Category: Water

Research Question

How does the type of plant affect the growth rate when using minimum water requirements?

Background Knowledge

The Middle East region has arid and semi-arid climatic conditions that are characterized by water scarcity and high temperatures that result in high evaporation rates (Beaumont, Blake & Wagstaff 2016). Additionally, the loose soils and desert winds contribute to air pollution when the soil is blown into the air leading to respiratory illnesses (Anderson et al. 2012; Lelieveld et al. 2014). The loose soils are also prone to soil erosion leading to the loss of soil nutrients.

Increasing plant cover has been reported to be a viable solution to the problem of soil erosion and air pollution by soil. However, given the issue of water scarcity, it is necessary to find plant species that can thrive with minimum water requirements. Therefore, this investigation seeks to find the most suitable plant that can thrive with minimal water requirements to survive the harsh climatic conditions of the Middle East. The availability and growth of such a plant will not only conserve the soil and its nutrients but will also protect the society from respiratory disorders associated with inhaling soil particles in the air.

Various plant species are adapted to growing in different climatic conditions. An example is sunflower plant Helianthus annuus, which is well suited to growing in warm climates (SFGATE 2016). The plant is also known to do well in areas that allow it to have a minimum of six hours of direct sunlight every day. The growth rates of other plants related to Helianthus annuus was determined to determine the best plant species that can survive warm climates with minimal water requirements.

Hypothesis

It was hypothesized that the sunflower plant (Helianthus annuus) would grow fastest and have the highest biomass.

Significance or Manipulation of Variables

Independent variable

The independent variable was the type of plant. Different plants have varying water requirements depending on their inherent adaptations to survive under varying climatic conditions. The type of plant was manipulated by using seeds from five different plants. The independent variable did not have units of measurement. However, the five seed types were obtained from a group of closely related plants of the order Asterales.

Dependent variable

The dependent variable was the plant growth rate. The rate of plant growth is a useful indicator of the growth conditions that favor the development of a plant. The rate of growth was measured consistently using the biomass (dry weight) of the plants at the end of the experiment. The biomass was measured in grams.

Controlled variables

The controlled variable in this experiment was water. The amount of water was kept constant by using a measuring cup to provide the plants with a specified amount of water once a day. Water is useful for the germination of seeds and the growth of plants. In the germination process, water is taken up by imbibition to break the seed coat and activate hydrolytic enzymes that catalyze the physiological processes necessary for germination (Bradbeer 2013).

During the growth of the plant, water is necessary for transpiration and evaporation. The walls of plant cells permit the accumulation of water to develop turgor pressure. Turgor pressure plays a vital role in the rigidity and mechanical stability of non-woody plants such as the five species from the order Asterales that were used in this experiment. Mechanical stability is beneficial in normal plant processes such as growth, anchoring, gaseous exchange, and transport of substances (Jones 2013).

Water is also used as a raw material alongside carbon dioxide to manufacture food through the process of photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight. The objective of the study was to determine whether plant type affects growth rate when using minimum water requirements. Therefore, it was necessary to regulate the amount of water on the bare minimum to identify the impact of plant type on growth rate under similar water conditions. Failing to control the amount of water would not highlight the impact of minimum water requirements.

Uncontrolled variables

The uncontrolled variables were temperature, humidity, and wind speed. The variations in temperature and wind were not taken into consideration. It is known that temperature affects the rate of evaporation by heating up water molecules and helping them vaporize. High wind speed increases the rate of evapotranspiration by carrying away water droplets from the surface of the plant thus affecting the rate of water loss in a plant. The rate of evapotranspiration is lower on a humid day than on a dry day because the saturation of the atmosphere with moisture reduces the diffusion gradient thus slowing down the rate of water loss from the plant to the atmosphere.

Method

Five types of plant seeds: Zinnia (Zinnia Elegans), Cosmos (Cosmos bipinnatus), Sunflowers (Helianthus annuus), Dahlias (Dahlia pinnata), and Vinca (Vinca diformis) were obtained. Appropriate amounts of soil were measured and put into 25 pots. Five seeds of one plant seeds were then placed in every five pots by placing one seed per pot. The plants were watered once a day with a specific amount of water for all the plants for one month. At the end of the study, the plants were harvested and washed. The clean plants were placed on a tray and allowed to dry for six hours in an oven set to a temperature of 60 degrees. The dry mass of the dried plants was then obtained by measuring the weight of each plant. The findings were recorded in Table 1.

Justification of Method Used

The sampling was done to include related plants since water requirements tend to vary in different plants. For example, trees have different water requirements from shrubs and so on. Therefore, it was necessary to have related plants to reduce the variations associated with distantly related plants.

Five seeds from each plant type were used to provide replicates and increase the validity of the methods. The use of replicates helps to ascertain the reproducibility and validity of the experiment by confirming that the observed results are not due to chance occurrences. Additionally, using replicates makes it possible to apply statistical methods of data analysis and ensure that the findings are generalizable to the population. The plants were grown in a field after which the biomass data were collected in the laboratory. This experiment was a fair test because all plants were accorded similar treatment regarding the amount of water during growth and processing to obtain the biomass.

Risk Assessment and Ethical Considerations

The study did not have any ethical considerations or associated risks. No additional chemicals (such as fertilizers) were used in the process, which could contain substances known to have deleterious health effects. However, proper standards of handling and disposing of plants were followed throughout and after the experiment.

Data Collection

Calculations

The mean biomass of each plant species was calculated by finding the average of the five biomasses. For example, the mean biomass for sunflower was calculated as follows:

• (0.15+ 0.11+ 0.1+ 0.19+ 0.12)÷5=0.67/5

Mean biomass=0.134g

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the means of the five plant species at α=0.05. The findings of the ANOVA computations and the means are summarized in Table 2.

Processed Data Tables

Table 1: The biomass of the five plant species and the mean biomass for each species.

Table 2: ANOVA Output.

From the ANOVA output, F_cal is greater than F_crit. Therefore, we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the groups are significantly different.

Graphs and Charts

Discussion

The plant growth rate of the plants was highest in Zinnia elegans (1.81g) followed by Helianthus annuus (0.134g). The lowest growth rate was observed in Cosmos bipinnatus (0.022g). Dahlia pinnata and Vinca diformis had the same growth rate as 0.026g. The findings did not support the hypothesis that sunflower (Helianthus annuus) would have the highest growth rate. The differences in growth rates as indicated by the differences in means between the different plants was significant implying that the water needs of the plants were different. All the five plants were shrubs from the order Asterales. Zinnia Elegans is native to drylands of the Southern parts of America (Chicago Botanic Garden 2016).

Plants require water for evapotranspiration, which is the term used to denote crop water needs. Plants use their roots to absorb water from the soil and eliminate it through the leaves and stems through the process of transpiration. In addition, water has the tendency to escape from open surfaces through the process of evaporation, which occurs in plants from the soil and exposed plant surfaces such as the stem and leaves. The units millimeters per day, millimeters per month, or millimeters per season are used to express and quantify the water needs of plants. The crop water needs are determined by the climate, type of crop, and stage of growth (Elliot et al. 2014).

Plants require more water on a hot, dry day than on a cloudy and cool day due to the impact of temperature on the rate of evapotranspiration. Some crops require more water than others, for instance, sugarcane has higher water needs than wheat. Plants also need more water in advanced stages of development than in the early stages due to an increase in the number of physiological processes like reproduction and the increased size of the plant. The differences in the observed water needs of the plants could be attributed to the type of plant because all climatic conditions were kept constant. Additionally, all plants were at the same stages of development.

Conclusion

Zinnia Elegans had the highest growth rate and minimal water requirements of the five plants with mean biomass of 1.81g followed by the sunflower plant (Helianthus annuus) with biomass of 0.134g. Dahlia pinnata and Vinca diformis were third with a growth rate of 0.026g while Cosmos bipinnatus had the lowest growth rate (0.022g). These findings point to the conclusion that the type of plant played an important role in the growth rate when using minimum water.

Conclusion in Environmental Context

Growing Zinnia elegans in arid areas would use minimal water resources to alleviate the problem of soil erosion and air pollution.

Evaluation of Method Used

The method was reliable because related plants were used to reduce the variations of plant water needs that occurred in different plants. The replication of the groups also increased the validity of the study. However, the effects of temperature, humidity, and wind speed on the water needs of plants were not considered. The experiment could be improved by accounting for the impact of wind speed, humidity, and temperature on plant water needs. Future studies could look into the exact water needs of the plants by growing the seeds with varying water quantities to determine the lowest amount of water that supports the satisfactory growth of the plants.

