The water input should be adjusted by drinking liquids and eating substantial food varieties. The contribution of water through ingested liquids is roughly 1.5 liters each day, from consumed food sources 1 liter and oxygen-consuming breath under 500 ml in a day. The body loses around 400 milliliters of its standard water yield through exhalation. One more half of a liter is lost through the skin. Urination represents around a half and a liter and defecation represent about 0,1 liters of water output.
In a warm and dry climate, she could be losing extra liquid through perspiring which should be supplanted. In the wintertime, Lacy lost moisture through dissipation to the dry air and particularly through breath. Low humidity increments water loss fundamentally in the initial two hours of openness without fieldwork. She could lose a lot of body liquid through sweat.
Most water is recuperated in the proximal tangled tubule, circle of Henle, and distal tangled tubule. Antidiuretic chemicals and aldosterone are liable for directing how much water is held in pee.
Sodium is reabsorbed in the thick climbing appendage of the loop of Henle. The rest of the Na+ retention happens in the distal nephron. Aldosterone advances sodium ion reabsorption by the nephron, advancing the maintenance of water.
Caffeine increments the glomerular filtration rate by restricting the vasoconstriction of the renal afferent arteriole. Caffeine additionally represses Na(+) reabsorption at the degree of renal proximal tubules. By empowering pee, compounds with diuretic properties like caffeine in espresso and caffeinated beverages might influence Lacy’s hydration status.
The kidneys can manage water levels in the body; they moderate water in case an individual’s water level is low. They can make urinate more weakened so removing the abundance of water is essential. If there should be a low liquid level, blood osmotic tension increments, invigorating osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus.
Diminished blood volume causes a reduction in a circulatory strain that animates the arrival of renin from the kidney. This causes the creation of angiotensin II, which animates the thirst placed in the nerve center.
Water is the essential hydration supply for a teenager. After physical exhaustion, rehydration ought to predominantly be replenished with water. Notwithstanding, an electrolyte drink would not be nonsensical after an extreme and prolonged exercise.
Some insects, commonly known as water striders, can move on the surface of the water without using a flight or floatation mechanism or sinking. The capacity is only observed in insects, although specific other living creatures can imitate the same result through a different method. The primary mechanic responsible for making the traversal possible is known as surface tension. This report details the particulars of the phenomenon and notes other methods used by animals to propel themselves across the water.
Surface tension is a phenomenon in which the outer layer of a liquid is more cohesive than the rest. According to “Surface Tension,” the interaction is caused by molecular forces, which are more focused due to the presence of fewer adjacent molecules. Then the hydrophobic legs of water striders resist submersion, and the gravity affecting the insect is insufficient to overcome the tension’s resistance and sink it (Suter).
Larger animals cannot copy the approach because their mass increases faster than their surface area, but Konkel notes that some of them can use surface tension to traverse short distances on the water by repeatedly slapping it. The method is highly energy-intensive, and only water striders can stay on top of the water for extended periods of time.
The ability of water striders to stay on the surface is explained by their small weight, water-repellent limbs, and the surface tension of water. The resistance of the water to the disruption that would be caused by the insect’s sinking is greater than the gravity pushing it down. Other animals are unable to replicate the phenomenon due to their higher ratio of mass to the surface, but they can use different approaches to traverse water. Ultimately, only water striders can stay on top of the water and live there throughout their lives.
The phenomenon that hot water freezes faster than cold water had received constant disapproval prior to the year 1969 when a fluke experiment on ice cream echoed the anomaly. An experiment performed by Mpemba, a high school student, confirmed that indeed the phenomenon is true.
In a synopsis, in his experiment, Mpemba investigated the rate of freezing of two batches of ice cream: a hot ice cream mix and a cooled-to-room-temperature ice cream mix. To this end, he concurrently put the batches in a freezer and recorded the time taken for each to freeze.
In his results, he established that the hot ice cream mix freezes faster than the cool one. With these results, he pondered what might have happened. To erase any doubts, he carried an identical experiment but with water instead. To his surprise, he obtained a duplicate result; “hot water freezes faster than cold water” (Katz, 2009).
In his quest to find answers behind this phenomenon, Mpemba approached several people including his physics teacher and Prof. Orsborn. To his surprise none of them had an answer to this anomaly. However, after a series of experiments the Prof. confirmed Mpemba’s findings after which, together with Mpemba in the year 1969, published their findings otherwise christened Mpemba effect (Auerbach, 1995).
However, even with these findings, most stubborn readers still remain skeptical about the phenomenon. However, their explanations do not agree with scientific principles.
To date, scientists the world over still grapple to establish the reason that is Mpemba effect. As such, many explanations have been fronted to this effect. This is owed to the fact that there is no published, common denominator on the conditions under which individual experiments need to be performed to assert Mpemba effect.
Moreover, there are a host of variables that render results from different laboratory experiments unique. Different mechanisms including evaporation, dissolved gasses, convection, and the surrounding have been published as reasons for Mpemba effect. To this end, “with the limited number of experiments done, and often under very different conditions, none of the proposed mechanisms can confidently be proclaimed as “the” mechanism” (Wojciechowski, 1995).
Project Goals
To analyzed the mechanisms fronted in the quest to finding the cause of Mpemba effect.
To briefly analyze the methodology used in each mechanism.
Review of Literature
In the year 1969, through his fluke experiment on ice cream, Mpemba, a high school student, echoed claims believed to have been remarked by the trio of Aristotle, Bacon and Descartes. His claims were that hot ice cream cools faster than cold ice cream. To assert his claims, he engaged a different liquid (water) and the results were similar.
He engaged different personalities including Prof. Osborne who later on published this phenomenon otherwise christened Mpemba effect as true. This would later elicit mixed reactions from the general public on the credibility as well as the actual causes of the same. A number of literatures hitherto trying to disapprove Mpemba’s findings have been published.
In the year 1996, an experiment to assert Mpemba’s claims was carried out by Mathews. As such, he challenges us to obtain water in two pails: one at 950 C and the other one at 500 C but on a freezing day (Jearl, 1977).
According to him, the hotter water freezes faster than the cold water. In his research, he claims that on a cooling curve, hot water would take a little more time before reaching the initial temperature of relatively colder water eventually following the trend traced by the cold water.
Apparently, the effect is real however, the credibility of these theoretical claims is best explained by Mpemba effect (Auerbach, 1995). Nonetheless, Mathews further explains that this phenomenon has its roots way back in history. As such, he explains that the mystery was a common place in the ancient epoch where wooded pails were popular. To this end, he cites that “Sir Francis Bacon, Descartes and even Aristotle are said to have remarked on it” (Auerbach, 1995).
Description of Research
According scientists, Mpemba effect might have resulted from three mechanisms that include evaporation, dissolved gasses, surroundings and convection. As such, this research centers on these mechanisms.
As regards evaporation, scientists believe that evaporation might have staked a claim in Mpemba effect. As such, they believe that hot water loses significant amount of volume in form of evaporation. Consequently, a relatively small volume of water would be available for cooling hence it freezes faster than initially cold water. However, this theory is limited to open containers hence cannot stake a claim as ‘the’ actual mechanism (Esposito, 2008).
With regards to the experimental methodology, twin experiments need to be set up but with different initial temperatures. A data on the actual lose in volume of water need to be tabulated for analysis. Similar arrangements need to be done for closed containers too. Notably, other factor should be held constant.
With respect to dissolved gasses, the advocates of this theory believe that hot water has low capacity with regards to dissolved gasses. As such, they believe that in absence of the gasses the physical characteristics of water change. This in turn enhances faster development of convectional currents vital in enhancing quick freezing of water.
Moreover, they believe that this changes the boiling point of water in favor of hot water. However, this theory is unsupported arithmetically (Esposito, 2008). As regards methodology, an analysis on how fast convectional current develops using an ink in a twin experiment while holding other factors constant need to be done.
