Water distribution in Boston dates back to the time of Early Settlers when private suppliers could deliver water through wooden pipes from Jamaica Pond. Earlier, the natives were using water from spring, rain barrels, and local wells. Pollution became common in the Jamaican Pond. Equally, the capacity could not serve the then population.
The rapid increase in population made city planners in 1848 to acquire municipal water from Lake Cochituate, which is in the western part of Boston. This water could flow through the Cochituate aqueduct to the Brookline Reservoir. Lake Cochituate became the major water supplying point to the Boston residents and visitors. In 1870, the Mystic Lake System was inculcated in the water system.
By 1900, the water supply could not completely meet the needs of the tripled population of 550, 000 (Water History.). Also, the quality had tremendously gone down prompting the need to abandon the Cochituate Reservoir and Aqueduct. This situation prompted the formation of the Metropolitan Water District (MWD), which was mandated with identifying other sources of water for the city residents.
In 1908, city planners completed constructing Wachusett Dam, Reservoir and Aqueduct that was supplemented with Quabbin Reservoir, which was impounded from Swift River. This initiative was to help in meeting future growth. Later in 1970, the demand for water rose past the supply.
Moreover, much of the water could not reach the city due to pipe leakages. This saw the formation of the Boston Water and Sewer Commission (BWSC), which had to update and repair the water system.
Notably, the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority (MWRA) was mandated with controlling and operating the water and sewerage divisions in Boston. Currently, Boston purchases its water from the MWRA to serve tourists, students, shops, commuting workers, and hospital patients (Water History.).
By 2001, it was estimated that one Boston resident uses close to 101.3 gallons of water both outdoor and indoor every day. Likewise, in 2007, the Quabbin and the Wachusett Reservoirs supplied close to 214 millions of gallons per day (mgd) to consumers. This amount translates to around 78.11 billions of gallons per annum. Notably, there was massive water usage in the 1980s; for instance, the usage hit 474.9 million cubic meters per annum.
Conservation efforts reduced this usage amount to 268.5 million cubic meters per annum (Water History.). Water treatment is done at the MWRA’s John J. Carroll Water Treatment Plant at Walnut Hill. This process involves adjusting the pH of the water using sodium bicarbonate, which is a basic substance, removal of ozone, and mixing with fluorides and chloramines. These processes lower the acidic level and kill germs that could be in the water.
After treatment, water goes to the storage tanks that are well covered via the Metrowest Water Supply Tunnel. Some of the storage tanks include the Loring Road Tanks and Norumbega Reservoir. At this point, water is ready for consumption; therefore, MWRA delivers the water to BWSC networks, which has 29 metered destinations (Water History.).
There has been continuous improvement in the Boston water system; for example, there have been replacements of valves and maintenance of hydrants to ensure that water of high quality reaches the consumers at sufficient pressure. This water can be used for consumption and fire protection. The constant rehabilitation process makes it possible for water to acquire enough pressure to reach the final destinations.
BWSC and MWRA water supply in Boston have confirmed to the Environmental Protection Agency’s strict regulations of the provision of quality water to consumers. BWSC has also been ensuring high quality of water by the main flushing. The main flushing does not only remove particles that could be in the water but also eliminate discolored water.
BWSC used standard pipes made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and class 56 ductile iron for constructing sewer connections. Moreover, the PVCs standards match the ASTM specifications.
The pipes have a minimum size of 6 inches and a maximum of 15 inches for D3034 type, 18 inches and more for F679. The ratio of their diameter to their wall thickness should be a maximum of 35 (Water History.). Copper type K is meant to be used in situations where water services up to 2 inches.
On the other hand, ductile iron is to be applied in scenarios where water services up to 4 inches and more. Pipes are divided into the sewer and drain pipes, fittings, ductile iron pipes, and service pipes. All these specifications must be adhered to during construction.
Boston Water and Sewer Commission (BWSC) have specific fire hydrant points within their distribution system, and even issues hydrant permits at a fee. The meters are meant for construction purposes only. For example, 90 days attracts a rental levy of $50 with additional charges on water usage. The permit also attracts a down payment of $750. In case the 90 days expire, one can renew the permit at a new fee of the same rate (Water History.).
This initiative allows fire-fighters to use the Boston water in extinguishing fires. The piping layout uses a horizontal orientation to reduce pressure backflow. Lastly, BWSC must approve the piping layout/diagrams before the commencement of mechanical work, and no alteration can be done without the BWSC’s permission.
Works Cited
Water History. About Boston Water and Sewer Commission. BWSC, n.d. Web.
Newark City is one of the areas in New Jersey, which has managed to maintain an efficient water supply system for many years. The initial commissioning of Newark’s City water system was done in 1888 when the first city residents got to use the services of this crucial system (University of Delaware).
The University of Delaware points out that initially, this system only served a small number of people living in the area at the time. However, over the years, the city’s water system has been expanded to enable it to serve the ever-increasing population of Newark City adequately.
According to the University of Delaware, Newark City’s water distribution system has undergone significant expansion. Currently, it boasts over 9000 connections, providing water for both domestic and industrial use for more than 30,000 residents in the city. Newark’s city water distribution system caters for daily average usage of 4million gallons.
This implies that the city’s water system caters for an annual water demand of almost 1.5 billion gallons (University of Delaware). To cater for Newark City’s rather high water needs effectively, Newark city’s water supply and distribution system rely on various sources, from where it obtains this water. The University of Delaware asserts that the city’s water system employs the use of surface, ground, and purchased water sources.
According to the University of Delaware, the city’s surface water is usually obtained from White Clay Creek, from where it is collected and subjected to several treatment options, before being channeled to the city’s residents and for industrial use. The city’s groundwater source is usually provided by several wells, which are located at specific areas in the town.
The University of Delaware notes that although the city’s daily average water use has been predetermined; there are usually instances where the amount of daily usage surpasses these predetermined average figures.
To cater to this shortfall, the city’s water system usually purchases water from United Water Delaware. The purchased water is usually pre-treated and, therefore, the city’s water system does not usually have to treat it again. Instead, it channels it directly to the consumers.
Treatment
According to the University of Delaware, Newark City’s current water treatment facility was commissioned in 1992, and it was meant to significantly improve the quality of service offered by the city’s water system. The treatment facility is largely used for the treatment of water from the city’s surface source, which is the White Clay Creek.
On a typical day, the treatment facility can treat up to 3 million gallons of water, which is almost 80 percent of the city’s daily water usage (University of Delaware). The treatment mechanism, as explained by the University of Delaware, first of all, involves channeling the raw water into a pond. Here, sedimentation is allowed to take place. This results in the settling of sediment material at the bottom of the pond.
From the pond facility, the water is then channeled to the main treatment facility. While in the main treatment facility, the water is treated with alum and polymer. Afterward, the water undergoes a purification process aimed at getting rid of impurities. This is usually followed by the addition of Chlorine, a water treatment option, which is usually meant to kill any bacteria present that might cause harm to the users.