Applications

From the findings of the investigation, Zinnia elegans is best suited to growing in warm climatic conditions. Therefore, this plant can be grown to provide plant cover, minimize soil erosion and air pollution. The advantage of growing Zinnia Elegans for plant cover is that a high rate of growth is observed with minimal water input due to the heat and drought tolerance of the plant (Chicago Botanic Garden 2016). The plant is also low maintenance thus does not require extensive resources. However, the downside of using Zinnia Elegans for cover plants is that it affected by excess water, which leads to the development of a disease called powdery mildew.

References

Anderson, J O, Thundiyil, J G & Stolbach, A 2012, ‘Clearing the air: a review of the effects of particulate matter air pollution on human health,’ Journal of Medical Toxicology, vol. 8 no. 2, pp. 166-175.

Beaumont, P, Blake, G & Wagstaff, J M 2016, The Middle East: a geographical study, Routledge, London.

Bradbeer, J W 2013, Seed dormancy and germination, Springer Science & Business Media, New York.

Chicago Botanic Garden 2016, Zinnias: The hardest-working flower in the summer garden. Web.

Elliott, J, Deryng, D, Müller, C, Frieler, K, Konzmann, M, Gerten, D, Glotter, M, Flörke, M, Wada, Y, Best, N & Eisner, S, 2014, ‘Constraints and potentials of future irrigation water availability on agricultural production under climate change,’ Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 111 no. 9, pp. 3239-3244.

Jones, H G 2013, Plants and microclimate: a quantitative approach to environmental plant physiology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Lelieveld, J, Hadjinicolaou, P, Kostopoulou, E, Giannakopoulos, C, Pozzer, A, Tanarhte, M, & Tyrlis, E 2014, ‘Model projected heat extremes and air pollution in the eastern Mediterranean and Middle East in the twenty-first century,’ Regional Environmental Change, vol. 14 no. 5, pp.1937-1949.

SFGATES 2016, What types of environments do sunflowers grow in? Web.

Introduction

The design of a solar-powered water cooler is based on the normal components and operations of cooling systems. A solar-powered water cooler has two major parts. These include the cooling unit and heat source. The water uses the thermodynamic cycle in the same way as electricity-powered conventional generators. On the other hand, the solar heat source is designed using a flat plate with a focused collector to concentrate solar energy and supply it to the device.

The coefficient of performance will be used as the performance evaluation index. It refers to the ratio of cooling provided to heat supplied (Abbad et al. 1228). The cooling component, as well as the cooling ratio, can be defined as follows:

• Cooling ratio = ^{Heat absorbed by coolant during cooling}/_{Heat absorbed by the generator contents during the cooling}

In order to define the performance of the solar collector, a heating ratio is determined as follows:

• Heating ratio = ^{Heat absorbed by the generator content}/_{Incidental solar radiation on the collector}

The product of the above two ratios defines the overall performance ratio of the solar-powered water cooler as shown in the following equation:

• Overall performance ratio = ^{Heat absorbed by coolant during cooling}/_{Incidental solar radiation on the collector}

During the analysis of the designed water-cooler components such as the collector and generator, the concepts of cooling ratio and heating ratio will be essential (Choudhury et al. 559).

Countries that lie within the latitude of the tropics receive direct sun, and solar radiation is evenly distributed throughout the year. Many countries within the tropics are developing in terms of economy. Their infrastructures are still poor and the supply of traditional electricity is limited, especially in rural areas. Conservation of water resources in the area is highly needed. Even though normal refrigerators are available at affordable rates, a limited supply of electricity hinders their use.

The design of a solar-powered water cooler will help in providing water-cooling services to the people in rural areas as they make use of the abundant supply of solar energy throughout the year. By creating a successful solar-powered water cooler design, a long-lasting solution will be provided to enhance current water-cooling systems (Parash, Baredar and Mittal 39).

Ideal Cycle Analysis

In the ideal cycle analysis of the ammonia water absorption approach, the main assumption is that all thermodynamic processes are reversible. Figure 1 and figure 2 below show the principle operation of the solar-powered cooler. The first figure is used to show the operations of the cooler during the regeneration phase, while the second figure illustrates its operations during the cooling phase. In this context, the transfer of energy occurs in the form of heat at three different levels of temperature.

The first level is the atmospheric temperature denoted by Ta. At this temperature, the device’s condenser and absorber reject the heat. Another temperature level occurs where the device takes heat from the cold chamber; it is denoted by Tc (Abbad et al. 1234). The third level of temperature occurs when the generator receives heat, and this is denoted by Tg.

To understand the ideal cycle analysis, we can use the equivalent machine to create an expression for the same. The arrangement indicated in figure 3 below provides an illustration of a machine’s reversible performance, which corresponds to that presented in the absorption plant for water cooling. In this context, a reversible heat engine gets heat energy whose quantity is Qg at the temperature Tg (Choudhury et al. 563). The heat is rejected at the temperature Ta, at which point the work whose quantity is Wga is produced, as shown in the diagram below.

Based on the above diagram we can model the following equation.

In the above equation (i), all temperatures are determined using the thermodynamic scale of temperature. On the one hand, a reversible cooler receives heat quantity Q_c at T_c. The rejection of the heat occurs at a temperature of T_a. On the other hand, the absorbing quantity of work is denoted by W_ca. Coefficient of performance based on the above figure 3 can be expressed using the equation (ii) below.

Supposing W_ga is made equal to –W_ca, then the developed plant in figure 3 above will be equivalent to the absorption cooler. Consequently, the combined coefficient of the plant will be defined using Q_c/Q_g. Combining the two equations gives the following expression:

The practical importance of the above equation is that it is possible to calculate T_a if T_g is known. In this case, the T_a is given a fixed value, but the designer chooses the convenient value of T_c.

Design of the Solar-Powered Cooler

Configuration Choice

As specified previously, a solar-powered water cooler has two constituents, the heating unit, and the cooling unit. The solar energy unit operates based on the flat plate collector. It is a flat-surfaced panel that absorbs direct sunlight radiation and diffuses it. To control heat loss, the plate has a transparent cover and an insulation material. The plate absorbs solar energy and the energy is changed into heat. Subsequently, the heat is removed in the form of steam or vapor (Parash, Baredar and Mittal 44).

The most suitable device for this experiment is the flat plate collector placed in a fixed position. Moreover, it is more affordable, compared to the focusing or parabolic collector. For the purposes of the study and the fact that the experimental design targets a rural area without electric power, the intermittent absorption cooling system is the most appropriate.

Alternating Cooling

The alternating cooling cycle involves two key operations, regeneration and cooling. Regeneration occurs when the coolant-absorbent fluid heats with the aim of driving off the coolant vapor and condensing it in a different container. Cooling occurs during the vaporization of the coolant liquid and this creates a cooling effect in the evaporator. In contrast, the absorbent re-absorbs the coolant. To enhance the simplicity of the experimental device, the condenser will work as the evaporator while the generator will work as the absorber.

Operation of the System

To understand the operation of the solar-powered water cooler system, see the diagram in figure 4 below.

The above diagram is useful in illustrating the regeneration and cooling cycles of the system. The valves A and B play an important role during heat cycles. When regeneration takes place, valve A opens while valve B closes. The flat-plate collector supplies heat to the strong solution in the generator and produces steam at high pressure. The insulated pipes transport the weak solution from the top-header to the device’s bottom-header. Since water has lower volatility than ammonia, the top header vapor has a higher concentration of ammonia than water.

The ammonia vapor then passes into the system’s condenser, immersed in a cold-water tank to maintain a low temperature (McCarney et al. 35). During the process, the pressure remains uniform in the entire system. Valve A closes when the heating stops, and this causes a reduction in vapor pressure within the generator. The ammonia concentration in the generator is now less, compared to how it was before.

It is important to remove the cooling tank before refrigeration occurs, and this would cause valve B to open. At this point, the condenser now operates as the generator. The ammonia solution changes into vapor due to the fact that the pressure difference is enhanced between the generator and evaporator. The device’s evaporator supplies the necessary heat energy for the vaporization of ammonia. This helps in producing the desired cooling effect.

The ammonia gas is taken to the generator’s bottom head through the pipe for the incoming vapor facilitates the absorption. This completes the full cycle of operation. In order to accommodate the intermittent availability of solar power, cooling occurs during the day, and regeneration occurs during the night when solar power is unavailable.

Regeneration Phase

From figure 5 below, the temperature of the condenser is 86°F and the saturation of pressure of dry ammonia at the same temperature is 170 Pa. It is possible to determine the point 2 of the thermodynamic cycle because its pressure and the ammonia concentration are known. On the other hand, point 3 has a fixed value at the maximum temperature achieved by the collector, which is 189°F. The values are used to determine point 3 as well as the concentration of the solution, which is 0.40.