The surrounding environment may have an influence on the rate of cooling especially when one is not keen on providing similar environmental conditions to both containers. As such, a hot water container resting on a thin layer of frost may influence its environment in a complex way to freeze faster than initially cold water. However, scientists are kin to provide similar environmental conditions to avert such uncertainty (Esposito, 2008).
Convectional current theorists believe that these currents are responsible for a non-uniform temperature distribution; hence, the temperatures decrease gradually from the top to bottom. This is for the reasons that in liquids the temperature and density are inversely related.
As such, its upper layer otherwise ‘hot top’ lose heat relatively faster. To this end, on reaching the initial temperature of the cooler liquid with its ‘hot top’ intact, the rate of cooling remains comparatively faster. As such, the average cooling rate for initially warm water will be faster than that of initially cool water (Esposito, 2008).
The methodology should be based on establishing temperatures longitudinally in twin containers, but concurrently using sensitive probes in both containers while holding other factors constant. As such, graphs of temperature against time need to be plotted to ascertain the difference in cooling rate.
Timeline on how the experiment would be accomplished is shown below.
Week 1 and 2
Week 3 & 4
Week 5
Week 6 & 7
Performing evaporation mechanism experiment
Performing dissolved gasses experiment
Performing the ‘surrounding’ experiment
Performing convectional currents experiment
Week 1 is assembling materials and experiment
Week 2 is analysis
Week 1 is assembling materials and experiment
Week 4 is analysis
No experiment for this since it is a condition that need to be kept constant
Week 1 is assembling materials and experiment
Week 7 is analysis
Budget
The budget allocation for the experiment is relative to how equipped one’s laboratory is, and how available the raw materials are. As such, the budget for the three experiments is not limited to the budget allocations below.
Type of experiment
Reasons for cash allocation
Amount in USD required (USD)
Evaporation mechanism
For equipment to be used in the experiment including twin containers, timer, probes etc.
In the year 1992, while basing on a personal experience Mathews published an article on anomaly of water otherwise Mpemba effect. As such, he dares us to take two volumes of water with different temperatures, and on a freezing day to ascertain Mpemba’s findings. Mathews’s article is meant for the general public. However, the purported causes of this anomaly require scientific knowledge to comprehend.
Mathews focuses on the aftermath rather than pre-Mpemba’s findings. As such, he overlooks other people who are purported to have remarked about the experience before. Here, Mathews work is closely related to Ann Marie who focuses on post-Mpemba’s findings. In a synopsis, Mathews’s personal experience echoed Mpemba effect- “hot water freezes faster than cold water” (Mathews, 1996).
References
Auerbach, D. (1995). Supercooling and the Mpemba effect: When hot water freezes quicker than cold. American Journal Physics, 63, 882-885.
Esposito, D. (2008). Mpemba effect and phase transitions in the adiabatic cooling of water before freezing. Physica America Journal, 387, 757-763.
Jearl, W. (1977). Hot water freezes faster than cold water. Why does it do so? The Amateur Scientist, Scientific American, 237(3), 246-257.
Katz, J. (2009). When hot water freezes before cold. American Journal of Physics, 77, 27-29.
Among the most important compounds that are found in the earth’s biosphere is water. Water is vital in supporting millions of lives of both plants and animals that grace the land. As a matter of fact, in this sphere, it is the most abundant compound. In appearance, water is a colorless and odorless compound exhibiting unique physical properties. These properties are owed to its “electronic structure, bonding and chemistry” (Rolands 33). Significantly, its affinity to react with a myriad of elements renders it impure at any one given time. Against this backdrop, in the thesis statement, we explore the physical/chemical properties of water and analyze how unique they are. As such, in this essay, we explore the structure and bonding, molecular symmetry and amphiprotic properties.
The molecular formula of pure water is portrayed as H2O. This molecule is unique in itself; the bond length between the oxygen and one of the hydrogen atoms (O-H) is 0.096 nm. The repulsion between two lone pairs is the reason that the molecule assumes a wedge-shaped structure with an angle of 104.5o between the O-H bonds (see the fig. 1 below).
Figure 1: molecular structure of water.
In order to understand why the structure assumes the above shape, it is important to note that the atomic structure of oxygen requires extra two electrons for it to fill its outer energy level. When the atom bonds with hydrogen atoms, two lone pairs result (see fig. 2 below).
Figure 2: molecular structure of water.
The two lone pairs repel each with a greater force than they do for the O-H bonds. As a consequence, the O-H bonds are pushed much closer to each other to form a wage-shaped structure (fig. 1) with an angle much less than 109o.
Considering the structure in the figure above (fig. 1), it is evident that a molecule of water has a line of symmetry that can be traced through the water molecule, acting as a bisector of the angle between the two O-H bonds. Another line of symmetry that is visible on a three-dimensional structure is that which forms a mirror image containing three atoms. Moreover, the molecule remains uninterrupted when turned at an angle of 180o, portraying that the molecule has a two-fold rotation plane. Both mirror planes “contain the rotation axis, and this type of symmetry belongs to the point group C2v” (Utz 3). A point group is defined by the number of symmetry atoms that are organized in a particular fashion. Molecules exhibit diverse point group characteristics which can serve as a model for classification. Those molecules that belong to a common group exhibit analogous spectroscopic behavior. Just like it has been mentioned before, H2O belongs to point group Cv2. This group includes compounds like CH2=O and CH2Cl2.
One interesting topic that continues to baffle chemists is the science of equilibria, a science that analyzes acid-base behaviors. Water molecule is unique in the sense that they can form either a weak acid or base. This is owed to the fact that it has the ability to “accept (H3O+) or donate a proton (OH–)” (Utz 5). As such, water is considered to be amphiprotic. This behavior basically renders water a buffer solution.
In a conclusion, this essay has highlighted some physical/chemical properties of water that make it a unique compound. These properties influence the behavior of water in chemical reactions.
Biorefinery concept revolves around the facilities and processes that convert biomasses to biofuels and value-added chemical compounds (Cherubini, 2010; Taylor, 2008). Photosynthesizing plant materials provide excellent sources of energy and chemicals (Rabelo et al., 2011). By adopting renewable sources of energy, it implies that the world will never run out of energy for domestic and industrial purposes. Biorefineries produce many products at the same time by taking advantage of the chemically diverse compounds found in biomasses and their intermediaries. However, research demonstrates that biorefinery is under-exploited, and the concept of energy production has many research and business opportunities. The concept utilizes knowledge from microbiology, biotechnology and physics (Menon & Rao, 2012).
Biorefinery processes
A typical biorefinery could involve the following four processes:
Pre-treatment
Enzymatic hydrolysis
Fermentation and bio-reactions
Separation and recovery
In the first process, biomass is fed into a biorefinery plant. The biomass could be algae, grass or water hyacinth, among other photosynthetic materials. At this stage, the biomass is mixed with chemicals and the product from the pre-treatment tank is biomass pulp. The biomass pulp is directed to the second biorefinery process where grains and enzymes are fed into the tank. This second process involves the enzymatic breakdown of the biomass pulp by enzymes. Enzymes that are used to digest the biomass pulp are chosen based on the properties of the biomass raw materials. It could be easy to predict the properties of biomass pulp based on the raw materials used. The enzymatic process leads to the formation of simple sugars. The simple sugars are fed into the third stage of the biorefinery plant (Octave & Thomas, 2009). The processes at the third stage involve fermentation and bio-reactions. Microorganisms are mixed with the simple sugars to initiate fermentation and bio-reactions. The fermentation and bio-reactions lead to the formation of bio-products which are fed into the fourth and final process of a biorefinery. The final process involves separating and recovering the major products of the biorefinery (Octave & Thomas, 2009). The end-products could be renewable fuels, feed products and/or specialty chemicals. The four processes discussed above are well designed to ensure that a biorefinery plant is economically viable. In other words, a cost-benefit analysis should prove that a biorefinery plant produces products that have higher economic value than the production cost (Octave & Thomas, 2009).