The University of Delaware notes that most water from surface sources usually bears odor. This is because of impurities, which have previously been present in the water and, therefore, to remove this odor, the water undergoes a carbon treatment.
Finally, the water is treated with lime, which is a basic compound aimed at reducing its acidity. Consequently, fluoride is added to help protect the bones and teeth from the effects of excess fluorine present in the water. It is then channeled into the public distribution system, where it finds its way into people’s homes for domestic use and industries for industrial use.
Pressurization
Water pressure is a very important factor when it comes to the determination of the efficiency of water distribution systems. There are several pressure aspects that should be taken into account when designing an efficient water distribution system. First of all, there is the aspect of static pressure. According to Dion (36), static pressure represents potential energy, that might be used to move the water through the various distribution channels.
These include piping, fire horse, and adapters. Static energy can be increased by raising the level of the water source. The second aspect of pressure that is of great importance is normal pressure. Normal pressure refers to the pressure in the water, while it is flowing through the various distribution channels at normal usage levels (Dion 40).
In addition to static and normal pressure, the third aspect of pressure that should be taken into account when designing an efficient water distribution system is residual pressure. This, according to the American Water Works Association (51), represents the available pressure that has not been consumed in facilitating the flow of water through the various distribution channels. Finally, the fourth pressure aspect is flow pressure.
Flow pressure usually represents pressure at a discharge point, and it is usually dependent on the diameter of the discharge point. To ensure effective distribution and flow of water from its distribution center to the customers, Newark City’s water system has a mechanism for ensuring that the pressure aspects (static, normal, residual and flow pressure) are kept at optimum levels.
The distribution facility is located at a relatively elevated location to increase static pressure. Moreover, the piping used for distribution is maintained at a constant diameter. This ensures that flow pressure is kept at a constant rate, from its point of distribution to the resident’s homes (University of Delaware).
Piping
To ensure that water is distributed effectively from the main distribution center located at the treatment facility to the residents of the city, the Newark Water Supply System employs the use of various types of pipes. These are all connected at various points in the distribution chain. This ensures maximum efficiency in the flow of water.
Some of the types of pipes used in transmitting water from its distribution points to the residential areas include steel pipes, galvanized Iron pipes, concrete pipes, and polythene and plastic pipes. The piping has been done in a way that ensures maximum efficiency at every point in the distribution link.
For instance, the piping used to directly facilitate the flow of water from the sources to the treatment facility comprise of steel and concrete pipes with huge diameters, that can allow a high volume of water to flow into the facility at any given time.
On the other hand, the piping used to deliver clean water to homes and other areas comprise of plastic and polythene pipes, whose diameter is small enough to allow only the required volume of water to flow through them to people’s residences (University of Delaware).
Works Cited
America Water Works Association. Installation, Field Testing and Maintenance of Fire Hydrants (M17). New York: America Water Works Association, 2006. Print.
Dion, T. R. Land Development for Civil Engineers. Boston: John Wiley & Sons, 2002. Print.
University of Delaware. “Source Water Assessment of the City of Newark, Delaware Public Water Supply Intake Located on the White Clay Creek.” 2002. Web.
Water is one of the most valuable resources for indigenous Indian tribes settling in the United States. According to the established traditions, it is a sanctuary for them. That is why the access to water and the right to use it freely – the issue referred to as water rights – is one of the most critical challenges in developing relations between the government of the United States and the tribes. Its significance is related not only to the importance of water in everyday lives and rituals of Indians but also the recognition and protection of the fundamental rights of minorities without regard to the level of their sovereignty.
It is essential to keep in mind that the issue of water rights – either tribal or those of dominant groups – is closely related to a great variety of associated rights, including but not limited to dam construction, agricultural and housing needs, fishing, environmental health, and managing natural resources. At the same time, it is inseparable from a wide range of responsibilities. Nevertheless, the paper at hand will not pay attention to all of the associated rights. Instead, the major focus will be made on the right to water supply support and domestic water availability. In other words, the subject of the given research is protecting the access of indigenous tribes to water. In this case, adequate access to water for satisfying both housing and agriculture-related needs of tribes is the central matter of concern.
Therefore, the paper at hand aims at reviewing one of the cases connected to tribal water rights. The objective is not only to describe the case and parties involved in it but also to make an attempt to estimate the influence of public opinion on reaching a decision on the case and its legal consequences. The motivation for focusing on this aspect of rights protection is the fact that legal and public negotiations are commonly affected by the desire of influential parties involved (such as governmental organizations or representatives of legal institutions) to solve them positively as well as the position of a minority (a tribe) in the society – its legal recognition and sovereignty.
Reviewing the Case Related to Tribal Water Rights
The issue of tribal water rights is connected to a variety of legal and court cases. At the same time, it is a common subject of public debates and negotiations. Nevertheless, most of the cases are associated with recognizing the right to access tribes to water. That is why the paper at hand aims at reviewing only one of the cases – Chippewa Cree Tribe settling the Rocky Boy’s Reservation v. the State of Montana. The motivation for selecting this case among the array of other similar issues is its direct connection to the challenge of recognizing the water rights of indigenous tribes as well as the leading role of the community in the outcomes of legal cases and their influence on the lives of tribes and the further protection of their rights (Cosens 9). In this case, the direct impact of the community and public opinion can be explained by the fact that the tribe is officially recognized as the indigenous one. For this reason, the community supported the positive outcomes of the case and recognized that the rights should be protected.
The Chippewa Cree Tribe issue has a durable history. It was resolved dating back to 1997. The central matter of concern was the request to review and represent the details of water support for all tribe members. The legal request was addressed to the Montana State Legislature to protect the right of the Chippewa Cree Tribe to clear water supply. Nevertheless, it was not the only issue related to the case. People dwelling within the area referred to as the Rocky Boy’s Reservation claimed that their right to domestic water was violated because not all families were provided with it.
It is essential to note that the initial conflict related to the 1997 settlement on tribal water rights dates back to 1992. It was connected to the overall dependence of the Chippewa Cree Tribe on agriculture as the foundation of its economic development. Because almost half of the community members living under the poverty threshold, guaranteeing adequate access to water to support the further economic development of the tribe and reduce unemployment was a must. That is why the reservation initiated public negotiations to resolve the challenge of the lack of water resources. Wide public negotiations were the ground of the case. It began with the issuance of the resolution by official bodies of the Rocky Boy’s Reservation, claiming that the tribe’s rights to water should be recognized and protected. This initiative was possible due to the official recognition and sovereignty of the Chippewa Cree Tribe, which meant that it was eligible for creating its legal bodies and passing official documents. Nevertheless, the Montana Water Rights Compact Commission decided not to vote for it, explaining the discriminative decision to protect off-reservation citizens’ rights.
