossible without the investments that might be allocated by the local and state governments. Finally, it is important to motivate the farmers to embrace the renovation by introducing the system of bonuses and privileges.
Conclusion: Estimating Irrigation Solution
Consequently, this work points out that the system of drip irrigation is the most consistent technology of water delivery, which may be applied in UAE. Due to its alignment with the climate conditions, the facility provides nutrition and optimal growth opportunities to the crops. The problem of the drip irrigation installation represents one of the most critical problems in the area of water management.
References
Al-Masoom, A., Saghir, A., & Itani, S. (2003). Soil solarization for weed management in UAE. Weed Technology, 7(2), 507-510.
Ayars, J., Phene, C., Hutmacher, R., Davis, K., Schoneman, R., & Voil, S. (2000). Subsurface drip irrigation of row crops: A review of 15 years of research at the water management research laboratory. Agricultural Water Management, 42(1), 1-27.
Dakkak, A. (2015). Water management in UAE . Web.
Drip irrigation design guidelines (2015). Web.
Drip irrigation system components and their function (2012). Web.
Matlock, M. (2008). Water profile of United Arab Emirates. Web.
Mohamed, A., Maraqa, M., & Handhaly, J. (2005). Impact of land disposal of reject brine from desalination plants on soil and groundwater. Desalination and Environment, 182(1), 411-433.
Qaydi, S. (2012). Water problem in the UAE mountain areas: A case study on the east coast farming areas. Life Sciences & Engineering, 2(1), 1-13.
Shahin, S., & Salem, M. (2010). Review future concerns on irrigation requirements of date palm tree in United Arab Emirates: Call for quick actions. College of Food and Agriculture, 2 (6), 12-17.
Todorova, V. (2009), Desalination threat to the growing Gulf. Web.
Water is arguably the most important natural resource and it is indispensable to maintain life. This resource has been fundamental to the development of human civilisation. Human survival is dependent on the water since people need to drink adequate amounts of water or else they risk to die. In addition to direct human consumption, water is used by industries and to move human-generated waste. As such, water is necessary for the socio-economic development of the society. While humans have always needed water, the deep relationship between mankind and water started when the first permanent human settlements were built.
With the establishment of permanent settlements, humans took up agriculture to increase their food security. Early human settlements were located near freshwater supplies since no efficient water delivery systems had been developed at the time. Over time, humans realised that they needed to develop ways to move water from its source into urban areas. This would reduce the need for having to locate cities in close proximity to water supplies. The ancient Greeks were the first to develop elaborate water delivery systems. These Europeans implemented underground sanitation and water supply system that was able to deliver clean water to the cities while taking away the water produced waste from households. These advances were improved by the ancient Romans who developed aqueducts that supplied water from reservoirs to individual houses. These advances in water distribution contributed to the growth and prosperity of the Roman Empire. The Romans were able to experience social and economic development due to their water engineering projects. By building effective water supply infrastructures, the Roman society was able to thrive despite water scarcity in their geographic location.
No significant advances were made in the water supply systems until the Industrial revolution era of the 18th century. During this significant period in the history of human civilisation, great advances were made in technology. Innovative devices such as the water pump were created making it possible for large quantities of water to be moved to reservoirs and then distributed to the population. The availability of clean tap water contributed to the rapid growth of urban centres during the 19th and 20th century.
Goals and Objectives
For centuries, people assumed that the water resources were unlimited and therefore paid little attention to the water usage. Water is one of the most abundant natural resources, considering the fact that 70% of the Earths surface is covered in this substance. However, most of this water is saline and therefore unusable by humans. It is estimated that only 1% of the planets water reserves are fresh and readily available for human use. This shows that, contrary to common perceptions, water is a scarce resource. Humans must look for ways to improve water use and bring about sustainability. Hodson (2014) admits that a major problem with water sustainability is that this resource is provided cheaply in most developed nations. Due to the low cost of the resource, people lack an economic incentive to control its usage. The government cannot implement a significant increase in the cost of water since the citizens consider the availability of cheap clean water a human right. Technological solutions, therefore, present the best opportunity to improve water use.