Biomasses in our project
Microalgae
Research demonstrates that some species of algae could be utilized as biomass in biorefineries to yield ethanol (Efremenko et al., 2012). Ethanol is a source of energy for domestic and industrial uses. There have been issues that limited research exists in the utilization of microalgae in ethanol production, and more research is needed to fully utilize the benefits of algae in biorefineries (Parmar, Singh, Pandey, Gnansounou & Madamwar, 2011).
Algae are either autotrophic or heterotrophic. Autotrophic algae capture energy from the sun to synthesize their own food through photosynthesis. The food manufactured by the autotrophic algae is stored in the form of carbohydrates. On the other hand, heterotrophic algae obtain small molecules from the environment and convert them to fat, oil or proteins. Algae are either microalgae (microscopic) or macroalgae (macroscopic). Microalgae have high ability for converting photons, and this implies that they could produce a lot of carbohydrates needed in a biorefinery over a short period of time (Chen et al., 2011; Chen et al., 2013; John, Anisha, Nampoothiri & Pandey, 2011). Some biorefineries could use petroleum as the source of energy for heating biomass. Microalgae have been confirmed to withstand high levels of carbon dioxide from petroleum-based sources of energy (Demirbas, 2011).
Microalgae can grow in many habitats across the world, and they have been shown to have the highest growth rates across the world. Microalgae could withstand diverse temperatures and pH conditions. Microalgae are single-celled organisms which do not waste energy in translocation of molecules between tissues (Moazami et al., 2012).
The use of microalgae as biomass for biofuel production in biorefineries is feasible because they could be grown in optimal conditions and increase exponentially over a short period of time (Oncel, 2013). The rapid growth favors mass production of biofuels because of continuous input of raw materials (Mata, Martins & Caetano, 2010). The problem that scientists could solve in the future is designing a microalgae biorefinery that could produce large amounts of biofuels at a low cost. Upcoming biotechnology firms have taken an initiative to solve this problem by adopting biotechnology approaches in cultivation of microalgae for biorefineries (Ziolkowska & Simon, 2013). The open cultivation of microalgae could expose them to their predators, and this could result in big losses (Harun & Danquah, 2011). The processes involved in microalgae biorefineries are very expensive and, in most cases, do not make economic sense (Singh & Gu, 2010). Nevertheless, the adoption of microalgae for large-scale production of biofuels in biorefineries has many opportunities in the future (Lam & Lee, 2012; Pienkos & Darzins, 2009).
Summary of chemical components in microalgae
The percentages of chemical components in microalgae are not fixed because they depend on the species of microalgae. The following chemical components are found in microalgae:
Proteins
Carbohydrates
Nucleic acid
Fatty acid (oil)
The fatty acid component is crucial in microalgae biorefinery because it is isolated and converted into ethanol and methanol (biodiesel). Ethanol and methanol are used as sources of energy for industrial and domestic purposes.
Water hyacinth
Water hyacinth is an aquatic plant that grows in both clean water and wastewater (Abdel-Fattah & Abdel-Naby, 2012; Bayrakci & Koçar, 2014). Research shows that the plant cleans water by filtering nitrogen and oxygen supply. The plant has high rates of reproduction, taking about 8 days to duplicate. Large amounts of cellulose and carbohydrates are contained in the plant, and the chemical compounds make the plant ideal for producing biofuels. Research shows that the amount of biofuels obtained from water hyacinths is based on the type of pre-treatment used in a biorefinery. Proper pre-treatment measures lead to the realization of large amounts of biofuels while poor treatment approaches result in small amounts of biofuels. Proper pre-treatment uses sodium hydroxide, alkaline peroxide, peracetic acid and sodium chlorite. The chemicals ensure that there is proper digestion of hyacinth fibers to yield biomass pulp (Thiripura Sundari & Ramesh, 2012).
Water hyacinth is a menace in many countries because the plant grows at very high rates and, in most cases, the growth is uncontrollable. If the plant invades seashores that are used for recreational purposes by tourists, then it could lead to major financial losses. Many countries have not found best approaches to eliminate the plant from their water bodies. The use of chemicals to eliminate water hyacinth from water has been rejected because the chemicals could lead to loss of human lives if human beings consume the water having chemicals. However, some countries have adopted approaches that involve harvesting water hyacinth for biofuel production in biorefineries. If water hyacinth biorefineries are designed well, they could produce large amounts of biofuels (Thiripura et al., 2012).
Chemical analysis of water hyacinth needs to be done so that to determine the expected quantities of biofuels (Singh & Bishnoi, 2013). Research demonstrates that leaves of water hyacinths growing in sewage have 33% of crude protein. People aiming at designing efficient water hyacinth biorefineries should determine the environments from which to obtain the plant biomass for biofuel production. The environment determines the chemical composition of the plant which impacts the quality and amounts of biofuels. The main challenge facing production of biofuels from water hyacinths is lack of appropriate technologies to use in biorefineries. Poor technologies in biorefineries result in production of small volumes of biofuels. In such circumstances, the cost of production exceeds the economic benefits of the biofuels produced. On the other hand, good technologies go a long way in ensuring that water hyacinth biorefineries are efficient and produce biofuels that have more economical value than the cost of production (Ganguly, Chatterjee & Dey, 2012). The use of water hyacinths to produce biofuels is largely untapped in many countries across the world. The adoption of the right approaches in utilizing water hyacinths for biofuel production will go a long way in increasing the amount of biofuels produced across the world (Malik, 2007).
Summary of chemical components in water hyacinth
The percentages of chemical components of water hyacinth have been found to vary based on the environment supporting its growth. However, the following are the chemical components and ranges of percentage compositions:
Protein (48%-51%)
Total lipids (15%-18%)
Carbohydrates (24%-27%)
Fiber (1.5%-1.8%)
Ash (5.5%-6%)
References
Abdel-Fattah, A. F., & Abdel-Naby, M. A. (2012). Pretreatment and enzymic saccharification of water hyacinth cellulose. Carbohydrate Polymers, 87(3), 2109- 2113.
Bayrakci, A. G., & Koçar, G. (2014). Second-generation bioethanol production from water hyacinth and duckweed in Izmir: A case study. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 30(1), 306-316.
Chen, C. Y., Yeh, K. L., Aisyah, R., Lee, D. J., & Chang, J. S. (2011). Cultivation, photobioreactor design and harvesting of microalgae for biodiesel production: a critical review. Bioresource Technology, 102(1), 71-81.
Chen, C. Y., Zhao, X. Q., Yen, H. W., Ho, S. H., Cheng, C. L., Lee, D. J.,… & Chang, J. S. (2013). Microalgae-based carbohydrates for biofuel production. Biochemical Engineering Journal. 78(1), 1-10.
Cherubini, F. (2010). The biorefinery concept: using biomass instead of oil for producing energy and chemicals. Energy Conversion and Management, 51(7), 1412-1421.
Demirbas, A. (2011). Biodiesel from oilgae, biofixation of carbon dioxide by microalgae: A solution to pollution problems. Applied Energy, 88(10), 3541-3547.
Efremenko, E. N., Nikolskaya, A. B., Lyagin, I. V., Senko, O. V., Makhlis, T. A., Stepanov, N. A.,… & Varfolomeev, S. D. (2012). Production of biofuels from pretreated microalgae biomass by anaerobic fermentation with immobilized Clostridium acetobutylicum cells. Bioresource Technology, 114(1), 342-348.
Ganguly, A., Chatterjee, P. K., & Dey, A. (2012). Studies on ethanol production from water hyacinth—A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(1), 966-972.
Harun, R., & Danquah, M. K. (2011). Influence of acid pre-treatment on microalgal biomass for bioethanol production. Process Biochemistry, 46(1), 304-309.
John, R. P., Anisha, G. S., Nampoothiri, K. M., & Pandey, A. (2011). Micro and macroalgal biomass: a renewable source for bioethanol. Bioresource Technology, 102(1), 186-193.