From this perspective, the case under consideration is directly connected to the challenge of recognizing and securing natural rights. In this case, it is the right to water supply support and adequate and unlimited access to water bot domestic and clear. Because of the ambiguity of the concept of adequate access to water, it is critical to keep in mind that it is referred to as satisfying all needs for water – food preparation, drinking, agriculture, and household. Still, the central focus was made on satisfying the tribe’s agricultural needs dependent upon agriculture as the foundation of its economic development and stability. The issue was connected to the lack of well and construction necessary for addressing the necessity of irrigation of crops. In this way, the case is connected not only to the issue of long-term residence of tribe members in the Rocky Boy’s reservation but also the sovereignty of the tribe and the opportunity to manage sacred water resources in a way they find appropriate and relevant.
Parties Involved in the Case Process
The 1997 case addressing tribal water rights was associated with the official involvement of three parties. The claimant was the Chippewa Cree Tribe settling the Rocky Boy’s Reservation in Montana. The defendant is the Montana Water Rights Compact Commission that was requested to review the details of water supply support and access to domestic water in the reservation. The third legal party involved in the Montana State Legislature was responsible for addressing the case and adjudicating concern.
However, regardless of the limited number of legally involved parties, the case had a wide public resonance. As for now, it is one of the legally recognized cases on tribal water rights, which is commonly referred to and cited in all legal documents on tribal rights prepared and issued by the President’s Administration (U. S. Department of the Interior). Simultaneously, it is a common subject of public debates due to the references in official documents. More than that, the opinion of off-reservation citizens was considered while reaching the final decision on the case. Theses were both observers and public officials that participated in the case. In this way, society is the fourth party involved in reviewing this case, even though it is not an officially listed one.
The Solution of the Issue
As mentioned above, the case on Chippewa Cree Tribe’s adequate access to water resources was a lengthy and troublesome process. The perception of the issue changed over the long five years of the dispute. At the very beginning of the story, when the officials of the reservations filed the resolution claiming adequate access to water to the Montana Water Rights Compact Commission, it was not satisfied. The reservation representatives expected that the Compact Commission would vote for passing this resolution, thus acting in compliance with water rights laws (the solutions of the previous similar cases), guaranteeing the necessary supply of water to indigenous tribes. Nevertheless, the Montana Water Rights Compact Commission paid special to the off-reservation public’s opinion, therefore, ignoring the provisions of the law. In this way, the case’s initial stage is characterized by severe opposition and the desire to violate the tribe’s natural rights. From this perspective, the off-reservation public countered tribal water rights by affecting the Compact Commission’s decisions. Speaking of public debates’ involvement, both ordinary citizens and public officials were expressing their opinions on the issues. Because none of the supported the claim was not satisfied by the Compact, and natural rights were neglected.
Nevertheless, the situation changed in 1997 when the Rocky Boy’s Reservation representatives filed a case to the Montana State Legislature. They claimed that their rights were violated, and the Compact Commission ignored the legal documents’ provisions. This time, the Tribal Council of the Chippewa Cree Tribe received the absolute support of tribe members due to the growing economic instability and increasing poverty rates. Here, it is essential to note that back in 1992, the tribe members avoided participation in and support similar cases. As the situation changed and all of them expressed their support of the case, there were enough grounds for making the State Legislature involved in reviewing the details of water supply support to the tribe and people settling the Rocky Boy’s Reservation.
Due to the broad-based support of the Tribal Council of the Chippewa Cree Tribe, both Montana Governor and Montana State Legislature observed the claim. They concluded that the Montana Water Rights Compact Commission should respond to the reservation’s file and satisfy it. In this way, in 1997, tribal rights were protected by the official bodies. Still, it is critical to note that the Governor and the Legislature were not the only supporters of the tribe. The case got a wide public resonance. This time, most public officials and off-reservation citizens expressed the opinions that the Montana Water Rights Compact Commission violated the sacred rights of the tribe and failed to fulfill the United States’ trust responsibilities. In this case, the concept of trust responsibilities is referred to as protecting the rights of indigenous tribes and respecting the representatives of the minorities. More than that, tribal water rights were protected by the United States Department of the Interior that criticized the Montana Water Rights Compact Commission for countering tribal rights (Cosens 3). This might have been the involvement of the Department of the Interior that affected the positive outcomes of the case. Nevertheless, the result is all that matters.
That said, this case was associated with the 1997 Water Settlement between the State of Montana and Chippewa Cree Tribe and the 199 Water Enhancement Supply Act. According to these two documents, a public agreement was reached. The foundation of this agreement is the guarantee of the allocation of funds aimed at the implementation of the water quality monitoring program. More than that, the decision is connected to investing in the quality discharge of water supply. Finally, according to these documents, the State of Montana warranted the allocation of funds to construct the network of wells across the territory of the reservation. It is essential to mention that even though the foundation of the dispute was the access to water necessary for satisfying agricultural needs (irrigation systems, in particular), the solution of the case was even more comprehensive because it included the guarantee to provide all members of the tribe with the adequate access to domestic and clear water.
Bearing in mind what was mentioned above, it is evident that the case’s solution had positive consequences for the members of the tribe. Nevertheless, it is critical to realize that the legal outcomes might have differed if the Tribal Council stepped back after the first failure. More than that, the success might have been connected to the fact that the public countered the tribe’s rights in 1992. In this way, the positive outcomes of the case might have been more of a demonstration that the United States do care for the rights of the minorities instead of a just solution because the State of Montana guaranteed the recognition of tribal water rights only after the involvement of the United States Department of the Interior and severe criticism of the initial settlement. The same can be proved by the changes in public opinion over the course of the case from countering rights to protecting them.
Relation Between the Issue and the Broader Challenge of Tribal Water Rights
The 1997 case on Chippewa Cree water rights is directly associated with the overall challenge of recognizing and protecting the right to water of indigenous tribes. It can be viewed from two perspectives – legal and social. Within the legal framework, it is connected to the decisions of similar cases. The major reference is the 1908 Winters v. United States case. It was the first legal document pointing to the criticality of adequate access to water of all tribes and protecting these rights at different levels, including state and federal (Church et al. 61). It is as well essential to recall that the concept of adequate access to water resources is perceived from the perspective of satisfying both agricultural and domestic needs for water.
More than that, the case is associated with tribal sovereignty only so that no focus should be made on long-residual intents of tribe members. This statement can be explained by the fact that in 1992, off-reservation citizens and public official countered the rights of the Chippewa Cree Tribe, even though around three thousand people (the officially recognized population of the tribe) have settled the territory of the Rocky Boy’s Reservation for more than 100 years. From this perspective, long-residual intent is not connected to the outcomes of the dispute because in case if it were, the issue would have been resolved positively, and the protection of the rights would have been guaranteed at the very beginning of the problem when the Tribal Council filed an issue to Montana Water Rights Compact Commission in 1992.