Cooling Phase of the Cycle

In an ideal context, the cooling or refrigeration phase entails that the cooling of the solution is done at a pressure of 45 Pa. when the concentration is 0.40 at a temperature of about 103°F. This is defined at point 4, and the cooling cycle becomes complete through the 4-1 process when ammonia vapor is turned into a solution at a temperature of 170°F.

Specifications of Collector and Generator

The specifications of the collector and generator of the water cooler determine the compactable level of the system (Maxime et al. 118). Therefore, the collector-generator area will be 1.2 meters by 1.2 meters. Black-iron pipes are used in order to control the corrosion aspect and the issue of high pressure, which is related to concentrated ammonia solution. A 1.2 meter by a 1.2-meter copper sheet with a thickness of 18 millimeters will be chosen as the collecting plate.

To prevent the dissipation of the collected solar energy, the plate will be painted black. The plate is soldered with 12 tubes having diameters of 25mm at an interval of 0.1 meters. To enhance the effective separation of water from ammonia vapor, the design will use a 0.1-meter pipe for the top header. This 1.42-meter-long pipe will provide a liquid surface area of 0.145 meters squared whenever the header is half full. A pipe 50 mm in diameter and 1.37 meters long will be used for the bottom header. The diagram in figure 6 below shows the arrangement of the collector and generator (McCarney et al. 38).

In order to prevent the heat loss at the back of the collector and generator, 0.1-meter thick polystyrene foam will be used as the insulation material. Thermal insulation materials will also be used at the bottom and the top headers. The same applies to the collector’s ends. The glass covers have a thickness of about 6 mm, similar to that of window glass. To allow for maintenance and adjustments, the glass covers will be removable (Sarbu and Sebarchievici 409). In addition, the generator will be fixed at an inclination angle of 200 to the horizontal plane. To collect maximum solar energy, the unit will be placed in the sun with the surface facing due south.

The Generator’s Volume

To determine the quantity of aqueous ammonia needed in the system, the volume of its generators will be calculated based on the dimensions of the pipes used to develop it. The calculation of the generator’s volume will also help in determining the liquid levels of the generator during the cycle.

Half Full Top Header

Volume = (0.185 X 0.012 X 0.002) = 4 X 10^-6 m³

Volume of the 14 risers is given by:

(14 X 0.1m X 0.0001m²) = 0.00014 m³

The volume of the bottom header is given by:

(0.114 X 0.0006m²) = 6.8 X 10^-5

Total volume = (4 X 10^-6 m³ + 0.00014 m³ + 6.8 X 10^-5) = 0.000212 m³

Surface Area of the Liquid When the Top Header Is Half Full

The surface area of the liquid is given as shown below:

Area = (0.102 m X 1.422 m)= 0.145 m²

Specific Volume of Aqueous Ammonia

Volume at point 1 in figure 5, V1 is given by:

V1 = 0.0012 m³/kg.

Point 2 volume, V2 is given by:

V2 = 0.00129 m³/kg.

Point 3 volume, V3 is given by:

V3 = 0.00127 m³/kg.

Point 1 volume, V4 is given by:

V4 = 0.00119 m³/kg.

Liquid Level in Generator

It starts with 0.0181 m³ of 0.46 aqueous ammonia at 86°F

Its weight is 0.639/0.0192 = 33.281 pounds = 15kg.

The volume of 15 kg of 0.46 aqueous ammonia at 170°F is

33.281 x 0.205 = 0.682 ft³ = 0.193 m³

Increase in volume is 0.193 m³– 0.0181 m³ = 0.1749 m³

Rise in liquid level is 0.0131/0.477 = 0.027 m.

When concentration, X = 0.46.

Weight of ammonia + weight of water = 15 kg.

Therefore, weight of ammonia = 6.9 kg.

Weight of water = 8.1 kg.

When concentration X = 0.40.

Weight of ammonia = 5.4 kg.

Weight of water = 8.1 kg.

Total weight = 13.5 kg.

-32-

Therefore, the weight of distilled ammonia = 1.5 kg

After the distillation of 1.5 kg of the ammonia, there will be 13.5 kg aqueous ammonia at a concentration of 0.40 at a temperature of 139°F.

Volume is now given by V = 29.9 X 0.02 = 0.605 ft³ = 0.071 m³

Therefore, there is a decrease in volume from the initial volume at point 1 with a value of 0.00096 m³. The volume of 13.5 kg of aqueous ammonia at a temperature of 103°F is = 0.016 m³

Therefore, the decrease in volume below the first volume at point 1 is valued at 0.002 m³.

Heat of Generation

Let enthalpy of 13.5 kg of 0.40 aqueous ammonia at the temperature of 189°F = H₃,

enthalpy of 1.5 kg of ammonia vapor at the temperature of about 178° = H_A, and the

enthalpy of 15 kg of 0.46 concentrated aqueous ammonia at 86°F = H₁.

From figure 5 above: H_l = 33.281 x (-55) = -1830 Btu. = – 1930 KJ

H_A = 3.328 x 627 = 2086 Btu = 2201 KJ

H₃ = 29.953 x 75 = 2246 Btu = 2269.7 KJ

Therefore, total heat generation, H_T= H₃ + H_A – H_l = 6162 Btu = 6501 KJ

The global solar radiation on the horizontal plane of the earth on a daily basis is given by:

Radiation = 400 Cal.cm.^-2day ^-1. This is in a 1.2 meter by 1.2-meter plate surface in a day that provides energy = 24055 KJ each day. It implies that the incident of solar energy on the cooler’s collector is about 3.7 times the generation heat.

Conclusion

It can be concluded that the solar-powered water cooler can easily handle a refrigeration load of 15 kg when safety factors are included. It can use an evaporator with a capacity of less than 4 HP and a condenser of less than 3 HP. The weight of the ammonia solution needed is about 15 kg. For the purposes of experimental design and cost factor, the cooler is created in a small size to establish the possibility of developing a large solar-powered system that will provide commercial services in remote areas.

Works Cited

Abbad, Brahim, Yahi Ferhat, Bouzefour Fateh and Maamar Ouali. “Design and Realization of a Solar Adsorption Refrigeration Machine Powered by Solar Energy.” Energy Procedia 48.1 (2013): 1226-1235. Print.

Choudhury, Biplab, Saha Bidyut, Chatterjee Pradip, Jyoti Sarkar. “An Overview of Developments in Adsorption Refrigeration Systems Towards a Sustainable Way of Cooling.” Applied Energy 104.1 (2013): 554-567. Print.

Maxime, Perier-Muzet, Bedecarrats Jean-Pierre, Stouffs Pascal and Jean Castaing. “Design and Dynamic Behaviour of a Cold Storage System Combined with a Solar Powered Thermoacoustic Refrigerator.” Applied Thermal Engineering 68.2 (2014): 115-124. Print.

McCarney, Steve, Robertson Joanie, Arnaud Juliette, Lorentson Kristina and John Lloyd. “Using Solar-Powered Refrigeration for Vaccine Storage Where Other Sources of Reliable Electricity are Inadequate or Costly.” Vaccine 31.51 (2016): 6050–6057. Print.

Parash, Goyal, Baredar Prashant and Arvind Mittal. “Performance Analysis and Parametric Variation of a Solar Adsorption Chiller.” International Journal for Innovative Research in Science & Technology 2.2 (2015): 34-53. Print.

Sarbu, Ioan and Calin Sebarchievici. “General review of Solar-Powered Closed Sorption Refrigeration Systems.” Energy Conversion and Management 105.1 (2015): 403-422. Print.

In the recent past, fishing operations in some of the globes most prosperous fishing grounds in the North Atlantic Ocean have been shut down. However, this did not really astonish adherents of the fishing industry. As time elapsed, numbers of several species of diverse fish has dwindled progressively. This has majorly been due to the fact that there has been overfishing in the area. Simply put, the fish have been brought in faster than they can replicate. Consequences of the shutting down include loss of thousands of jobs.

However, from the time of closure, the number of fish in the area has gone up. On the other hand, it is hard to predict how long it will take to recover fish stocks due to the weight of the impact of past fishing activities thus enabling commencement of large scale fishing activities.

This problem is not exclusive to the North Atlantic Ocean but is actually widespread in majority of the large scale, commercial significant fish stocks in the US, which have been fully subjugated or basically “overfished”. A large percentage (over 20%) of fish varieties has been depleted globally.

Depletion of this resource is due to the demand of fish in the world, which has seen significant growth (Crisp, 2003).This demand has seen an influx of enormous boats in huge intercontinental convoys with high-tech fishing gear. They devastate the recovering fish population in an effort to collect larger amounts of fish.