Lam, M. K., & Lee, K. T. (2012). Microalgae biofuels: a critical review of issues, problems and the way forward. Biotechnology advances, 30(3), 673-690.
Malik, A. (2007). Environmental challenge vis a vis opportunity: The case of water hyacinth. Environment International, 33(1), 122-138.
Mata, T. M., Martins, A. A., & Caetano, N. S. (2010). Microalgae for biodiesel production and other applications: a review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 14(1), 217-232.
Menon, V., & Rao, M. (2012). Trends in bioconversion of lignocellulose: biofuels, platform chemicals & biorefinery concept. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 38(4), 522-550.
Moazami, N., Ashori, A., Ranjbar, R., Tangestani, M., Eghtesadi, R., & Nejad, A. S. (2012). Large-scale biodiesel production using microalgae biomass of Nannochloropsis. Biomass and Bioenergy, 39(1), 449-453.
Octave, S., & Thomas, D. (2009). Biorefinery: toward an industrial metabolism. Biochimie, 91(6), 659-664.
Oncel, S. S. (2013). Microalgae for a macroenergy world. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 26(1), 241-264.
Parmar, A., Singh, N. K., Pandey, A., Gnansounou, E., & Madamwar, D. (2011). Cyanobacteria and microalgae: a positive prospect for biofuels. Bioresource technology, 102(22), 10163-10172.
Pienkos, P. T., & Darzins, A. (2009). The promise and challenges of microalgal derived biofuels. Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining, 3(4), 431-440.
Rabelo, S. C., Carrere, H., Maciel Filho, R., & Costa, A. C. (2011). Production of bioethanol, methane and heat from sugarcane bagasse in a biorefinery concept. Bioresource Technology, 102(17), 7887-7895.
Singh, A., & Bishnoi, N. R. (2013). Comparative study of various pretreatment techniques for ethanol production from water hyacinth. Industrial Crops and Products, 44(1), 283-289.
Singh, J., & Gu, S. (2010). Commercialization potential of microalgae for biofuels production. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 14(9), 2596-2610.
Taylor, G. (2008). Biofuels and the biorefinery concept. Energy Policy, 36(12), 4406-4409.
Thiripura Sundari, M., & Ramesh, A. (2012). Isolation and characterization of cellulose nanofibers from the aquatic weed water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes. Carbohydrate Polymers, 87(2), 1701-1705.
Ziolkowska, J. R., & Simon, L. (2013). Recent developments and prospects for algae-based fuels in the US. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 29(1), 847-853.
Earth is the only place that is known to have water on it. Water occurs on our planet in all three forms naturally. Because water exists on Earth in great amounts, the substance plays a central role in many biological and chemical processes. All life of all species that are known to science requires water to exist. The goal of this paper is to discuss the chemical properties of water that are most important for life on Earth.
The fact that water particles create bonds is critical, and it determines many of the substance properties. Molecules of water are polar and attracted to one another, which allows them to form bonds (Green 00:01:38-00:02:40). Other substances that consist of polar molecules are dissolved into the water if they can break the cohesive forces between water molecules. This property makes water a universal solvent, which is crucial for all living organisms. This process plays a role in digestion, circulation, and excretion of waste.
High heat capacity of water is also critical for life to exist on the planet. Water takes time to heat and to cool down because it accumulates heating energy. Massive amounts of water in the oceans help regulate temperature and make consequences of weather change less drastic for living organisms. In humans and other mammals, this process is important for control of body temperature via perspiration.
Thus, the existence of water is critical for life on a planet. The substance plays a very important role in the processes that have been going on Earth for millions of years, creating the right environment for the existence and development of living organisms. Studying the mechanisms behind these processes is key to understanding chemistry and biology.
Nowadays, modern technologies allow the majority of people to have easy access to water resources every day and at any time. However, water resources could not be easily accessed in the past. To get control of the water, people had to invent special techniques that would ensure its comfortable utilization. One of these techniques was the creation of swimming pools, special structures that hold the water and can be used for swimming and leisurely activities.
While the first pools were created for bathing and religious purposes, nowadays, having a swimming pool as an element of backyard décor is an indication of the wellness of landlords. In this case, the swimming pool is considered not only as a place for leisurely activities but also as a symbol of social status. The more beautiful and bigger the swimming pool is, the wealthier and powerful its owner. Therefore, mastering the construction of swimming pools, aimed to improve their aesthetics, plays a significant role in defining the social status of the swimming pools’ owners. In this essay, the process of domestication of water with a primary focus on swimming pools will be discussed.
It is well known that water is an essential element for the survival of human beings. For this reason, in ancient times, people had to settle down on the territories that were close to freshwater sources. It was especially crucial for dryland regions as people needed to irrigate their lands to plant vegetables, fruits, and crops. The process of water collection was complicated, as humans had to carry heavy natural containers with water from wells or rivers to their settlements.
Over the years, people have been implementing certain strategies and measures to make the process of accessing water sources easier. For example, the first irrigation system was created in Egypt in about 5000 B.C. Ancient Egyptians built large basins on the banks of the Nile River. During the floods, the water was diverted to these basins and stored there. Later, this technique was improved as people started building connections between basins and canals of different sizes to transfer the water to various places.
It is worth to notice that even though water is an essential element that is needed for human existence, it can also have a negative impact on people’s lives. For instance, floods can result in the destruction of houses and crops, which can deteriorate living conditions and cause a food shortage. There are various ways to deal with the destructive nature of water. For example, the Babylonians and Mesopotamians invented specialized drainage systems, which implied using terracotta pipes to “convey stormwater out of their settlements.”
Nowadays, people have more opportunities to reduce the risks of floods. Thus, they build the dams next to the rivers to save the inhabitants of the nearby areas in case if the water levels increase. In addition, they use modern technologies that help to predict floods and warn those who are in the risk zones using specialized information tools, such as Global Flood Awareness System. Therefore, even though the process of water control is challenging, people have been creating successful strategies to manage water sources since ancient times.
The utilization of modern technologies and centuries-old experience of managing water sources help people achieve various goals. Thus, at the present time, the majority of people have access to tap water, which enables them to wash or cook anytime. Drain systems help to get rid of sewage while cleaning of the roads is the primary function of special machines, which are usually called “Street cleaners.” Getting control of the water also enabled people to invent fountain constructions, which serve as the beautiful decorations of the cities in summertime. One of the most luxurious and gorgeous architectural inventions, which was created as a result of managing water sources by people, is the swimming pool.
There is no precise information about the time when the first swimming pools were built. However, it is generally accepted by scholars that the first swimming pool was constructed about 2600 B.C.E. in modern-day Pakistan. It was called the Great Bath of Mohenjodaro and used for religious purposes. Later, in ancient Rome and Greece, people started establishing special holes for bathing, which were the predecessors of the larger pools constructed as washing facilities during the Classical period. The first pools that emerged as compositions of art and played a vital role in the infrastructure of cities appeared in Rome. For example, the Baths of Diocletian, built around 306 A.D., included a library, shops, and even restaurants. These bathes contributed to the improvement of public health and public relations.
These bathing constructions served as prototypes for bathing pavilions, which became especially popular on the territory of the Middle East and the Mediterranean much later, in the 19th century. Their architectural structure since that time, however, has undergone many changes. For example, in Tunisia, bathing pavilions looked like luxury decorated places. Usually, these structures were connected with a palace and were open only for the elite, the ruling families, and wealthy people. The swimming pool located at the center of bathing pavilions, which were set in the seawater, so it could enter the building freely and people could enjoy bathing in privacy.
Spending time at bathing pavilions facilitated the emergence of swimming pools as places for social interaction and leisurely activities. Thus, the bathing pavilions of the Mediterranean and the Middle East region witnessed the gathering of representatives of members of ruling families, their friends, and relatives. During the summertime, they used to move to their residencies located on the banks of the Mediterranean Sea, and invite their relatives and friends to spend the summer together. It is worth to notice that ruling families of the Mediterranean region used to invite guests from Europe. They picked up the habit to spend time in bathing pavilions and started traveling to the region more often for bathing purposes. The owners of pavilions provided food and even invented pool games to entertain their guests.