At the same time, the 1992-1997 case of Chippewa Cree Tribe is related to the overall challenge of protecting tribal water rights. It was not the only case on adequate access to water. On the other hand, it was among the scarce cases that were resolved positively for indigenous tribes members. From this perspective, the dispute is associated with the imperfection of social relations in this sphere because, as for now, the challenge of protecting the rights of Indian minorities is still critical because they lack governmental support and are often discriminated against (Wilkins and Stark 49). It means that the issue involving Chippewa Cree Tribe gives hope to the thousands of tribes members, settling other reservations across the United States because of its public resonance and references in official documents of the United States Department of the Interior. In this way, it points to the hope that Indian tribes could trust the states’ official bodies because the Department of the Interior can become their trustee and help to guarantee their sacred natural rights in case of necessity (Cosens 3).
Connection of the Water Rights Case to the Theory of Multiculturalism
Because theories of multiculturalism are commonly deployed for understanding the relationship between minorities and dominant groups of society, multiculturalism makes up an appropriate choice for analyzing different issues and their consequences, including the dispute under consideration. This case can be perceived from different perspectives. First, it is the perfect example of gaining a better understanding of the liberal approach to treating minorities. According to this theoretical perspective, the rights of minorities should be recognized, discrimination should be avoided, and all representatives of the minorities should be supported to help them live decent lives (Crowder 58). One might argue that this case is not connected to liberalism concerning tribes and minorities because their rights were significantly violated at the very beginning of the process. Nevertheless, recalling the outcomes of the case and the legal consequences it had and the influence of the issue of the lives of the indigenous tribe, this statement is justifiable.
More than that, it is critical to note that the evolution of the liberal approach was a lengthy and troublesome process, just like the Chippewa Cree Tribe case, in particular, and the overall recognition of tribal rights in general. It began with ignoring and violating the right of minorities due to the belief in the supremacy of dominant groups and evolved to progressive. That said, the connection to the liberal perspective of multiculturalism is seen not only in the consequences of the case but also in developing a theoretical perspective and the changes in public opinion regarding the dispute.
Except for the liberal approach to perceiving and treating ethnic minorities and members of tribes, this case is closely connected to the assumption that it is imperative to support the constructive dialogue between the official bodies and the tribes (and minorities) to foster positive changes in society. This assumption is the foundation for minimizing the risks of discrimination and eliminating social injustice (Crowder 58). Recalling the process of reviewing and resolving the case, one might oppose the belief that the dialog between the Chippewa Cree Tribe and the State of Montana was constructive and effective because of the severe violation of tribal rights and significant countering of these rights by the public. Nevertheless, the heart of this assumption is the involvement of other legal bodies, guiding the process of liberalization and enhancing the protection of tribal rights.
Keeping in mind the changes connected to the United States Department of the Interior’s engagement, it is evident that the dialog became constructive and effective at the final stages of case reviewing. What is even more paramount, the consequences of the case entailed positive changes in society and did contribute to overcoming the challenge of violating the sacred natural rights of the tribes settling the Rocky Boy’s Reservation. Moreover, it modified the model of social relations between the Reservation dwellers and off-reservation citizens, because the latter seized to perceive the tribes as the threat to their welfare and thieves of their natural resources (water), accepting the fact that tribal wellbeing is positively connected to the improvement of the social atmosphere in the state of Montana.
Finally, this case is the representation of numerous rights of tribes, not only those related to water and managing natural resources. In particular, multiculturalism theories are based on the assumption that minorities and tribes are entitled to initiating public debates and filing claims to official institutions in case of noticing that their rights are violated, or representatives of tribes are maltreated (Crowder 66). Recalling the details of the case, the Chippewa Cree Tribe (its Tribal Council) both initiated a public debate and sought for the legal support of official bodies of the State of Montana and the United States.
The matter of public debates can be perceived from both negative and positive perspectives based on public opinion and public involvement. That said, initially, it was a negative development not only because non-reservation citizens countered tribal water rights but also because of the poor involvement of reservation dwellers into the debate. In this way, the issue lacked tribal support, and the public significantly supported the violation of tribal rights in 1992. However, throughout the development of this case, the public opinion regarding the issue altered, as non-reservation citizens started to believe in the criticality of protecting minorities’ rights. More than that, tribal members supported the claim, therefore turning it into a broad-based issue. From this perspective, the public debate became positive not only because of the protection of tribal rights but also due to enhancing the sense of unity among reservation dwellers as well as the sense of solidarity and integration of people living within and outside the Rocky Boy’s Reservation.
At the same time, the case is connected to the changes in legal institutions’ official support. In this way, it points out that maltreated minorities have the right to seek legal protection in case of necessity, as mentioned above. However, it is imperative to note that this dispute is a perfect representation of the altering perception of the problem because, in most cases, similar issues rarely find adequate support so that only wide public resonance or the involvement of a more influential and powerful institution contributes to the support and protection of minorities. That said, the 1997 case of Chippewa Cree Tribe is one of the most appropriate examples for getting familiar with multiculturalism theories due to being ambiguous and bringing up differing aspects of the approach to describing relations between minorities and dominant groups.
Does Sovereignty Make a Difference?
Analyzing the case of Chippewa Cree Tribe dwelling in the Rocky Boy’s Reservation, the critical success factor is the official recognition of the tribe by the United States Government and the State of Montana. It is essential to note that the tribe was federally recognized in 1916. The state acknowledged the necessity of creating the Rocky Boy’s Reservation to serve as a constant settlement for the representatives of the tribe. Over the century, the tribe managed to create its bodies of legal power (Tribal Council), passed the Constitution, and developed bonds with the State of Montana. Because of the sovereignty, local institutions were forced to take care of tribe members that initially led to the dispute.
The fact that it is the sovereignty that played a major role in the case outcomes and adopting the 1997 Water Settlement and the 1999 Water Enhancement Supply Act can be proved by several details. First and foremost, only officially recognized tribes are protected under the provisions of legal cases on this issue. For instance, 1908 Winters v. United States case does not apply to tribes that do not correspond with official recognition criteria (Church et al. 61). In this way, the government cannot guarantee their protection and support. Moreover, if the tribe were not officially recognized, likely, the issue might not have become the subject of a wide public debate because it would have made no interest to the public. More than that, non-recognized minorities cannot file cases to legal bodies of power. It means that the Legislature might have opposed the necessity to review and resolve the case.
Also, even in case of official recognition of the tribe’s sovereignty, the rights of these people are vague. In this way, it means that reviewing cases of sovereign tribes is troublesome, which is even more critical when speaking of non-recognized minorities. At the same time, the documents issued by tribal councils of non-recognized tribes are not perceived as official ones (Wilkins and Stark 148). It means that the state is not legally obliged to review them or solve cases and address public debated initiated by similar documents and institutions. That said, if the Chippewa Cree Tribe were not a sovereign one, its history would not have become a successful one. It is connected to the fact that the United States Department of the Interior would not have supported the tribe and protected its natural and sacred rights.