Sealing off of these areas educates man on how technological advancements in the fishing industry have a negative impact on the environment. These impacts need to be checked to safe guard endangered fish species as a result of our actions. This should be addressed within the first three months.

The elimination of nodules of manganese from the floors of the ocean will result in a big difference regarding the condition of the oceans resources. This is widely considered as the responsibility of the United Nations Convention on the law. This act will be aimed at fortification of the ocean resources. The safeguarding of the ocean waters will create a favorable environment for the survival of the endangered species. This can be effective within a period of four years (Stowe, 2006).

The regulation of oceanic fishing helps to curb the increased acts of overfishing. With overfishing being a major predicament, stern actions must be put into effect for the issue to plummet. The reduction of the numbers of the vessels of fishing will be efficient in regulation of overfishing. However, the capacity of the fishing vessels should be put into greater consideration. Their sizes should be capped in order for the initial large stocks of fish to be attained.

The regulation of fishing by fortification of most of the endangered species will create awareness and consideration amongst individuals on the harm and gap they have caused to marine life. This will entail the restoration of the most fished species. Managing of the ocean resources by closing of fishing sites during the times of reproduction should be effected to limit these aggravating acts of excessive fishing.

This being a global issue, there is need for the increase in the number of government subsidized researches on the oceanic ecosystems. The provision of education to the citizens on the importance of protection of marine life will bring great improvements to the condition of the oceans. There is need for the maintenance at large of the surroundings of the ocean to evade the issue of jeopardizing the lives of marine life.

Different notions concerning the issue of marine life being in danger from diverse fishermen and environmentalists have been welcomed. Most of them tried to attest that overfishing is behind fish being in danger of near extinction. This article tries to assess the perceptions Pete Dupuis, a commercial fisherman and Jeremy Jackson of the Scripps Institute of Oceanography regarding the possibility of overfishing being behind the decline in the stocks of fish. Resolutions from these two individuals have also been outlined.

Pete is a commercial fisherman who works in shifts at the Pacific Ocean. According to him, he has a boat that holds an enormous amount of the targeted fish which is swordfish, tuna and big eye. He has attested the presence of large fleets of big fish in the seas which he claims have risen to 90 percent.

He however sounds cynical as he asserts that the ocean is vast and he still attains the largest catch ever. Pete prefers research and a policy that will cater for the balance of both economic and environmental concerns to closure of fishing grounds (Berg & Hager, 2008).

This is contrasted to Jeremy Jackson who asserts the availability of plenty of fish in the sea with the depletion of the biggest fish to 10 percent which are sternly under competition by fishermen. He recommends the setting of parameters to regulate fishing. Jeremy prefers overfishing to water pollution as the main destruction to marine.

He urges people to develop a different attitude towards marine life. Other than regulating the levels of fishing, he recommends the protection of the endangered species of fish (Berg & Hager, 2008). The need for the limit in fishing of certain species is necessary for the recovering of the lost species.

The diverse techniques employed during fishing are not completely perfect. However, they have some negative side impacts attached to them. To begin with, overharvesting has led to severe depletion of certain species of fish.

During fishing, there is usually occurrence of accidental catch of other oceanic mammals which are later regarded unnecessary. Aquaculture is widely known for causing pollution to the adjacent waters from the wastes that are released. Aquaculture is behind the reduction in the numbers of wild fish as the technique targets only carnivorous fishes.

The issue of marine life has an impact contributing to the community. The marine conveyer belt brings in motions of different kinds of water. The waters comprise of chilly, salty as well as deep-sea water. These waters are moved from higher to lower latitudes. This brings an impact to the climate of not only the region but also the entire globe (Thorpe, 1995). The ocean therefore is greatly responsible for the climate experienced by the members of the community.

People have different jobs that they depend on to sustain a living. Majority of the individuals living along the ocean depend on fishing to earn living. In spite of the closure of the fishing sites and fisheries being a lesson to people, it also renders most of the people jobless. The offshore reserves in oceans have been ascertained to be the chief sources of energy.

On the other hand, there has been a call to detest the mining of minerals as it facades a peril to fishing. Consequently, this affects the mining activity of the individuals within the region. The caution of commercial fishermen to avoid harvesting on Krill has a greater impact on their lifestyle. The fishermen have to find another species for aquaculture. The policy is to prevent endangering the animals that depend on krill for food.

References

Berg L. R. & Hager C.M. (2008). Visualizing Environmental Science. Indigo, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Crisp, T (2003). Trout & Salmon: Ecology, Conservation and Rehabilitation. John Street, London: Wiley-Blackwell.

Stowe, K. (2006) Ocean Science. University of Wisconsin, Madison: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Thorpe, J. E. (1995). Conservation of Fish and Shellfish Resources: Managing

Diversity. San Diego, CA: Academics Press Inc.

Oxygen is the primary component of animal life on Earth. The lack of oxygen can lead to the death of most animals. However, as a result of photosynthesis, plants generate sufficient oxygen to enable animals, sea creatures, birds as well as people to live on Earth.

Nevertheless, a large percentage of this oxygen does not come from land plants, such as grass or trees, but from a single-celled organism known as the phytoplankton. This organism contributes to about 80% of the oxygen used for survival on Earth. Since most plants do not generate sufficient oxygen for survival on Earth, they are less effective on Mars, a planet that obtains very little sunlight as compared to the Earth (Hartmann 45).

The Mars planet is frosty, lifeless, extraterrestrial planet with an unbreathable air. Even though the planet does not contain large oceans like the Earth, it holds a lot of snow which could flood the planet if defrosted.

As a matter of fact, the planet is said to be below freezing point making it an exceptional habitat for terrestrial vegetation. However, the planet makes a very poor habitat for animals. This notwithstanding, scientists are in a constant endeavor to formulate the indispensable technology to transform Mars into a habitable planet with regards to air, temperature and pressure (Golombeck 26). The most probable animals to be sent to Mars are probably those of arctic origins.

Hybrid species of water bears could become the first creatures to visit Mars through the use of spacecrafts or panspermia. The water bears, also known as tardigrades, are terrestrial animals that are known to endure insensitive atmospheric combination of low pressure, low temperatures and extreme radiations found in space. This Essay seeks to investigate why the water bears are the most appropriate animals to be sent to Mars for human research.

The water bear has been termed as the “most miraculous creature in the universe” (Romano 134). This is because the creature can survive different types of extremely hazardous condition. Despite being found in almost all the parts of the world, the water bears seem to have escaped human attention.

The creatures are mainly found in freshwater bodies, salty waters and they can also survive on terrestrial climates. The water bears can also survive in wall crevices, tree cracks, roofs and in typical homes; they are most likely to be found in moss cushions. In these environments they only require droplets of water to survive.

The water bears, which are small invertebrates of arctic origin, should be sent in Mars for scientific research. This is because scientists have discovered that the animals can survive in the vacuum of space. This is according to an experiment conducted by a European Space Agency. The water bears are the first animals known to be able to endure the insensitive atmospheric combination of low pressure and extreme radiation found in space. This is mostly attributed to their ability to go through a death-like condition known a cryptobiosis.

In this condition, the water bears respond to the severe environmental conditions which include freezing, lack of oxygen and desiccation by impeding all metabolic processes, curbing reproduction process, development and repair of tissues. In this state, the tardigrades can live for an indefinite period under the harsh environmental conditions found in space, until the conditions stabilizes when the creatures return to their normal metabolic state.

A matter of fact, in 2007, one Swedish scientist, Ingemar Jönsson together with his colleagues who were studying in Kristianstad University endeavored to assess the hardiness of the water bears. The group initiated the experiments that involved two species of tardigrades from Kazakhstan which were exposed to the extreme conditions in space.

The operation involved diverse experimental payloads (Hartmann 40).After about 10 days under the extreme conditions in space; the satellite that carried the water bears came back to Earth. The creatures were retrieved and rehydrated to check on their reaction to the airless environment in space, the sun’s ultraviolet rays as well as the charged elements from space known as the cosmic rays.

The results indicated that the conditions had minimum effects on the tardigrades. In one of the species under experiment, about 69% of the samples that were protected from the extreme energy radiation from the sun were revitalized in about half an hour. As a matter of fact, after this experiment, several of these creatures continued laying eggs that hatched without any hurdles. From this experiment, the water bears were able to survive in space by successfully going through a deathlike condition known as cryptobiosis.

The water bears can also live under minimum oxygen supply through a process known as anoxybiosis. In this condition, the water bears take a lot of water and become turgid and static, reducing their level of oxygen intake.