Moreover, bathing at the swimming pools with sea water impacted people’s health in a positive way. Therefore, at that time, swimming in the bathing pavilions was considered as both leisurely activity and treatment therapies. Owning bathing pavilions demonstrated the high social status of the landlords. Swimming there was considered a pleasurable activity that could be afforded by wealthy people.
Swimming at the swimming pools emerged as a sports activity in the 19th century. The first indoor swimming pool, called St. George’s Baths, was opened to the public in the first half of the 19th century in Great Britain. Later, this pool, along with the other pools that were opened in Great Britain, held the first swimming competitions in the 1830s. Recreational and competitive swimming became especially popular in the second half of the twentieth century.
It was ensured by various municipal and informal programs of pool buildings launched in order to provide the public with an opportunity to use swimming as a form of recreation. Therefore, by the end of the twentieth century, swimming pools became an essential part of people’s lives, as it served as a place for social interactions, sports competitions, and leisurely activities.
Nowadays, the swimming pools are completely different from their first prototypes. They are equipped with various modern systems that enable people enjoying swimming at any time of the year in comfortable conditions. Thus, scientists suggest new heating methods for both indoors and outdoors swimming pools. They include using solar-assisted, compression, absorption, and motor drive heat pumps, which help to heat the water until its temperature becomes comfortable for swimming. Also, various ventilation techniques are implemented in order to dehumidify indoor pools.
In addition, different sanitation means are introduced in order to prevent catching bacterial diseases by people in public swimming pools. These sanitation techniques include not only adding chemicals to the water but also using ceramic and polymer membranes that do not impact people’s health negatively. While there are many technological innovations implemented in the construction of the latest swimming pools, many changes occurred in terms of their architectural appearance.
Currently, aesthetics plays a significant role in the construction of swimming pools because many people consider having a swimming pool as an indication of their success and status. Therefore, a large and beautiful modernized swimming pool is considered a luxury possession, which promotes the improvement of the social status of its owners. Similar perception can be noticed in the hospitality industry when luxury 5-star hotels advertise their commodities presenting the spa-designed swimming pools on their territories. For this reason, there are many architecturally unique swimming pools that were created in order to attract the attention of the public and strengthen the status of the owners.
For instance, there is the largest rooftop swimming pool in the world, which is located in Singapore and called “The Infinity Pool.” The 150-meter long swimming pool was constructed on the 57th store of the hotel “Marina Bay Sands” in order to open impeccable and breathtaking views of Singapore and beyond. The hotel was designed by an Israeli-Canadian architect, Moshe Safdie. It consists of three towers, which are connected at the top, where the Sands Sky Park with numerous restaurants, cafes, and the Infinity pool is located. The pool is unique not only because of its size and location but also because it has walls that exactly match its water level. They are overflowing, and water falls into a container, which is located below. The water is collected in this reservoir and is pumped back into the pool. See fig. 1 to enjoy the beauty of the described pool below.
Fig.1. Infinity Pool.
Another example of modern architectural design of a swimming pool is located on the Market Square Tower in Houston, Texas. The pool was constructed in 2016 and designed by Texas company Jackson & Ryan Architects. The Market Square Tower is the tallest building of the state, which makes the architectural concept more interesting. It is one of the first swimming pools, which has a glass bottom. Therefore, the uniqueness of this swimming pool is that people can enjoy both the view on the skyline and the ground 40 stores below. Find the picture of the swimming pool under fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Market Square Tower Pool.
Another unique and attractive architectural design of a swimming pool is represented by the Twin-Tiered Cascading Pool at Hanging Gardens in Bali, Indonesia. The pool is surrounded by the picturesque rainforests and the Ayung River and was awarded the title of the world’s best swimming pool.
The architectural uniqueness of this pool is that the architects managed to build a stable structure, which hangs over the jungle valley using innovative feats of engineering. Thus, all the levels of the pool are aligned, which is a great architectural challenge, because the steps are needed to raise the villa from the ground level. It is very important as it prevents water from flowing indoors. The architects found a great decision, which, however, remains the most guarded secret of Hanging Gardens. Find fig. 3 to see the picture of the Hanging Gardens pool below.
Fig. 3. Hanging Gardens Pool.
Another example of a swimming pool with a unique design is a pool called “Nemo 33,” which was built in 2004 and located in Brussels, Belgium. This swimming pool reminds an art installation rather than a casual place for swimming. “Nemo 33” is one of the deepest indoor swimming pools in the world with a depth of 108 feet. Seven years were spent to construct this pool and various channels, caves, and courses inside of it to provide a training area for divers. The author of the project was a famous diver, John Beernaerts. Until 2014, “Nemo 33” was the deepest swimming pool in the world. However, this status was taken by the swimming pool built in Italy, which is called “The Deep Joy.” The depth of “The Deep Joy” is 40 meters (113 feet), and it is located in the swim center, designed by an Italian architect, Emanuele Boaretto. It is a true masterpiece of architecture and engineering, which takes place in the Guinness World Record. Fig. 4 and fig. 5 demonstrate the two deepest swimming pools in the world.
Fig. 4. Swimming pool “Nemo 33.”Fig. 5. Swimming pool “Y-40 Deep Joy.”
Thus, the demonstrated pictures, as well as the information about the architectural masterpieces presented above, prove that swimming pools serve not only as places for swimming and social interaction. It is also considered as an indication of the social status of people and various companies. Thus, spending time in the world’s best swimming pool in Bali in the majority of cases is available only for people with relatively high annual income. Similarly, the construction of a modernized luxury pool in the backyard cannot be performed without substantial financial investments.
Due to financial reasons, the majority of people in the USA decided not to have a swimming pool in their backyards. According to statistics, for the period from 2009 until 2017, the number of those who had swimming pools in their households declined from 28.4 million to 18.9. Except for the main expenses that are related to the building of the pools, the significant financial contributions are made for their maintenance. These contributions include energy cost, extra insurance cost that covers insurance accidents, as well as costs related to its sanitation and cleaning. As a result, owning a swimming pool results in substantial expenses that most people cannot afford. Therefore, a resort-style pool located next to the house demonstrates the financial viability and high social status of the owners.
Indeed, swimming pools serve as status symbols not only in real life but also in the film industry. Thus, in the movie “Sunset Boulevard,” the pool plays a central role as it stands for extravagance and glamour. Owning a pool represented fame and fortune and became a dream of many people in the 1950s. Similarly, the desire of the main hero of the movie “The Pool” to swim in the pool of the hotel where he worked, symbolized his life goals, which implied economic advancement. A swimming pool can symbolize not only economic independence and the high social status of its owners but give a sense of freedom and an opportunity to escape from the daily routine.
However, Wilkinson asserts that even though swimming pools give a sense of freedom, they have their dark side as well. The author narrates about the time in the history of pools when co-bathing was banned due to the racist prejudices. Thus, he reminds us that in the past, the fear of water contamination caused by swimming of black people in pools “lead to the post-desegregation boom in backyard pools.”
Nowadays, these ideas are no longer popular as it is well known that water contamination is caused due to other reasons. Thus, it can be caused by the social irresponsibility of people who have some contagious diseases and still attend public swimming pools. Unfortunately, there are no sanitation methods that allow purifying water from all the bacteria and infections without impacting people’s health negatively. Also, water contamination may be caused by bacteria that come from saliva, swimwear, hairs, and even cosmetics of swimmers.
Therefore, it can be concluded that people’s efforts to get control of the water brought a number of positive results. Thus, currently, humans invented numerous modern techniques that allowed them to have easy access to water in the majority of countries. In addition, people managed to reduce the negative impact of floods and storms. Getting control of water resulted in the creation of numerous tools that aimed to provide more comfortable conditions for the utilization of water sources. One of these tools is swimming pools, which initially served as reservoirs for holding water for irrigation purposes. Later, the holes filled with water served as bathes for ablutions, which should be performed by religious people. These water holes became prototypes of the modern swimming pools.