Conclusion
The issue of water rights of indigenous tribes is among the central matters of concern, having a direct influence on the development of the United States in the future. It can be explained by the fact that protection (or countering) of tribal rights affects not only the perception of the legal authority institutions but also the international image of the country. It is associated with the fulfillment of legal provisions and corresponding to official documents. Nevertheless, it is critical to note that the recognition and protection of tribal rights are inseparable from both public and institutional support. Otherwise, it might result in lengthy debates and negotiations, increased risks of social instability, violation of fundamental rights, and discrimination. At the same time, the 1997 case points to the fact that official sovereignty is the factor that has a direct influence on the public and legal involvement in reviewing and resolving the disputes because tribes which do not fall under the criteria for recognition are less likely to be protected and supported by the state.
Works Cited
Church, Jerilyn, et al. “Tribal Water Rights: Exploring Dam Construction in Indian Country.” The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, vol. 43, no. 1, 2015, 60-63.
Cosens, Barbara A. “Legitimacy, Adaptation, and Resilience in Ecosystem Management.” Ecology & Society, vol. 18, no. 1, 2013, 3-11.
Crowder, George. Theories of Multiculturalism: An Introduction. Polity Press, 2013.
U. S. Department of the Interior. “Indian Water Rights.” U.S. Department of the Interior. 2012. Web.
Wilkins, David E., and Heidi Kiiwetinepinesiik Stark. American Indian Politics and the American Political System. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2011.
The ability to look at the same issues from various perspectives has always served as a catalyst for the genesis of innovations and breakthroughs. However, the need to find a creative solution for either an emergency or a routine process also encourages one’s cognitive development and the opportunity to move beyond the conventional thinking patterns. In terms of this paper, the case scenario discussing the small group dealing with a lack of water in their temporary residence will be analyzed. The analysis will encompass the notions of critical and creative thinking, groupthink, fallacies, and decision-making.
Scenario Response
In order to identify the significance of creative and critical thinking in the situation presented, it is necessary to dwell on the definition of the process of creative thinking. Thus, according to the researchers, the latter stands for the process of generating a solution that derives from extensive use of imagination, intuition, and insight managed by a group discussion (Adams et al., 2021). Hence, when speaking of a particular situation where a group has to come up with a tangible solution to the issue, the presence of creative thinking and the ability to critically perceive the proposals contribute to the definition of the most appropriate way to address the lack of water in residence.
To commence a successful creative thinking process, the group has to identify the leader for them to be managed in terms of discussion. For example, if I took the lead responsibility within the group, I would have to make sure that the ideas during the debate were considered with no preconceived feelings about a person. Thus, the development of creative thinking should be primarily driven by brainstorming. The leader’s responsibility here would be to make sure that no idea is criticized and that everything mentioned in the process is recorded in order to ponder the points later (Adams et al., 2021). Another important aspect of the thinking process development would be to evoke members’ sensory perceptions of the stated problem.
It goes without saying that the process of creative and critical thinking within the small group may stumble upon a variety of challenges. For example, some members of the group may act superior towards others, and people would feel the need to conform rather than stand up for their ideas. Moreover, researchers claim that time and space limits, while contributing to productivity, may have a negative impact on the group collectiveness due to stress (Walton, 2016). As a result, the group that is seemingly brainstorming ideas may eventually start thinking in the same direction and become close-minded. In such cases, the notion of groupthink is introduced, which stands for the inefficient decision-making caused by processing malfunction (Adams et al., 2021). In order to avoid this demotivating process, it is necessary to establish a norm of critical evaluation and a devil’s advocate or a person responsible for coming up with counterarguments for popular ideas.
When speaking of the common fallacies that may arise in the following situation, the following aspects may be outlined:
Overgeneralization of the decision. The situation itself seems to have one proper solution, which is to allow the person who speaks French to take over the communication and ask for help. Thus, all the ideas generated in the process may be based solely on this opportunity as fairly right.
Ad Hominem. Some of the arguments presented by members may be undermined and considered irrelevant because of prejudice formed earlier.
Either-or-thinking. The group may face a dead end when working with only two opposing frameworks (Adams et al., 2021).
Hence, having taken into consideration all the peculiarities of creative and critical thinking in a small group, it may be concluded that all the tools used to enhance creativity should be presented to the group in terms of careful and healthy mentorship from a leader. Thus, the central tool to evoke creativeness would be brainstorming or brainwriting in case oral discussion is too disruptive. The second tool that may be valuable in the context would be the creation of a mind map revolving around the idea of finding water supplies for the rest of the stay.
Once the decision is outlined, it is of paramount importance to define whether the solution is relevant to the overall context. Hence, in order to conduct such an evaluation, the team members should address the following critically designed questions:
Is the idea practical in the context of reality?
What would the challenges be when implementing this idea in the future?
Are there any modifications possible that would potentially enhance the process outcome?
It is important to address these aspects in as many scenarios as possible to make sure that the decision would be multifunctional and agile in terms of implementation.
Conclusion
The notion of creative thinking has now become one of the most desired human social and professional characteristics. Hence, when addressing the process of creative and critical thinking in a small group, it is necessary to dwell on the issue of interpersonal communication among all other demands. Having evaluated the given case scenario, it has been estimated that brainstorming and critical evaluation of the solution viability would be extremely efficient when conducted under the guidance of the group leader.
References
Adams, K. L., Galanes, G. J., & Hoelscher, C. S. (2021). Communicating in groups applications and skills (11th ed). McGraw-Hill Education.
Peoples’ behaviors and decisions are often the central scope of sociological inquiry. Flint (Michigan) water crisis can be seen as an illustration of such decisions and behaviors that have led to severe issues with multiple implications. To understand the causes of the crisis and ways to prevent such problems in the future, it is possible to employ the Marxist approach. The class concept of this paradigm best fits into the analysis of the situation as a conflict between two major groups is apparent.
Flint (Michigan): Demographics
In the middle of the twentieth century Flint (Michigan) was a rapidly developing and prosperous city that hosted such giants as General Motors. However, in the 1980s, the town started to degrade due to the severe oil crisis that hit the automotive industry (Pauli, 2020). The city saw tremendous demographic shifts because thousands of people left searching for better employment and living conditions. At present, the city’s population is slightly over 96 thousand people (Data USA, 2021). The majority of residents are Black, and a third is White. The poverty rate is relatively high and reached 39% in 2020, while the median age is quite low (35,5 years). These figures suggest that the socio-economic situation in Flint is alarming, and significant changes are needed.
Water Crisis in Flint (Michigan)
The crisis started in 2014, and officials in collaboration and supervision of the public and scientists could not solve it until 2019. In 2014, officials had to change the water source due to the difficulties with maintaining the existing infrastructure (Krings et al., 2018). No rapid measures to improve the infrastructure were implemented. The same year, people addressed officials due to their dissatisfaction with water quality, which remained unattained. After several studies and data publications regarding extreme violation of water quality standards (high lead level, harmful bacteria), the officials were forced to take action. As a result, pipes were replaced, and the necessary improvement to the infrastructure was made with the help of the federal budget funds.