The time that the water bears take to come back to their normal condition after going through the anoxybiosis state is directly proportional to the time taken in their dormant state. In addition, the deathlike state of cryptobiosis highly reduces their oxygen intake as it lowers their rate of metabolism. This means that the creatures can also survive on Mars a planet that has very little oxygen.

In addition, the tardigrades can endure the process of freezing or thawing that is characterized on Mars. This is because the creatures have a bucco-pharyngeal system and a body which is covered with thick cuticle that contains lipids, chitin and proteins which aid to protect them in times of very low temperatures. As a matter of fact, the water bears are mostly found in Arctic regions which are at very low temperatures. They are said to live under temperatures which are as low as minus 200 degrees Celsius.

Moreover, the water bears are highly resistant to extreme levels of X-ray radiations that are a hundred times more fatal to human beings and other animals. This is mostly attributed to their ability to go through the process of cryptobiosis. In this state, the water bears have an immense resistant to the ionizing x-ray radiations.

Research indicates that about 570,000 roentgens are required to destroy the cells of the water bears. The creature can withstand radiations that can withstand radiations which are up to 250 times more than the one used to damage a mammalian cell (Golombeck 35).

A number of pointers indicate that water bears are preferable for exploration in mars rather than robots. This is because the robots are lifeless and thus are not fit to perform human experiments. On the other hand, the water bears are alive and thus are fit to generate verifiable biological facts. As explained elsewhere within this essay, water bears can survive in lifeless conditions similar to those in Mars without dying. They are able to live in extremely cold and under high pressure with minimal intake of food.

This indicates that these creatures do not require regular supply of energy source, like robots do. In addition, the fact that these creatures can survive in oxygen deficient environment without dying means that scientists can use them to experiment on how to sustain life in oxygen-less conditions.

In waterless environments, water bears go into a dry-like cryptobiosis state through a process referred to as anhydrobiosis. As such, by sending them to Mars, scientists will be in a better position to study how to preserve life forms, especially biology specimens, in lifeless and waterless environments without necessary killing them.

In conclusion, the water bears are the most appropriate creatures to send to Mars for human research. This is because, they can survive in open space and they also have the ability to endure severe conditions for a long time. The creatures are highly likely to survive the extreme conditions as they are highly resistant to the effects of ultraviolet rays, the extreme freezing conditions as well as the strong ultra-violet rays, conditions which characterize the Mars planet (Bell 109).

Water bears are the most appropriate animals to use on experiments on the Mars planet (rather than robots). The water bears should be used to experiment on the environmental conditions found in Mars in order to shed light on how human beings may survive in this planet in future. This is because the rate of survival of the Mars-bound craft is likely to improve with time due to technological improvement.

Works Cited

Bell, John. “Mars Pathfinder: Better Science?” in Sky & Telescope, July 1998.Web.

Golombeck, Mark. “The Mars Pathfinder Mission” in Scientific American, July 1998, p. 40. Good review by the mission’s chief scientist. 28 Nov 2011

Hartmann, William. “Invading Martian Territory” in Astronomy, Apr. 1999.

Progress report on the Global Surveyor mission. 28 Nov 2011

Romano, Frank. “On Water Bears” in Florida Entomologist, 86. 2(2003). Web.

One of the main toxicology concepts is that all the effects are dose-dependent (Klaasen & Watkins, 2010). In other words, water that is taken in a big amount can lead to intoxication. Investigating water as a substance, two methods can be applied. First of all, one can consider water as a solution of pure water with other substances and compounds. Second of all, water in its pure distillated state should be also investigated.

It is necessary to consider the criteria of toxicity in this case. Toxicity is revealed in mechanisms among which the following can be named: inhibition of oxygen transport, inhibition of electron transport chain, irritating, inhibition of enzymes, penetrating lipid structures, carcinogenic activity, teratogenic activity, radical damage, block of neurotransmission (Williams, James, & Roberts, 2002). As a result, for the estimation of substance toxicity, one should analyze the presence and force of the aforementioned factors.

The inhibition of oxygen transport occurs due to the excess of CO which is produced by the unfinished combustion of organic compounds. This variant can be easily disproved in two ways. Firstly, water is an inorganic matter. Secondly, water combustion is possible in an atmosphere of fluorine with the hydrogen fluoride and the oxygen fluoride release.

The inhibition of the electron transport chain is possible under the influence of zinc and cyanides, for example, hydrogen cyanide. Under these criteria consideration, it becomes obvious that the water molecule is not capable of being toxic. Inhibition of enzymes exists in the presence of hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, and metals. The concentration of heavy metals in water, i.e. higher than the maximum permissible level, can be hazardous to health.

Penetration of lipid membranes occurs because of the activities of organic solvents like halogen derivatives and ethanol. It is well known that the solubility of ethanol in water is unlimited. Besides, everyone can experience the toxic effect of this solution.

The irritant action of the toxic gases can be caused by the presence of chlorine or fluorine as well as their derivatives. Taking clean water without the dissolved gases into account, the irritant action is impossible. There is a slight possibility of toxic effect if we consider the chlorinated water which is obtained during the water purification.

Water does not provoke carcinogenic and teratogenic effects. Toxicity could be a characteristic of the formation of the reactive oxygen species which can also be present in water. Block of neurotransmission happens under the effect of snake venoms and poisons. Thereby, water cannot be considered as a source of a harmful substance of this type.

Based on all aforesaid points, one can conclude that water as a solvent can be toxic. Even small concentrations of such substances in water will lead to threatening consequences. However, if one examines distilled water that can be considered as 100 % pure, it is clear that such kind of water will be noxious. Without dissolved in water minerals, ions, and compounds, it will not be useful for human metabolism and the water-salt balance can be disturbed.

Distilled water is usually used in laboratories, manufacturing, and even in the household. It is undeniable that water is a source of life, but it is also possible to say that water has the other side of the coin and, thereby, can be regarded as a toxic substance.

References

Klaasen, C., & Watkins III, J.B. (2010). Casarett & Doull’s Essentials of Toxicology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing.

Williams, P.L., James, R.C., & Roberts, S.M. (2002). Principles of Toxicology Environmental and industrial Applications. New York, NY: Wiley-Interscience Publication.

Abstract

After crude oil rectification, the residue remains produced water, which is essentially an oil/water emulsion saturated with organic and inorganic inclusions. Such water poses an environmental hazard to nature and humans and therefore, reliable separation of water from the mixture requires. The purified resource has the potential to enter the natural cycle and become a source of clean drinking water for the population or agricultural purposes. The focus of this work has been on a study of the use of membrane technology for treating process water. It has been shown that at both research levels, laboratory and pilot, the total amount of oil removed is high enough to postulate that the membranes have a promising future. However, they are not without a number of drawbacks, such as natural material contamination, and therefore, future work must address these issues.

Introduction

In recent decades, the oil and gas industry has reached an enormous scale in the introduction and utilisation of natural resource-based energy generation technologies. The social and economic life of humanity in the 21st century is closely tied to the use of oil as a fuel, which justifies the annually increasing volumes of this resource produced. Crude oil, with its complex chemical composition, requires careful preparation and refining for further use (Wan Ikhsan et al., 2017). For instance, one of the most important wastes of the oil treatment procedure is produced water, which in recent years has been the subject of increased attention by researchers in the field of colloid chemistry, physical and chemical separation methods and the oil and gas industry.

Produced water is a natural satellite of oil and gas that lies in the earth’s strata all over the planet. In the fields, the water layers are adjacent to oil or gas deposits, and during the technical development process, the water streams connect to natural resources to form complex water/organic emulsions with the inclusion of various types of inorganic substances: metals, oxides, and sand (Al-Ghouti et al., 2019). It seems evident that the use of such a mixture has no commercial or technological justification since water significantly reduces the energy efficiency of oil. The traditional separation tools used for decades by oil and gas industry specialists are rectification and separation used to extract oil from an emulsion. Although these methods produce technically clean oil that is sent to distribution centres, such schemes nevertheless give residual water that is not suitable for drinking and hygienic purposes. Moreover, even in oil extracts, the water content is often 3:1 (Al-Ghouti et al., 2019; Dickhout et al., 2017). In other words, even without most oil, the produced water still contains organic and inorganic impurities (Figure 1), which must be disposed of in advance before waste can be disposed of.

Of primary importance in the context of this issue is the recognition that unscrupulous oil producers are ignoring existing regulations and legal norms that prohibit the mixing of residual, produced water with natural water ecosystems. Al-Ghouti et al. (2019) estimate that the annual number of barrels of such water is 70 billion, with one-third of this coming from the US alone, as shown in Figure 2. However, Rezakazemi, Khajeh and Mesbah (2018) showed other numbers: the authors consider that this number exceeds 88 billion barrels annually. This information reflects general trends in the global community towards increased demand for oil, which consequently raises the amount of produced water (Wan Ikhsan et al., 2017).