Having passed a centuries-long process of development, modern swimming pools became equipped with many technological tools that make the process of swimming comfortable and enjoyable. Moreover, now, pools are used not only for swimming but also for social and recreational spaces. Also, a swimming pool serves as a symbol of the social status of its owners because a luxurious pool demonstrates that the owners have enough financial means for its maintenance. It is especially important for the owners of the luxurious hotels who consider their swimming pools as one of the tools for the attraction of guests. Therefore, mastering the construction of swimming pools in order to improve their aesthetics plays a significant role as it defines the social status of the swimming pools’ owners.
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Yegul, Fikret. “Roman Baths at Isthmia and Sanctuary Baths in Greece.” Hesperia Supplements, vol. 48, 2015, pp. 247-269.
Water is a vital medium for biological reactions in plants and animals. The quality of water, which can be determined through monitoring the chemical, physical, and biological properties, affects its safety during use in various life-sustaining processes. The purpose of this experiment was to analyze water from a wetland for phosphate, nitrite, and bacterial content. Water samples measuring 100 each were obtained from four different points in a park bordering a river on three separate days. The samples were subjected to physicochemical analysis by measuring temperature and pH using a conductivity and temperature tester. The concentrations of chlorine, nitrite, and phosphate were estimated using a portable photometer. The lowest and highest temperatures were 17oC and 24.5oC, whereas the average pH was 8.5. The concentration of nitrite was lower than the maximum allowable limits in drinking water. Bacterial populations ranged from 2.69×104 to 4.82×104 cells. Phosphate was the major chemical contaminant in the wetland. It was recommended that nanoparticle filters should be used to purify the water.
Introduction
Water is a vital component that is needed in large quantities to sustain life. Water quality is a term that denotes the chemical, physical, and biological attributes of water. The quality of water varies based on the type of organism, human requirements, or purpose. A number of parameters can alter the condition of water in the surroundings, including chemical, physical, or biological factors. Physical characteristics of water quality consist of temperature and turbidity. Conversely, chemical features include factors such as pH, dissolved gases, and ions. Physiological reactions take place with a given temperature range, which means that water temperature should also be conducive for organisms that live in it. Important ions to consider in water quality include nitrite, chloride, and phosphate.
Nitrites are salts derived from nitrous acid that can be found naturally in groundwater. However, these ions can also be introduced into water bodies from nitrogenous fertilizers via sewage, run-off water, or mineral deposits. The predominant bacteria found in wetlands are cyanobacteria, which develop symbiotic associations with plants due to their ability to fix nitrogen into utilizable forms. Nitrifying bacteria obtain energy from the oxidation of organic nitrogenous compounds. Nitrite ions can trigger the growth of bacteria if present in large quantities in water bodies.
Phosphates are oxides of phosphorous that are important in water quality evaluation. The normal concentration of phosphates in water should be approximately 0.02 parts per million (Abu-Hmeidan, Williams & Miller 2018). Even though all plants require phosphates for healthy growth and development, high concentrations of this anion reduce the levels of oxygen and result in cloudy water.
Chlorides are salts formed when chlorine gas combines with metals. The most common chloride salts are sodium chloride and magnesium chloride. Chlorides can be introduced to groundwater from sources such as agricultural runoff, rocks containing chlorides, as well as effluents from wastewater treatment plants and other industries. Small quantities of chlorides are important for the normal functioning of cells. Nonetheless, high levels of chlorides have adverse effects such as corrosion of metals and death or aquatic life (Manahan 2017). These ions also lead to the corrosion of metals in industrial applications. Therefore, the levels of chloride ions in water need to be kept at a recommended maximum limit to avoid these effects. The purpose of this experiment is to analyze the quality of water from a wetland with a specific focus on nitrite, phosphate and bacterial content.
Materials and Methods
Study Site
The study site was a park bordering a river with native bacteria.
Sampling Device
Temperature and pH parameters of the water samples were measured using a conductivity and temperature tester/ EC-PCTestr35 model. However, chemical parameters such as chlorine, nitrite, and phosphate were determined using a portable Winlab® data line photometer. A quantitative approach was used to determine the range of the substances being investigated.
Sample Collection
Water samples were collected on three different days from four various locations in the same park. The specific sample collection dates were 04/9/19, 04/14/19, and 05/7/19. Each sample had a volume of 100 mL.
Cytometry Device for Bacteria in Water
Flow cytometry was used to enumerate the bacteria due to its speed and accuracy. Samples were prepared for flow cytometry bacterial enumeration by adding 25 µL of water to 224 µL of 0.2 µm filtered TE buffer. Thereafter, 10 µL of SYTO Orange working stock solution was added to each portion.
Results
The concentrations of nitrite and phosphate ions in the water samples on different days are indicated in Table 1. The lowest and highest temperatures were recorded on the 7th of May and 14th of April, respectively. The overall pH of water was approximately 8.5 (the lowest pH was 8.23 and the highest was 8.91). In contrast, the lowest concentration of phosphates was less than 0.03 mg/L (30 µg/L). The highest concentration of phosphate ions that was recorded was 0.555 mg/L, which was equivalent to 555 µg/L. Nitrite concentrations were less than 0.010 mg/L on most days except in sample D on the 14th of April. Figures from 1 to 4 show the flow cytometry data for bacteria population for the four different samples. The numbers of live bacterial cells were 2.69×104, 2.21×104, 3.33×104, and 4.82×104 for samples A, B, C, and D.
Table 1: A summary of the temperatures, pH, and concentrations of chloride, nitrite, and phosphate in water samples.
Location
Temp (oC)
pH
Cl2 (mg/L)
NO2– (mg/L)
PO43- (mg/L)
9-Apr
14-Apr
7-May
9-Apr
14-Apr
7-May
9-Apr
14-Apr
7-May
9-Apr
14-Apr
7-May
9-Apr
14-Apr
7-May
A
20.6
24.5
16.8
8.73
8.60
8.91
<0.050
<0.050
<0.050
<0.010
<0.010
<0.010
0.213
<0.030
0.033
B
20.7
24.4
17.0
8.59
8.23
8.50
0.053
<0.050
<0.050
<0.010
<0.010
<0.010
0.115
0.073
0.035
C
20.3
23.6
17.5
8.23
8.40
8.41
0.051
0.032
<0.050
<0.010
<0.010
<0.010
0.142
0.036
0.550
D
20.2
23.7
17.2
8.36
8.56
8.48
<0.050
0.088
0.052
<0.010
0.011
<0.010
0.036
<0.030
<0.030
Figure 1. Summary of bacterial populations in sample A.Figure 2. Summary of bacterial populations in sample B.Figure 3. Summary of bacterial populations in sample C.Figure 4. Summary of bacterial populations in sample D.
Discussion
The results in Table 1 showed that water temperatures ranged from 17.0oC to 24.5oC throughout the sampling period. Water temperature plays a vital role in the biological activity and metabolism of aquatic life. For instance, aquatic plants thrive in warm temperatures, whereas fishes such as salmons flourish in colder temperatures. Aquatic bacterial populations are also determined by temperature. The recorded temperature values showed that psychrophiles and mesophiles (to a lesser extent) were likely to bloom under these conditions (Xia et al. 2018). Water temperature is affected by factors such as thermal pollution and heat transfer from the air, other water sources, and sunlight. Consequently, the observed temperatures eliminate any possibility of thermal pollution. Temperature should be checked when assessing water quality because it alters other factors that can influence its physicochemical attributes. For example, water temperature affects the concentrations of dissolved oxygen, salinity, conductivity, oxidation-reduction potential, pH, and density.