Water Crisis in Flint (Michigan): Causes
One of the central issues that caused the crisis was the city’s constraints related to infrastructure. Flint’s budget could hardly ensure proper maintenance of pipes and other infrastructure components (Pauli, 2020). Due to the economic situation in the city, the public had less control over the actions and decisions of an emergency manager and Governor Rick Snyder. Residents addressed the authorities, but their claims received little attention as the authorities concentrated on the economic development of the city rather than public health or safety.
Flint Water Crisis: Social Concept Applied
When addressing the causes of the crisis, it is necessary to apply the concept of class. Although various scholars note that class is a subjective construct created for analytical purposes, this notion is a relevant component of population stratification (Neilson, 2017). People identify with a particular group, such as workers (proletariat) or big business owners (bourgeoisie). In Flint, this stratification is relevant as there is almost no middle class. Apparently, officials concentrated on the needs of big businesses rather than workers.
Marxist Theory: Class
According to the Marxist theory of class, human society is mainly divided into the proletariat (laborers) and bourgeoisie (those who usurp laborers’ resources). The former are working people with little resources as they are taken over by the rich (Neilson, 2017). These two groups are in constant conflict, and their resolution can be achieved by revolution. The revolution can be implemented peacefully in terms of the coalition with a part (minority) of bourgeois and proletariat or due to violent struggle. Marx believed in the victory of the proletariat and the establishment of communism with its justice and proper distribution of resources.
Marxist Perspective Regarding the Crisis
In the situation in Flint, the officials took the side of the bourgeoisie, paying no attention to potential outcomes. Authorities made some decisions to allocate funds to boost the development of the economy supporting business. However, the proletariat was the class deprived of higher living standards as poor people had to live in older communities with old water pipes contaminated considerably. Water was the resource that became central to the conflict between the two classes. Proletariat won the struggle, which could be explained by the success of the peaceful revolution with the coalition of workers and some part of business owners.
Marxist Perspective Regarding the Crisis (Social Concepts)
The discussion of the crisis from the Marxist theory of class perspective makes it possible to take a closer look at such concepts as civil society and race. Civil society is regarded as a construct bringing society to balance and ensuring that all groups’ interests are addressed (Neilson, 2017). Race is another social concept that can be applied as most of the city’s residents are Black. The poverty rate in this population is also the highest (Data USA, 2021). This group has the lowest access to proper living conditions (good neighborhoods), employment, and health care. This is the most vulnerable group that was the primary force empowering the civil society, which led to considerable improvements and crisis resolution.
The Crisis from Bourdieu’s Perspective
The Flint water crisis can be viewed from Bourdieu’s perspective based on the idea that classes are analytical constructs. Instead, different groups, with individuals joining and leaving these clusters, collaborate or find themselves in a conflict. There was no clear-cut working class in Flint, and the big business struggled for resources. However, workers, unemployed people, small business owners, big business owners, officials, scientists, and others were communicating and collaborating. These interactions helped the groups solve an issue that had adverse effects on all of them.
Conclusion
Marxist and Bourdieu’s perspectives can be both applied to analyze the Flint Water crisis. It becomes clear that classes are objective constructions, although they are not clear-cut. Workers, entrepreneurs, big business owners, merchants, scientists, and employees have diverse interests, and they may sometimes be in conflict. However, the needs of people pertaining to different groups can be achieved by collaborating. The Flint Water Crisis is an illustration of the conflict and its resolution. Although the focus was initially on the interest of businesses and economic growth at the expense of public health, people managed to force officials to make the right choices and address the water issue. The representative of different classes and clusters of society formed the civil society that became the power bringing the solution. The authorities had to implement appropriate measures to solve the problem. It is clear that civil society can be a supervisory force to ensure that officials make proper decisions.
Analysis of High Recovery Brackish Water Desalination Processes using Fuel Cells (2009) was written by Rajindar Singh and details a water desalination technique using fuel cells. The author is the Technical Manager, Industrial Purified Water, Siemens Water Technologies, Colorado Springs, CO, USA.
Rajindar Singh
Singh has authored and co-authored several articles that mainly touch on water purification systems, these articles have been published on scientific journals such as Separation Science and Technology, Desalination and Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy. He has also written several books on the same topic, these include Hybrid Membrane Systems for Water Purification (2006) and Influence of Slip Velocity at Membrane Surface on Ultrafiltration Performance (1977).
His years of experience working on water purification systems at Siemens Water Technologies make the paper a credible source for academic purposes as he writes the book from a professional point of view.
The paper was written in 2009 and this fits the widely accepted 5-year range within which scientific information remains valid. This implies that the information contained in the paper is up to date and can be used for scholarly purposes.
Rajinder targets individuals interested in water purification techniques and this is evidenced by the fact that he publishes his paper in a scientific journal dealing with separation technologies (Separation Science and Technology). While writing the paper, Singh refers to several peer reviewed journals, books and reports from well-known bodies and firms such as the United Nations and UTC respectively. All of these factors contribute to the article being a credible source of information.
Article Summary
The article is written in report format. The first part is the abstract and is followed by an introduction. Singh follows this with a design basis for the system used in the desalination process, then the results and discussion, and concludes with a section on summary and conclusions.
At the end of the paper, Singh give a list of references that assert that his research techniques were excellent, this is evident from the length and number of entries on the reference page. I chose to work on the System Design Basis section as it gives a full description of the method used for desalination process.
Water Desalination Process
A sketch of the desalination process using a fuel cell is shown below:
Fuel cells convert Hydrogen to electricity and this powers the system. Since hydrogen and oxygen are easily available, the system is designed to save energy and reduce operation costs. Hydrogen gas enters the fuel cell through an inlet on the cathode end and is mixed with a catalyst, this splits the diatomic Hydrogen molecules into electrons and protons.
These electrons then flow through the system to produce electricity. Electricity that has been produced is directed to other components of the desalination process. Protons go through a polymer electrolyte membrane to be reacted with Oxygen.
Gaseous fuel (Oxygen) enters the fuel cell on the anode end and is oxidized, then reacts with Hydrogen protons to form water as shown below.
O– + 2H+ —-> H2O
Fuel cells have an efficiency of between 40 and 50% and eliminate the costly installation of power transmission lines, besides, the energy losses due to electricity transmission through such lines is eliminated.
Feed water enters the heat exchanger and is used to cool the fuel cell. Before the desalination process begins, the following conditions must be set:
Feed water flow rate ¼ 22.5m3 = hr
Feed water total dissolved solids (TDS) ¼ 3613 mg = 1
Feed water temperature ¼ 20, 25, and 30oC
Product water recovery = 75%
Product water flux same for each temperature sub-set
Hydranautics CPA2 membranes (20 cm diameter elements).
Desalination of brackish water is mainly done through reverse osmosis (RO) and nanofiltration (NF). These processes operate at 75% product water recovery, this implies that 25% of RO feed water is wasted as concentrated brine. However, recovery can be increased by using a selective membrane process such as a hybrid RO-NF process.