The problem of recycling such a resource is one of the central challenges facing the environmental monitoring departments of both oil and gas companies and entire countries. Contrary to existing prohibitions, oil producers continue to discharge residual water into the natural environment, although the general trend is negative (Al-Ghouti et al., 2019). There are at least two factors that illustrate the inadequacy of such policies. Firstly, it is known that residual oil sediments in water used by humans are carcinogenic, which affects the general national security of the state (Huang, Ras, and Tian, 2018). In other words, produced water that is pumped into waste streams leads to the development of cancer, which cannot be justified either by the commercial or technological characteristics of fuel production. At the same time, residual water has the potential to become a useful resource for the agricultural and food industry if a number of treatment measures have been taken in advance. It is well known that modern society is facing an increasingly acute shortage of clean water, and ignoring such enormous amounts of a potentially useful resource is considered unacceptable (Dickhout et al., 2017). For this reason, in conjunction with the development of policy models for regulating technological treatment, further research work is needed on improving and optimising methods for separating water/oil emulsion.

The Overview of Research in the Field of Cleaning Measures

Initially, it must be recognised that produced water is not a new phenomenon in the oil and gas industry, which means that the water has been treated since the design of the first fractionating column. It is likely that even at the initial stages of industrial oil use, specialists were concerned about the rational use of waste, so at this point, there are a large number of physical, chemical and biological methods of purifying water from foreign organic and inorganic pollutants. Over time, traditional options such as coagulation, mesh filtration, electrolysis, ultrasonic separation, degreasing, hydrocyclones and centrifuges have begun to be replaced by more advanced methods of separation of blending components (Al-Ghouti et al., 2019; Dickhout et al., 2017; Gupta et al., 2017; Jepsen et al., 2018). Recent discoveries in this area include the use of membrane technology based on the selective permeability of the mixture through the physical membrane. The central factor stimulating the transition from traditional forms of separation to the use of membranes is the increased efficiency of the process, coupled with the relative cheapness of the technology. However, there are other reasons why membranes are becoming increasingly popular and will be discussed in more detail in the next subsections.

The fundamental difference between the two levels of research, laboratory and pilot, is the approach taken to analysing developments. Obviously, in laboratory conditions, specialists are most often unable to use real commercial water, and therefore, they create analogues of oil/water emulsions (Gupta et al., 2017). On the contrary, the industrial scale of the experiments makes it possible to evaluate the hypotheses directly in treatment plants with real residual water. At the same time, laboratory researchers are more adaptive and diverse, as the central mission of such projects is to discover science rather than actually purify water. For this reason, authors often use highly specialised methods and modify the membranes, although such research is unlikely to be feasible under industrial conditions.

Lab Scale Research of Membranes For Oil/Water Separation

The laboratory level of research is incredibly useful in the context of testing scientific hypotheses and developing theoretical and practical knowledge about the nature of emulsion processes and the factors that influence external and internal forces on water separation. Emulsions themselves are thermodynamically unstable since the processes that occur in them spontaneously aim to reduce the partition surface, to merge dispersed particles with each other, which may eventually lead to a complete separation of the system into two phases (Dickhout et al., 2017). Laboratory technicians use this phenomenon to create membranes oriented towards this imbalance of the liquid system.

The principal focus of laboratory testing is to modify existing membranes so that they are as compatible as possible with the contaminants to be removed. First of all, it is essential to note that two types of membranes, namely ceramic and polymer, have gained wide popularity in the scientific community. The ceramic composition is an inorganic substance with increased resistance to the flow of produced water (Dickhout et al., 2017; Wan Ikhsan et al., 2017). Such systems do not swell in water and are relatively easy to treat. However, according to Dickhout et al. (2017), the main disadvantages of ceramic membranes are their cost and high weight. For this reason, most laboratory-level studies are aimed at using the second type of membrane, the polymer one. These are incredibly diverse systems that not only can be based on different polymers, such as PVC, HDPE, PS, PP but also may include various organic and inorganic components.

Polymeric membranes modified with alumina nanoparticles demonstrate increased hydrophilicity, which is equivalent to an improved water treatment regime (Huang, Ras, and Tian, 2018). The membrane wetted with water molecules turns out to be oleophobic, which means that hydrocarbon molecules cannot penetrate the barrier: the profitability of the process was 98% (Dickhout et al., 2017). Similar results are also typical of polysulfone membranes, modified PEG molecules, which showed high water purification results and met the established quality control and inspection standards. The second side of this effect of the zwitterionic hydrophilic layer is the optimization of the purification processes, where electrically neutral charges of the modifier create an outer monomolecular shell of the membrane that protects it from the deposition of pollutants (Rezakazemi, Khajeh and Mesbah, 2018). Research in this area has been further developed to assess the effectiveness of ceramic membranes and polyamide matrix-based materials. Dickhout et al. (2017) showed that an ultrafiltration membrane from silicon dioxide removes up to 95% of oil, while for polyamide materials, it is only 83%. As can be seen in Figure 3, the general trend in laboratory studies is to verify the performance of specific compositions with a view to their possible future use on an industrial scale.

In the meantime, special attention should be paid to the shortcomings of the laboratory level, which may lead to a violation of the scalability of results. Dickhout et al. (2017) showed that most laboratory membranes were dealing with synthetic water/oil emulsion that does not always match the actual conditions. In general, it is worth noting that produced water is not a standard mixture of oil and water, but contains a large number of additional components, and the final chemical composition depends on the field and the age of the source (Gupta et al., 2017). This means that semipermeable or osmotic membranes that have shown results under laboratory conditions may not have the same performance on a large scale as the dynamic transitions of produced water flows (Jepsen et al., 2018). In other words, there is a need for additional experimental evaluation of the consistency of the results between the two study levels.

Pilot Scale Research of Membranes for Oil/Water Separation

Experimental pilot studies allow the scientific and engineering community to assess current information on the limits of applicability of specific models on an industrial scale. Dickhout et al. (2017) reported three commercially successful implementations of membrane technology in wastewater treatment plants: polymeric ultrafiltration membranes, reverse osmosis membranes and hydrophilic spiral systems. Pilot testing of the first type of membrane was carried out in the Snorre oil field in the Norwegian North Sea: about 96% of the oil was removed from the real water/oil emulsion. In Thailand, reverse osmosis nanofiltration membranes were tested to remove smaller particles, and although no specific numbers were given by the authors, they pointed out that the smaller membrane pore size contributed to the reduction in pollution (Dickhout et al., 2017). The third type of membrane was tested in Texas, where a mixture pre-treated on hydrocyclones was amenable to spiral membrane filtration. The total level of oil that was removed from the emulsion reached 54%. Based on the data provided, it can be concluded that, overall, laboratory models have shown promising initial results of applicability on a large scale. Nevertheless, membrane technology still faces a number of challenges that need to be addressed in the future.

Conclusion

The oil and gas industry has faced the problem of utilising produced water in recent decades. In the context of environmental well-being and public health safety, the discharge of water and oil emulsions left during oil rectification into natural aquatic ecosystems is prohibited. While some companies are ignoring these regulations and continue to dispose of production waste, others are directing existing research and development efforts to find the best ways to clean up. For instance, oil/water emulsions have the potential to become clean drinking water after a multistage treatment procedure, which is relevant in countries where this resource is limited. Therefore, the treatment of water from impurities is a key task for the relevant departments of the companies.

Traditional separation methods do indeed show results, but they are being replaced by more advanced options: membrane technology. Membranes are, in fact, physical barriers that prevent the passage of some components of the mixture and allow water molecules to enter the tanks freely. Such technologies have become possible in many ways thanks to the discovery of the hydrophilicity of some modifiers that are added to the membrane matrix. For instance, the inclusion of aluminium oxide nanoparticles in the membrane makes it possible to improve field water treatment rates significantly. Most tests are conducted under laboratory conditions, where specialists are free to modify the membranes and check their effectiveness. However, laboratory materials often deal with synthetic water that does not have the same characteristics as a real emulsion. An additional stage of pilot testing to assess the performance of such membranes is then required for implementation in production. It has been shown that most pilot tests confirm the high efficiency of membranes for separating water from the emulsion.