The hardness, softness, and corrosiveness of water are often determined by the pH of water. Pure water is expected to have a pH of 7. However, this value often ranges from 6.5 to 8.5 in many water systems (Jena & Sinha 2017). Nonetheless, pH levels as high as 8.9 were also recorded. This observation indicated that the water was relatively safe for consumption regarding this parameter. A number of studies suggest that drinking alkaline water has health benefits such as reducing the viscosity of blood, improving blood pressure, reducing cholesterol levels, and lowering gastrointestinal acid levels, thereby alleviating acid reflux. Other alleged benefits of alkaline water include colon cleansing capabilities, boosting the immune system, providing antioxidants that fight aging, enhancing skin health, and contributing to weight loss (Passey 2017; Zalvan et al. 2017).
The lowest number of live bacteria was 2.21×104 in sample B, whereas the highest count was 4.82×104 in sample D. The concentration of phosphates was generally high given that the lowest value recorded was 0.03 mg/L (30 µg/L). Phosphate ions support the excessive growth of algae, which, in turn, outcompete other organisms in water by secreting harmful toxins. It has also been demonstrated that phosphate concentrations of up to 10 µg/L (0.01 mg/L) of water increase microbial growth in drinking water (Manahan 2017). This observation accounted for the large numbers of bacterial cells that were recorded because high phosphate concentrations encourage microbial growth. Nitrite levels were less than 0.010 mg/L, which was below the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency maximum contaminant limit of 1.0 mg/L (Atekwana & Geyer 2018). Therefore, the high population of bacteria in the water could be attributed mainly to elevated phosphate levels. Nitrites are toxic to human health, particularly in infants. Studies show that nitrites interfere with the delivery of oxygen to tissues through the formation of methemoglobin instead of oxygenated hemoglobin (Ráduly & Farkas 2017). Consequently, the analyzed water could be considered safe regarding its nitrite concentrations.
It has been shown that phosphorous is the most important inorganic element that influences the growth of microbes in water (Abu-Hmeidan, Williams & Miller 2018). This observation provides new possibilities of limiting microbial growth in water by advancing technologies to get rid of phosphorous, particularly for drinking purposes. A promising technique is the use of nanoparticles as filters to control water contamination and bacterial populations. This approach can be applied as a point-of-use method. Its efficacy has been demonstrated in the inactivation of coliform bacteria in polluted water sources. Nanoparticle paper filters containing copper or silver nanoparticles have been used successfully to lower E. coli and total coliforms in untreated wastewater (Morsi et al. 2017). Such an approach can be used to improve the quality of water in this experiment.
Given its biological requirements, water should be free from contaminating microorganisms and chemical substances because poor quality water can have deleterious effects on living organisms and the surrounding ecosystem. Biological pointers of water quality include such organisms as bacteria, algae, and phytoplankton. All these components need to be maintained within specified levels in water meant for different purposes as stipulated by water quality guidelines and regulations. Failing to adhere to these standards may lead to waterborne diseases and other health complications, which increases healthcare spending and lowers the work potential of a society. Consequently, water quality testing is a useful practice in ensuring the safety of all organisms that depend on a source of water for their survival.
Conclusion
The quality of water should be ascertained before using it for domestic or industrial applications. Furthermore, the health of an ecosystem can be monitored through water quality assessments to ensure the safety of aquatic life. In this experiment, phosphate was the major pollutant that contributed to high bacterial growth. It is recommended that nanoparticle filters should be used to purify the water to make it safe for consumption.
Reference List
Abu-Hmeidan, H, Williams, G, & Miller, A 2018, ‘Characterizing total phosphorus in current and geologic Utah lake sediments: implications for water quality management issues’, Hydrology, vol. 5, no. 1, p. 8.
Atekwana, EA & Geyer, CJ 2018, ‘Spatial and temporal variations in the geochemistry of shallow groundwater contaminated with nitrate at a residential site’, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 25, no. 27, pp. 27155-27172.
Jena, V & Sinha, D 2017, ‘Physicochemical analysis of ground water of selected areas of Raipur city’, Indian Journal of Science Research, vol. 13, pp. 61-65.
Manahan, S 2017, Environmental chemistry, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Morsi, RE, Alsabagh, AM, Nasr, SA & Zaki, MM 2017, ‘Multifunctional nanocomposites of chitosan, silver nanoparticles, copper nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes for water treatment: antimicrobial characteristics’, International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, vol. 97, pp. 264-269.
Passey, C 2017, ‘Reducing the dietary acid load: how a more alkaline diet benefits patients with chronic kidney disease’, Journal of Renal Nutrition, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 151-160.
Ráduly, OC & Farkas, A 2017, ‘Nitrate, nitrite and microbial denitrification in drinking water from Ozun village (Covasna County, Romania) and the association between changes during water storage’, Studia Universitatis Babes-Bolyai Biologia, vol. 62, no. 1, pp. 17-28.
Xia, YL, Sun, JH, Ai, SM, Li, Y, Du, X, Sang, P, Yang, LQ, Fu, YX & Liu, SQ 2018, ‘Insights into the role of electrostatics in temperature adaptation: a comparative study of psychrophilic, mesophilic, and thermophilic subtilisin-like serine proteases’, RSC Advances, vol. 8, no. 52, pp. 29698-29713.
Zalvan, CH, Hu, S, Greenberg, B & Geliebter, J 2017, ‘A comparison of alkaline water and Mediterranean diet vs proton pump inhibition for treatment of laryngopharyngeal reflux’, JAMA Otolaryngology–Head & Neck Surgery, vol. 143, no. 10, pp. 1023-1029.
Drinking eight glasses of water a day is popularly believed to improve the general well-being of human beings. Among the reasons given for this practice is that it improves the condition of one’s hair and skin. However, the recommendation is not common in mainstream medicine, because of the lack of scientific data to support it. In this research, I sought to find out if increasing the uptake of water to eight glasses (or two liters) per day had any strengthening effect on the condition of the skin.
In my research, I discovered that for good health, human beings have to maintain a fluid balance in their body, by only taking fluids when necessary. I also learned that while water helps make the skin turgid, excess water does not have any confirmed benefits on the skin of healthy people. Starting this research, I was convinced that the number of fluids ingested in regular daily meals was enough to keep the body (and skin) replenished at all times.
I hypothesize that increasing the daily intake of water alone does not have any beneficial impact on the health of an individual. The null hypothesis would be that increasing the daily intake of water to eight glasses a day has a positive effect on the body, especially on the skin. The proposed research would study the effects of high consumption of water without a change in the uptake of other foods and drinks. In addition, the test candidates for the research will be required to maintain their daily routines, such that if one was not exercising daily, they should not start doing so during the duration of the experiment.
Proposed experiment
Ten test subjects between the ages of 18 and 50, with no kidney and liver issues, will be selected. The subjects will be divided into two groups, with one being required to consume eight glasses of water, in addition to their regular uptake of fluids, for 90 days. Other lifestyle routines and dietary habits will be maintained. 90 days (three months) is an ideal length of time for any physical changes in the body of an individual to be noticed.
The other group will increase the daily uptake of water by one glass a day, for the same period. They will also be required to maintain other lifestyle routines and dietary habits. This group will serve as the control group. My prediction is that no change will be noticed on the test candidates’ skins, in comparison to those of the control group. If there is a relationship between the amount of water taken and the quality of the skin, then the test group candidates will have noticeable skin changes.
The experiment is based on the assumption one additional glass of water to the daily intake of fluids will not have any noticeable impact. However, should the skins of individuals from the control group improve at the same rate as those from the test group, then the test results will be discarded and another experiment that has individuals in the control group not taking any additional water be done? This will be used as a confirmatory test, which will in effect disapprove my hypothesis.
Results
For this project, I went through three articles on the effect of water and the general health of the skin. The authors of all four articles concluded that there is no correlation between an increased intake of water and the general health of the individual. Whilst the authors of all four articles found that water was a key element in maintaining healthy skin, they could not confirm exactly how much water one needs to take in a day, in addition to other fluids, to keep the skin healthy.