Increasing human population and the growth of the industrial sector have intensified pressure on global water resources. The pressure has been exacerbated by the burgeoning of urban settlements all over the world. OShea, Aldridge and Steigerwald (2012) document that urban settlements have increased both in size and number over the past century. While only 20% of people in the developed world lived in urban settlements by the beginning of the 20th century, half of the human population dwells in urban areas today. Mutchek (2014) asserts that urban water systems face sustainability and resiliency challenges and solutions are needed to ensure water security for the urban population.
It can be expected that this pressure will only increase as the human population in cities continues to grow all over the world, therefore increasing the pressure on the already constrained water resources. Without a feasible solution, modern cities will soon suffer from catastrophic water shortages. Inadequate water supplies will damage the socioeconomic development of countries since adequate supplies of clean water are the drivers of modern development.
Policymakers are looking for ways to increase the water supply or decrease consumption in order to ensure water sustainability. One area that should be given attention is the water distribution system. Significant losses occur as the water is being delivered to the consumers. This paper sets out to demonstrate how improved technology has contributed to water sustainability. It will specifically focus on water-smart grid technologies, which comprise of a number of technological solutions working together to facilitate the intelligent management of water resources. The paper will show how smart water grid technology can help bring about sustainability by reducing the amount of water lost during transmission.
Literature Review
A number of authors have addressed the issue of how smart water grids can be used to improve the use and sustainability of water resources. Mutchek and Williams (2014) review the technology elements of smart water grids. They highlight how these systems can be implemented and discuss the potential sustainability and resiliency benefits of using smart water systems. The authors also look at the barriers to the adoption of these technologies in most cities. A number of new water technologies have been invented and implemented to improve water use and promote sustainability. Henley (2013) reviews some of these solutions including smart monitoring which reduces wastage. The article quantifies the waste that currently occurs during water transmission and shows how technology can help mitigate losses. While ICT has been employed in many sectors, its implementation in the water sector is still in its elementary phase. Hajebi, Song, Barrett, Aidan and Siobhan (2012) propose the development of a reference model that can be used to ensure widespread use of ICT infrastructure in water distribution. Such a model would make it possible for more cities to exploit ICT advances in water management. In the same vein, Moon-Hyun (2014) proposes the development of legally-grounded smart water grid policies by advanced countries.
Before new technologies can be implemented, pilot studies are required to demonstrate how this technology works and its potential benefits and limitations. Iseley and Hromadka (2013) discuss the pilot project to implement a smart water solution in an urban neighbourhood in Indianapolis. The project is meant to test the impacts of a new smart water grid system patented by the Global Water Technologies Company. The paper shows how smart grid systems can be used to increase distribution efficiency by using collected data to determine when water pressure can be reduced in reaction to reduced demand. The article by Hodson (2014) studies the implementation of a smart water grid solution in Singapore. The sensor technology employed enables water distributors to identify leaks through the whole mains network. The article demonstrates how using smart water grids leads to water saving.
The current water shortages are the result of increased urbanisation efforts all over the world. OShea, Aldridge and Steigerwald (2012) discuss the urbanisation phenomenon and the impact it is having on water resources. They note that increased urbanisation is putting a strain on water resources and the only way to deal with this is through smart city architecture. Part of the smart city infrastructure is a smart water grid that is composed of sensors for managing the water. South Korea is establishing itself as a global leader in water technology. Due to government efforts, the country has implemented a number of technological solutions to bring about water sustainability. Yewon (2014) discusses the countrys technology-oriented solution to the water issues faced by Korean cities. The author discusses intelligent water management systems implemented by the countries in various cities with significant success.