No matter how excellent the membrane technology is, its operation presents a number of significant challenges that still need to be addressed in the coming decades. First and foremost, a cornerstone problem with membranes is their high rate of contamination, as the pores of the material are clogged with components of the mixture. There are several strategies for how this process can be inhibited, and active development towards hydrophilic resistant systems is underway. On the other hand, polymer composites are highly selectable to the mixture, consequently selecting the material for the membrane is a non-trivial task. Given the specific nature of the field, specialists must select a suitable membrane that does not dissolve or interact chemically with the flow of produced water. In addition, the main parameters of the effectiveness of the treatment process are the percentage of oil removed: the higher this number, the better the membrane has managed to filter. Future developments may focus on preliminary treatment procedures, such as centrifugation or the use of hydrocyclones, in order to increase the value of this parameter.

Reference List

Al-Ghouti, M.A., Al-Kaabi, M.A., Ashfaq, M.Y. and Da’na, D.A. (2019) ‘Produced water characteristics, treatment and reuse: a review’, Journal of Water Process Engineering, 28, pp. 222-239.

Dickhout, J.M., Moreno, J., Biesheuvel, P.M., Boels, L., Lammertink, R.G. and de Vos, W.M. (2017) ‘Produced water treatment by membranes: a review from a colloidal perspective’, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 487, pp. 523-534.

Gupta, R.K., Dunderdale, G.J., England, M.W. and Hozumi, A. (2017) ‘Oil/water separation techniques: a review of recent progresses and future directions’, Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 5(31), pp. 16025-16058.

Huang, S., Ras, R.H. and Tian, X. (2018) ‘Antifouling membranes for oily wastewater treatment: interplay between wetting and membrane fouling’, Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science, 36, pp. 90-109.

Jepsen, K.L., Bram, M.V., Pedersen, S. and Yang, Z. (2018) ‘Membrane fouling for produced water treatment: a review study from a process control perspective’, Water, 10(7), pp. 847-875.

Rezakazemi, M., Khajeh, A. and Mesbah, M. (2018) ‘Membrane filtration of wastewater from gas and oil production’, Environmental Chemistry Letters, 16(2), pp. 367-388.

Wan Ikhsan, S.N., Yusof, N., Aziz, F., and Misdan, N. (2017) ‘A review of oilfield wastewater treatment using membrane filtration over conventional technology’, Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences, 21(3), pp. 643-658.

The picture is a hypothetical illustration of all the waters in the satellite Europa, which is in the form of a bubble, and that amount of water may be compared to the whole Europa in the area covered. Next to the picture, there is another hypothetical illustration of all the water on planet Earth compared to the whole mass of planet Earth. The picture illustrates a scale, therefore, making a clear comparison of the size of the Earth and Europa, and all their waters. Europa is one of the four largest moons found around the planet Jupiter. The other three are Lo, Ganymede, and Calisto. Europa is almost of the same size as the Earth’s moon, and it was discovered by the astronomer Galileo Galilei in 1610.

The surface of Europa is covered with ice and cracks as seen in the picture. Previous explorations show that beneath the ice covering its surface, separating the icy crust from the rocky interior, there is water, which creates an ocean. The ice floats on the water contacting with a rocky mantle, while in the earth, there is a crust. The cracks evident on its surface are made as a result of ocean tides underneath the ice which cause an eruption on the surface, the same way volcanic eruptions occur on Earth.

Europa is far from the Sun; hence, the ice covers the whole surface of that moon. Europa’s magnetic field reacts with that of Jupiter, proving the fact that the moon contains a liquid ocean underneath the layer of ice. Its orbiting around Jupiter is a source of heat in the interior of Europa, and this heat maintains the water in a liquid state despite the ice surface.

The picture also shows that the surface of the moon is relatively smooth and that Europa is much smaller than the Earth but has much more water than the Earth. Its water is almost twice as much as that on Earth. Although oceans usually make up most of the Earth’s surface, they are not as deep when compared to the depth of water on Europa’s surface. The waters and ice of Europa are several kilometers deep, and all the water in Europa makes up almost a quarter of its whole mass.

There are beliefs that the liquid ocean on the moon may support Extraterrestrial life. The Europa-Jupiter System Mission is to explore Jupiter and most importantly, Europa. Europa’s ocean is thought to be a few kilometers from the surface, and hence there is a likelihood of interaction between the ocean and the surface.

References

All the Water on Europa. Web.

Introduction

Water is one of the rare exclusions to the direct dependence between temperature and volume. The volume of water decreases upon cooling, which lasts until the temperature decrease up to about 4°C (Stoker 199). In this case, the water achieves a maximum density and, accordingly, a minimum volume. In the course of further water cooling below the mentioned temperature, it starts to expand. The identified extension endures until a triple point (O°C) when liquid water starts to change its state to solid and enlarges as well. For example, the density of ice (0.9170 g/mL) is less than that of liquid water (0.9999 g/mL) (Stoker 199). The volume increase produces a force that may negatively affect pipes and even destroy some items located in the water.

Main body

The review of the structure of water molecules shows that it has two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen (Figure 1). Since in a water molecule, two hydrogen atoms give one electron to an oxygen atom, the former receives a positive charge, and the latter – a negative one. Due to this, each oxygen atom is attracted to the hydrogen atoms of other molecules and vice versa. There is a strong tendency between atoms of hydrogen to shape a network of bonds. The expansion of water during freezing occurs due to the fact that its molecules occupy a smaller volume in an irregular arrangement compared to a completely regular structure (Stoker 199). Due to the expansion of water during freezing with increasing pressure, the freezing temperature decreases. The regular distance between water molecules proceeds to decrease along with the temperature since the kinetic energy falls.

It should be stressed that hydrogen bonding may appear only in case water molecules show a certain position with regard to each other. According to Stoker, non-bonded oxygen atoms dictate the positioning and angle of water molecules (199). Consequently, water molecules tend to be far apart once they are bonded compared to the opposite state. The physical rather than thermal expansion occurs as water molecules create a crystalline structure. When oxygen and hydrogen atoms are involved in bonding, they form pairs, while one area of the water molecule receives a more positive charge compared to the other one. Thus, the molecules act in the role of triangular magnets, one side of which is electrostatically positive, and the other is negative.

Conclusion

With the lowering temperature, these bonds are likely to become stronger, thus creating a crystalline structure. The connections between freezing molecules increase, and they arrange an open structure. Since the density of solid water is lower, one may observe that ice tends to float in the liquid water (Stoker 199). When winter approaches, the process of water stratification in lakes and rivers may be described.

Namely, the so-called heaviest water is laid in the bottom, the layer with lower temperature comes next, and the top of the water is covered by ice. Such a phenomenon allows aquatic flora and fauna to exist in spite of temperature changes. Also, the natural alterations of water may be observed when potholes form in the streets as a result of the water freezing. In cold periods, car drivers use antifreeze to ensure that water in their vehicles would not freeze.

Work Cited

Stoker, H. Stephen. General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry. 7th ed., Cengage Learning, 2016.

Introduction

The dispersion of molecules of iodine 1² between immiscible liquids solvents, water, or carbon tetrachloride was used to estimate the molarity of the 1² substances involved at balance in the aqueous solution. The lack of information regarding activity coefficients for any complexes present complicates the investigation. Early scientists recognized the necessity to assume equal degrees of solubility for -iodide and polyiodide salts.

It is important that the diffusion coefficient used to link the iodine concentrations in one phase to that in another account for the existence of iodide and polyiodide salts. The distribution coefficient must also account for or reduce iodine hydrolysis. Even while polyiodides are undeniably present in solid form, the presence of an Ig-KI molecule in solution is uncertain. The water chemistry of Iodine has been studied at a variety of pH, concentrations, and temperatures to understand how this fission product behaves in accident circumstances. Notable about equilibria is that both forward and backward processes persist. Their rates are identical; thus, any change in one response is cancelled out by the other. Chemical equilibrium is dynamic, not static. Because both reactions occur at the same time, the equilibrium may be reversed. Using an equilibrium as an example,

represents the same equilibria as:

Iodine interacts with iodide ions, which may serve as Lewis bases, increasing its solubility in water. By adding cesium iodide, the reddish-brown solubility becomes crystalline cesium triiodide.

In preparative chemistry, it is often required to extract the desired product from a chemical mixture into a more soluble liquid than the undesirable components. On a laboratory scale, this is done in a separatory funnel. Pour the two or more substances into the funnel via the top hole. The funnel is shaken to mix the two stages, then put aside to enable the layers to form. The iodine complex is a polyiodide system. It was researched longer than iodine reactions. Because little is known about starch and aqueous solutions containing Iodine and iodide, less is known about the starch-iodine reaction. Multiple sources describe varying levels of reaction.