Since the desalination process requires high amounts of energy, the incorporation of the fuel cell to the design is very important. However, areas that experience scarcity of water (the source of hydrogen and oxygen) can replace the fuel cell with photovoltaic solar cells or wind-powered systems (Singh, 2007, pp. 587).
The design process consists of a primary RO (PRO) component and a brine recovery component. The brine recovery component is the most important part as it separates salt from water hence providing purified water. The brine component can either be a NF or RO unit. Water coming from the PRO component is hard due to the high concentration of salt ions.
Therefore, low pressure NF is used to soften it before treatment commences because NF membranes have a high rejection of divalent ions and is prone to having a bad smell. At the end of the desalination exercise, it is observed that the recovery rate is increased. The design also saves on energy.
Reference
Singh, R. Analysis of High Recovery Brackish Water Desalination Processes using Fuel Cells. (2008). Separation Science and Technology, 44, 2009. 585–598.
Among all the essentials that a human being cannot possibly live without, water takes the first place after oxygen – once deprived of the necessary amount ofH2O and disposed to a long-term drought, a human body stops functioning and starts to disintegrate into nothingness.
Luckily enough, water reserves on the Erath are more than satisfying for most of the humankind. However, according to the recent researches conducted in the sphere of water supplies, the existing cleaning system which makes use of chlorine leaves much to be desired, which the use of chloramine can improve the situation greatly.
The Problem Statement: Something to Be Greatly Concerned about
Since the level of the drinking water contamination is a rather important issue, it is obvious that it must be brought to the agenda of the economical, environmental and health concerns. Once making the water purification system more efficient and making sure that the by-products of the cleaning procedure are not hazardous for the human health or for the environment, one can be certain that the accepted system of water purification is efficient.
At present, the evidence pro and contra both means of cleaning the drinking water makes it obvious that each has its flaws, yet the b-products left as a result of the presence of chlorines in the drinking water are considerably more hazardous than the remaining of chloramines. Hence, the issue must be considered.
The Rationale for the Research: About Health Concerns
As one might have already guessed, the key rationale for the research on which of the by-products, the one emitted after chlorine cleaning or the ones left after the chloramine purification, are less harmful for people’s health is the key concern. As the numerous pieces of evidence claim, it is obvious that chlorine is extremely harmful for health.
However, it must be taken into account that chloramine also has its flaws, and that drinking water cannot be distillated in either way. Nevertheless, it has been proved that chloramine might be a possible solution for the given situation. Despite the fact that free chlorine is a far worse means of water clearing, chloramine purification also cannot be considered completely harmless, but only the least harmful.
The Statement of the Research Objectives: Why Bothering
It is obvious that the key goal of the given research is to check for the advantages and the disadvantages of the means of water purification and clarify which of the means in question is the most appropriate at the time given.
With the help of the given paper, a few issues can be clarified and the optimum way of making the drinking water clear can be figured out. However, it cannot be denied that the paper also has certain smaller aims to achieve apart from the grand goal. Therefore, the objectives of the given research are to check the prospects of the water purification system and its possible improvements.
The Hypothesis: The Factors and How to Drive Them to Zero
Analyzing the existing evidence concerning the chlorine and chloramine water purification, one can possibly claim that the latter is the most promising way of clearing the drinking water.
Definition of Terms: Explaining the Key Concepts and Phenomena
However, before proceeding with the research and the comparison of the two existing systems, a few terms and phenomena unknown to the general public have to be clarified.
Chlorine is a chemical element which in its natural form is a toxic gas of pale green color. As a means of purifying the drinking water, it can pass for a relatively efficient one, yet it obviously leaves a number of by-products which cause considerable health problems.
Chloramine is an ammonia solution in which two or three atoms of hydrogen are replaced with the atoms of hydrogen, which makes the chemical unstable. A colorless liquid, this can possibly be an alternative for a more hazardous chlorine solution.
By-product is secondary product appearing as a result of a reaction between two or more chemicals.
A haloacetic acid disinfection presupposes that the water is cleaned with the help of the dichloroacetic acid, yet the by-products which such disinfection leaves are harmful for people’s health.
Trihalomethane is a chemical compound. In the given compound, three atoms of methane out of the four are replaced with a halogen atom.
The Summary: What the Entire Research Boils Down to
Judging by the results of the researches which have been undertaken so far, one can state with a considerable amount of certainty that the chloramine water distillation is the most efficient and the least hazardous at present.
Indeed, according to what the researchers say, at first chlorine was the only means to purify the drinking water, yet further on chloramine was offered as an alternative, mainly because the number of by-products which the use of chlorine triggers. As ENDS (2009) claims, “Drinking water disinfected with chloramine instead of chlorine is more likely to pass the regulatory standards for disinfection” (27).
Review of the Literature: What Has Been Done so Far
However, before proceeding with the research itself, one has to update on its current status. Despite the fact that the issue is quite new, there have been a number of researches on the topic, which allows to suppose that there have already been a number of suggestions concerning the ways to improve the existing system of water distillation.
The first and the foremost, the paper by ENDS (2009) should be mentioned. Providing a detailed observation of the problem and mentioning that the chlorine system is no match for the chloramine one, the report explains in details the way in which the latter works, thus, offering detailed information on one of the issues.
As for the research conducted by Shang & Lo (2005), it can be considered a detailed report on how the awareness of the presence of by-products in the drinking water was raised.
Obolensky, Singer, & Shukairy (2007) in their paper state the scale of the problem. Apart from vivid descriptions and understandable explanations, the authors show how global the issue can grow and what tremendous scale it has gained so far.
However, Yang, Harrington & Noguera (2008), in contrast to the previously named authors, not only explain the effects of the by-products dissolving in the drinking water, but also offer a model to develop a probable solution. Despite the obvious limitations which the model has, it can be used as a perfect way to come up with a means to solve the problem.
Finally, Adams, Timmons, Seitz Lane & Levotch (2005) offer important details concerning the issue. Thus, one can see every single detail of the problem and take these details into account when modeling the solution.
As it has been stated above, the issue has been researched considerably, with all the major factors concerning the impact of both chemicals on the drinking water almost fully described. Therefore, what has been left is to sum up the major drawbacks and advantages of each and to offer a constructive idea concerning the issue of how to improve the existing distillation system.
The Research Method and the Reasons to Choose the One
Among the possible research methods which can suit the given research the on which comprises the quantitative and the qualitative methods seems to be the most efficient.
On the one hand, it is required to calculate the percentage of by-products in the drinking water distillated with the help of both means, in which case the quantitative method is the most appropriate; on the other hand, a comparison between the two means of distillation and the analysis of the two is what the given research is going to be based on, which calls for the use of a qualitative method. Therefore, it is most reasonable to comprise the two, offering both the statistical data and a thorough analysis of the latter.