Analysis and Recommendations
Using smart water grid technologies will have significant impacts on the use of water. Significant quantities of water are lost during distribution. In the United State, approximately 30% of water is lost through leakage while the figure is between 10 and 20% in the UAE (Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council, 2010). Most of these losses occur since the water supply infrastructure is old. Iseley and Hromadka (2013) explain that the water infrastructure in most countries is many decades old. Many municipal authorities do not feel compelled to replace the ageing infrastructure with modern infrastructure for such a project would be very costly. In addition to this, many policymakers feel that as long as the old water systems are able to deliver water to the destination, there is no need to replace them. However, the ageing and crumbling infrastructure are responsible for the numerous leaks that lead to high losses of water during the distribution process. Without smart grid technology, most cities only identify water leaks in their underground pipes when the pipes fail completely. As long as the losses are modest, they might go on for years undetected. With growing water shortages, cities cannot afford to lose their precious water through pipe leaks.
Smart water technologies can also impact water use by providing greater control over the resource. Smart water technologies can help countries with limited water resources to measure their water consumption and implemented consumption reductions. The reality is that freshwater is not distributed uniformly and while some countries enjoy abundant freshwater resources others, such as the United Arabs Emirates, suffer from acute water shortages. In countries where water scarcity is a reality, the alter distribution network needs to be effectively monitored. The Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council (2010) notes that smart monitoring technology helps to track the movement of water through the entire distribution system. Through a well-developed monitoring system, a better understanding of the consumption patterns of industrial users and individual households can be acquired.
The first major benefit of smart water grids is that they have led to decreased losses of water through the leakage. Since the systems monitor the pipes and provide real-time data on the water flow, leaks can be identified as soon as they occur. Maintenance units can then be sent to fix the problem within minutes. This leads to a dramatic reduction in water wastage. Water resources are therefore used more productively as a result of this system. In addition to providing fast leak detection, smart water grids improve the efficiency of the current water supply system. OShea, et al. (2012) explain that the technology can be used to implement demand-driven distribution which leads to less stress on old pipes, therefore, increasing their lifespan.
Smart water grid systems have already shown great benefits in terms of water use and sustainability. To begin with, the technology has made it possible for the current static water resources to adequately cope with growing demand (Water Innovations Alliance 2014). The past few decades have witnessed significant increases in water demands. These demands have especially been evident in urban settlements where the population has increased dramatically. Through smart water grids, water resources can be distributed in the most efficient manner. Since there are limited losses in transit, water supplies are able to keep up with the growing demand.
Conclusion
The water resources available to humans are facing significant pressure from increased consumption levels. This paper has set out to demonstrate how smart water grids can help promote water sustainability. It began by showing that modern society could no longer afford to view freshwater as an infinite resource. Instead, people should engender the perception of water as a finite resource which consumption must be effectively managed to ensure sustainability. The various merits of using smart water grids have been highlighted. However, a large scale adoption of these systems has not yet been realised in most cities. In most cases, local authorities cite the lack of adequate funding as the reason for not implementing this technology. Considering the growing water demands of our cities, all development minded citizens should call for the implementation of smart water grids since no price is too high for achieving water security.
References
Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council, 2010, Sustainable Water Management: Assessment and Recommendations for the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, Columbia University Press, NY.
Hajebi, S Song, H Barrett, S Aidan, C & Siobhan, C 2012, Towards a reference Model for Water Smart Grid, International Journal of Advances in Engineering Science and Technology, vol. 2, no. 4, pp.310-317.
Hodson, H 2014, Super-smart grid spies out leaks, New Scientist, vol. 224, no. 29, pp. 20-22.
Iseley, T & Hromadka, E 2013, Indianapolis smart water grid pilot project demonstrates local solution to national sustainable infrastructure problem, Global Water Technologies, Indianapolis.
Moon-Hyun, K 2014, A study on a legal framework of Smart Water Grid, International Journal of Control and Automation, vol. 7, no. 12, pp. 91-100.
Mutchek, M & Williams, E 2014, Moving Towards Sustainable and Resilient Smart Water Grids, Challenges, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 123-137.
OShea, T Aldridge, T & Steigerwald, B 2012, Advances in Sensor Technology to Improve Individual Contributions to Sustainability, Intel Technology Journal, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 38-55.
Water Innovations Alliance 2014, The Water Smart Grid Initiative. Web.
Yewon, C 2014, Koreas Smart Water Grid and hybrid desalination technology. Web.