Purpose

This experiment was designed to examine a typical reasonably homogeneous equilibrium in water and test the law of mass action. Equilibration happened when Iodine was combined with aqueous potassium iodide solutions: 1²+1 = 1. (1) It is used to redistribute natural Iodine I between two immiscible solvents, water, and methylene chloride, to determine the equilibrium concentrations of the 1² species present in the aqueous solution. This experiment compares the solute distribution in the aqueous phase and CC14. It connects the concentration of 1² in two stages (12) and (I2) CCU.

Experimental

Reagents

• Distilled water (200 ml)
• Solutions of 1₂ in CCI₄ (50 ml)
• CCL4 solvent
• Pure H₂O
• H2
• Solutions of I² in CCI₄
• Aqueous S₂O₃^2-
• Aqueous KI

Instrumentation

• Clamp
• Battery jar containing water at 25°
• a pipette bulb
• Thermostat bath
• 500-ml glass-stoppered Erlenmeyer flasks.
• Pipettes

Chemical Formulas

The equilibrium conditions constant Kg, which must be stated in terms of the process of the different molecules involved, is approximated by the following equation involving concentrations: A are activities, y are activities coefficients, and K is the equilibrium constant to maintain optimally. (X) = Cyclo, in which CCL₄ is the number of moles of chemical X while co = 1 M.

K, = K comes from y = y and Yi, = 1. The estimated Debye-Hickel theory for ionic species activity coefficients at 25°C is! -0.507z? Y = – (3) +1 With the correctness of Eq., both l^o and I^z have the same charges z and are affected by the same ionic strength 1. (3).

Procedure

1. 50 ml 12 in CCI4 solutions was placed in 500 ml crystal Erlenmeyer flasks and allowed to equilibrate at 25°C.
2. The flasks holding the solutions were shaken thoroughly for 5 minutes before clamping them in a thermostatic bath.
3. After ten minutes of temperature equilibrium, the flasks were taken one by one and wrapped in a clean towel
4. The flasks were aggressively shaken for three to five minutes and then replaced in the thermostat bath. This process was repeated for at least eight hours.
5. After the last stirring, the flasks were placed in the boiling water bath to enable the fluid layers to completely separate. After full equilibration, one flask was removed from the thermostatic bath then placed in a battery jar loaded with 25°C water.
6. Pipettes were used to extract a sample of the aqueous layer or a portion of the CC14 layer. The flask was capped and reintroduced to the solution for a further 30 minutes of equilibrium with shaking as stated before, followed by a second specimen of each stage for titration.

Results and Discussions

Results And Calculations

Results and Calculations for:

Aqueous Calculations for Phases 1,2,3

Table 1

Calculations for phases 1, 2 and 3 can be done as follows:

Equation 5 Equation 6 Equation 7

CCL4 calculations for phases 1,2,3.

Table 2

Equation 8Equation 9Equation 10

Calculations for:

Table 3

The calculations are done as follows:

Equation 11Equation 12Equation 13

Calculations for Phases 4,5 And 6.

Table 4

Table 5

Discussions

At equilibrium, the rate of forwarding reaction matches the rate of the reverse reaction. Chemicals in equilibrium have a constant concentration. No matter how many times a reactant molecule becomes a product molecule or vice versa, the reactant and product concentrations are maintained at the same level. It is 0 at equilibrium. Neither a forward nor a backward response is natural. Observe the ice-water shift. Above 0°C, ice spontaneously melts into liquid water; G is negative. G is positive when the ice melts below 0°C. At 0°C, both states are equal.

The quantity of ice and water in the combination remains constant, and the change in entropy is zero. A rising concentration of reactant solution causes a change in the generation constants of triiodide, but why? To begin with, iodine and iodide ion interactions in mildly concentrated solutions produced higher-order complexions. The experimental data is contradictory and typically relates to solids instead of aqueous solutions. The assumption that species in solutions have the same complex as those in solids has led to a lack of interest in studying them. It is important that the diffusion coefficient used to link the iodine concentration with one phase to that in another account for the existence of iodide and polyiodide salts. The distribution coefficient must also account for or reduce iodine hydrolysis. Because of the fast and reversible equilibrium, it isn’t easy to estimate the proportion of Free Iodine in quite an Aqueous Phase with a Significant Amount of Iodide Ions by Direct Titration. In such systems, one must use an indirect approach to determine free Iodine.

The amount of an empirical formula is unrelated to the method used to achieve equilibrium. The H2 + I2 2 HI equilibrium is characterized by the following data. It illustrates many distinct starting concentrations and their associated equilibrium concentrations. Each experiment includes information on the equilibrium constant. Notably, the equilibrium constant remains constant regardless of whether the particles were hydrogen and iodine, the hydrogen iodide molecule, or a mixture of all three, regardless of whether the constituents were mixed insufficient or unequal quantities.

Like Henry’s rule, this distribution law only applies to a particular chemical species. This indicates that the distribution variable k is not a natural thermodynamic equilibrium constant. Due to the comparatively high concentration for 12 in the CC14 phase, it is prudent to calculate kat various concentrations. When 12 is dispersed between CC14 and plain water, it may be measured immediately by titration. To produce (I2) in an aqueous solution containing 13′, titrate the 12 in a CCI4 layer equilibrated with this phase. The assumption is that the existence of ions in the aqueous solution phase does not affect the distribution constant’s value.

However, a more fundamental problem arises in that the identities of the complexes apart from triiodide that may occur in aqueous systems are unknown. Until the composition of these complexes is determined, no progress toward a quantitatively satisfying description of these solutions can be achieved. In light of a few good descriptions of pentaiodides, hepta-iodides, and sometimes even pentaiodides in the research, it has been implicitly believed that the ions found in solution are of the same general kind.

Summary

The formation of the triiodide ion (I3) in aqueous systems iodine and iodide is well known. Additionally, these solutions include more complex polyiodide ions. However, it is unknown what additional ions are produced in addition to I3. Along with more complex ions, ions of the types I⁴ 2, I⁵ 2, and I⁶ 2 have been suggested. When a third material that is soluble in liquids is introduced to a system comprising two immiscible liquids, the component disperses uniformly across the two liquid phases. For practical reasons, this precise formulation of the dispersion law may be approximated. If the solutions behave optimally to use Henry’s or Raoult’s Laws, the activity may be substituted by the relevant mole fractions. It is widely known that in the presence of starch, solutes of Iodine may take on a vivid blue hue. For over 150 years, the complex identified as responsible for this absorption coefficient of a red signal has focused on intermittently intensive investigation. Nonetheless, as with the creation of a poly iodine complex in starch, the underlying nature of the process that produces this blue complex is only partially known.

References

Garland, Nibler, & Shoemaker. Exp. 5: Chemical Equilibrium in Solution. Experiments In Physical Chemistry.

Water temperature is considered to be a factor that determines the characteristics of the plaster mix. This takes place owing to its ability to influence both solubility of the material and the rate of crystallization: water solubility of CaSO4.2H2O is moderate and shows direct relation to the temperature until a certain point; then the retrograde solubility takes place, which means that when the temperature increases, the material becomes less soluble. The corresponding influence on setting time is shown at Figure 1 (Plaster Fundamentals):

The segment between 80 and 100ºF shows the maximum of plaster solubility, and then the slump takes place.

The results of the experiment have approved the expected effect of water temperature upon plaster’s parameters:

Setting Time: According to the theoretical background, the temperature increase may decrease the setting; however, not necessarily. The sample which implied using chilled water has shown the latest initial (1.71 times longer that the sample with no additive (1), and effect of retardation) and final set (equal to the sample with no additive (1)). Warm water made the process more accelerated comparing to that chilled; however, the values of initial and final set are much bigger than those which took place in cases with other additives. Comparing to the sample with no additive (1), the initial set is 1.29 times longer, and the final set is only 0,786 (effect of acceleration).

Flexural strength: A sample which implied using warm water showed flexural strength 2.98 Mpa, chilled water 1.80 Mpa. Thus, their ratios to the value of the sample with no additive (1) are 0.351 and 0.582 correspondingly. When analyzing the samples’ flexural strength in detail, it is reasonable to consider a difference in the samples’ dimensions: 0.08/0.034/0.015 for the warm water sample, and 0.08/,0.35/0.018 for that of cold water, which means that the ratio of (from the flexural strength formula) is 10457.52 and 7054.674 correspondingly; their ration is 1.482, while the flexural strength values ratio for is 1.657 for these two samples; the rest difference is related to the difference in weight used in the experiment (19 and 17 kg correspondingly).

Thus, using different water temperature has shown its effect on the characteristics of plaster; however, this effect is slighter than that shown by other additives.

Reference

Plaster Fundamentals. (n.d.). PlasterMaster. 2010. Web.