Physiologist Henry Valtin from the Dartmouth Medical School, in New Hampshire, UK, tried to find any evidence confirming that drinking eight glasses of water a day was beneficial to the body. His extensive research covers a wide range of peer-reviewed literature from online databases, and some from books and other print journals (Valtin, 2002).
He also spoke to several nutritionists, who specialize in the fields of ‘thirst’ and the ‘drinking of fluids’ (Valtin, 2002). In all the research he did, he could not find a single scientific publication that advocated for the drinking of eight glasses. He concluded that unless further studies are conducted on the topic, and proper evidence found, to show that increased uptake of water had beneficial effects on the body of an individual, it should be regarded as a myth (Valtin, 2002).
Skin specialist Ronni Wolf and colleagues from the Kaplan Medical Centre in Israel also did a similar study as Valtin and he only found one study that assessed the effect of increased consumption of water on the skin (2010). However, the results of the study contradicted each other because, after a four-week review, a group that took in extra mineral water confirmed a reduction in the density of the skin, an indication that the skin was retaining more moisture (Wolf et al. 2010).
In the same study, test subjects who consumed increased amounts of tap water reported an increase in the density of the skin (Wolf, 2010). However, regardless of the type of water that individuals from the two groups drank, there was no reduction in the wrinkles on their faces, nor a visible difference in the smoothness of their skin (Wolf et al. 2010).
Dan Negoianu and colleagues from the University of Pennsylvania, in Philadelphia, in their paper Just add Water, cited a study suggesting that consuming 500ml of water increases the amount of blood flowing into the skin through the capillaries (Negoianu et al. 2010).
However, the scholars concluded that it is unclear whether these changes are clinically significant to sustain any recommendation on dietary habits. They could also not come to a proper conclusion on how to relate the findings of the study to the potential impact of water on the sympathetic tone of the skin. In addition, the researchers noted that they were unable to find any other studies that assessed the impact of increased water on the skin of otherwise healthy individuals (Negoianu et al. 2010).
Dr. Lawrence Gibson, in the research for his paper Hydrated skin: Does drinking water help? could not find a single study that recommended drinking eight glasses of water a day (Gibson 2012). Gibson concluded that dehydration had the effect of making the skin appear less plump and healthy, but he could not find any scientific evidence to suggest that an increase in the uptake of water helps maintain a youthful appearance (Gibson 2012).
Discussion
The four articles I went through supported my hypothesis that excessive intake of water had no benefits on the skin of a healthy individual. All the researchers whose work I studied confirmed that there was no evidence to support the popular eight-glass recommendation especially concerning healthy skin.
However, all the articles I reviewed were based on reports by other researchers, most of whom did not specifically focus on the impact of increased uptake of water on the skin. I, therefore, plan to go ahead with my experiment and publish the findings for the benefit of future researchers on the topic.
It is worth noting that this initial experiment only has ten test candidates, and the findings may not be used to offer a generalized picture. However, subject to the availability of funds and any support from the scientific community, I will set up a bigger experiment, with more test subjects and control groups.
This will be to confirm my hypothesis beyond any doubt. Another point to note is the fact that the results of the suggested experiment are only measurable by evaluating the physical appearance of the skin tone. However, getting the test subjects to maintain consistency will be a challenge, because human beings don’t do things the same way every time.
This, unfortunately, might lead to the experiment’s failure to offer a solid confirmation of facts because other uncontrollable factors such as hormones and the weather might play a role in changing it at different times. However, for the scope of this research, the findings might still be strong enough to warrant the recommendation for further studies on the same topic.
References
Lawrence G. 2012. Does drinking water cause hydrated skin? Mayo Clinic. Web.
Negoianu D, Goldfarb S. 2008. Just add water. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. Web.
Wolf R, Parish LC, Davidovici B, Rudikoff D. 2010. Nutrition and water: Drinking eight glasses of water a day ensures proper skin hydration-myth or reality? Clinics in Dermatology. Web.
The latent heat of fusion, or enthalpy of fusion, determines the amount of energy that must be transferred to a solid to cause it to undergo physical changes associated with aggregate state transitions. The transition temperature from solid to liquid state for each substance is unique and is determined by the molecular and physical properties of the sample itself (Madhu, 2021). This laboratory work examines the example of ice that is immersed in water in a calorimeter chamber, a process that results in an abrupt change in temperature and the formation of thermal equilibrium.
Data
In this experiment, information was collected regarding the mass of the calorimeter and bowl (total), the mass of the empty calorimeter, the water, and the contents: all raw data are shown in Table 1.
Water
mWater, g.
134.1
cWater, Jg-1°C-1
4.186
Ice
mIce, g.
30.0
cIce, Jg-1°C-1
2100
Calorimeter
mCalorimeter, g.
57.1
cCalorimeter, Jg-1°C-1
900
Room Temperature
T, °C
24.7
Table 1. Raw data obtained during the experiment.
In addition, the temperature dynamics of the ice-water mixture in the calorimeter bowl during each thirty seconds was also studied: Table 2 contains information about this.
Time, sec.
Temperature, °C
Time, sec.
Temperature, °C
Time, sec.
Temperature, °C
Time, sec.
Temperature, °C
30
17.6
180
15.9
450
16.5
720
17.1
60
15.5
210
16.0
510
16.7
750
17.1
90
15.6
270
16.2
570
16.8
780
17.2
120
15.7
330
16.3
630
16.9
810
17.2
150
15.8
390
16.4
660
16.9
Table 2. Data on temperature dynamics over time.
Results
Based on the results from Table 2, a visualization of the temperature versus time was plotted. As shown in Figure 1, the temperature of the mixture slowly increased over time, although initially there was an extremely sharp drop during the first thirty seconds from 17.6 °C to 15.5 °C. The graph shows that the initial temperature for the process was 17.6 °C and the final temperature, when the graph could be said to have plateaued, was about 17.4 °C. This means that the equilibrium temperature was almost equal to the initial temperature, but it also decreased by 1.14 percent.
Figure 1. Temperature dependence of the water-ice mixture over time.
In addition, the latent heat of melting (Lf) for ice can be calculated from the data in Table 1. To do this, the following formula is used:
Or:
This expression can be extended to:
Now it is possible to substitute the known values:
Then the percentage error:
Analysis
The sharp drop (Fig. 1) is due to the rapid transfer of temperature from water to ice as part of the heat transfer in an attempt to establish thermal equilibrium. Theoretically, the graph is expected to plateau further, which means that the temperature will not change. Such a condition is observed when equilibrium is reached, when the rates of both directions of heat transfer turn out to be identical. When water was added to the calorimeter, but no ice was added yet, the mass of the calorimeter cup and water was 0.1912 kg. When ice was added, the mass increased by 0.2212, indicating that 0.0300 kg of ice was added to the cup. The masses of the ring, lid and large cup were not taken into account, because these masses are constant throughout the experiment and no effect on the final masses, so these constant values could be excluded.
It is noteworthy that in the calorimeter setup there was no heat exchange between the mixture of water and ice and the room, according to the assumption. That is, all of the heat generated by this process affected only the thermometer, and no heat escaped to the outside environment. In the absence of this assumption, one would have to count the heat loss, but this was deliberately omitted. Accordingly, the sharp temperature loss during the first thirty seconds corresponded to the transfer of heat only from water to ice, and no heat escaped outside the calorimeter chamber. In this case, as follows from the graph, thermal equilibrium is reached at a certain point, which means that the rates of heat energy transfer of the two oppositely directed processes are identical.
Conclusion
In this paper, the latent heat of melting for ice was investigated using a calorimeter setup. The results showed that the temperature of water dropped sharply when ice was placed in it, after which it slowly plateaued, indicating the possibility of thermal equilibrium between ice and water. At the same time, the calculated value of the latent heat of melting differed from the reference value by 37.5%, which indicates a moderate error. This error could have been caused by calculation errors or inaccuracies in starting the experiment. Despite this, the experiment can be considered successful because it demonstrated the possibility of calculating the enthalpy of melting for solids.