The Participants of the Research: All Those Involved
Since the give research is aimed at a specific area and deals with a particular issue, answering a single question, it is more than reasonable that the research is conducted solely by the author.
Naturally, the author is going to consult to the supervisor and take into account the pieces of advice from t5he latter, as well as conduct the research in the course offered by the latter; however, the gathering of the data, its analysis and the development of cohesive conclusions is going to be undertaken solely by me, which is why the given research will have only one participant.
The Research Design: Pacing the Procedure Carefully
The research is going to be carried out so that the statistical data could be collected in the most accurate way. In addition, it is highly desirable that the data should be collected from different sources, thus, providing the maximum objectivity of the information.
First of all, the five articles taken from reliable sources and described above are going to be sued as the key source of information and the theoretical background to rely on when making conclusions. However, since the issue is topical, newer data is required, which various questionnaires are bound to provide.
Thus, first of all, the data concerning the drinking water distillation will be collected. Further on, the analysis of the above-mentioned data is going to be conducted. Since at certain point, the pieces of information can contradict each other, the research is going to be detailed and take into account every single fact even if it does not fit into the frame of the hypothesis.
Further on, the positive and the negative effects of each means of water distillation are going to be considered. After analyzing these effects, the author of the research is going to draw the suppositions concerning the possible solutions.
Data Collection Plans: Where and How. The Key Instruments
The data required for the research is going to be obtained from journals, databases and with the help of questionnaires.
The Proposed Analysis: Expecting the Results. Anticipations and Plans
For a detailed analysis, the following data is going to be used: the percentage of by-products in the water distillated by chloramines; the percentage of by-products in the water distillated by chlorines.
Implications and Limitations: Where the Borders Lie
Like any other research, the given one also has its limitations. The first one to be mentioned is the lack of technical equipment and, hence, the inability to check for the presence of by-products in the distilled water. Another limitation concerns the fact that distilled water can exist only in a laboratory – in ordinary life, it will cease to be distilled as soon as it comes in contact with the air or even the glass.
Time Schedule: Planning Each Step Carefully
Since the research is split into several parts, it will supposedly take two or more weeks. During the first several days, the data is going to be collected and the questionnaires are going to be designed. During the next several days, the analysis of the data is going to be conducted. Finally, the conclusions will be made and solutions will be offered.
Resources Needed: Calculating the Essentials for the Research
Among the resources which the given research requires, one must name the scholarly articles, a report concerning the chloramine and chlorine for water distillation and the results of the polls held among the participants.
The Probable Personnel: Those Who Can Assist the Research
Among the people who can assist the researcher, one must mention the respondents to the questions in the questionnaires.
Expanding the Budget: Money Makes the World Go Round
Supposedly, the given research is not going to have a big budget. What will demand the most money will be printing questionnaires. As for the rest of the research, it will thrive on the obtained articles and the author’s ability to make logical conclusions.
Required Assurances: Including the Alternative Sources of Information
Apart from the five articles listed above, it is required to add other sources which can be considered less official and more up-to-date. Hence, it will be a good idea to use questionnaires among several groups of students conceding the quality of the drinking 3water distillated with the help of chlorine and chloramine. With the help of some five questions which will presuppose that the students should give long and detailed answers, one can assess the state of affairs ore precisely.
Developing the Questions for the Questionnaires/Interviews/Surveys
To be more particular about the surveys, it is necessary to mention that they are going to include not only the standard questions like “Which type of drinking water did you find corresponding to the standards more accurately?”, but also choosing the appropriate characteristics for the drinking water disinfected in a certain way; i.e., it could be such question as “Did the water have a specific taste, and if so, what did it taste of?”.
Thus, checking the respondents’ answers and referring to the qualities of water disinfected with the help of a certain solution, one can possibly come to the conclusion which type of drinking water seems to follow the standards and which flaws even the best method of water disinfection has.
Conclusion: On the Significance and Impact
Therefore, judging by the above-mentioned facts, it can be considered that the impact of the given study is rather big, since it not only offers a better perspective for the water purification system, which, in its turn, is likely to decrease a number of health concerns, but also introduces the entire purification system to a new level.
Emphasizing the strengths and the weaknesses of both chlorine and chloramine and encompassing the latest researches in the given field, the paper provides an honest and precise account of the situation and works for the progress.
Reference List
Adams, C., Timmons, T., Seitz, T., Lane, J., & Levotch, S. (2005). Trihalomethane and haloacetic acid disinfection by-products in full-scale drinking water systems. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 131(4), 526-534.
Obolensky, A., Singer, P., & Shukairy, H. M. (2007). Information collection rule data evaluation and analysis to support impacts on disinfection by-product formation. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 133(1), 53-63.
Shang, C., Qi, Y., & Lo, I. M. C. (2005). Factors affecting inactivation behavior in the monochloramination range. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 133(1), 119-129.
Yang, J., Harrington, G., & Noguera, D. (2008). Nitrification modeling in pilot-scale chloraminated drinking water distribution systems. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 134(9), 731-742.
The amount of water molecules in the earth is constant although the motion of water is continuous. This motion supports processes such as water purification, replenishing the land through precipitation, and movement of minerals from one location to another (Kalman, 2009). This paper will discuss the hydrologic cycle and the process that it triggers to affect land and climate.
Water motion through the hydrologic cycle
Precipitation occurs when water in the form of vapor falls on the earth’s surface. This occurs in the form of rain and snow. Once this water falls on the earth’s surface, it undergoes heating and changes to become gas. This occurs in the water bodies, on the surface of bodies of animals, and in plants during transpiration.
Transpiration is the evaporation process that consequently makes the water molecule light in weight for it to float in the atmosphere. Once in the atmosphere, the water is cooled down and condenses to become liquid forming clouds or fog. The water changes from this liquid form into vapor to repeat the process. This way, water remains in motion continuously (Bronstert, 2005).
Ocean current systems and their impact on climate
One of the major ocean currents is the California current. It moves water from the Gulf of Alaska into the north equatorial current that moves along the equator. Further, this current moves north to become the Kurishio current. It flows along the eastern of the Japanese coast, bends towards the east, and completes the loop as the north pacific current. This process forms one major current that causes the cold climate especially in the Hawaiian Islands, Canada, British Colombia, and Southern Canada (Neumann, 1968).
The North pacific current is found on the Gulf of Alaska. This current moves northwards along the Alaskan coast through the Aleutian Islands. It combines with the Oyashio current to form the Kurishio current. Another current is the South Equatorial current that flows in a similar direction as the North Equatorial current.
When the two currents move in the same direction, they form the Equatorial counter current that flows in the middle of these two currents into the Mexican coast. This then diverges in the north to form the California counter current. Other major currents include the East Australian currents that flow westwards in the Antarctica. The south of the pacific is dominated by the Peru Current (Neumann, 1968).
The ocean currents cause elnino and lanina which occur every 2 to 12 years. Once they occur, some regions experience excessive rains leading to floods and mudslides. Other areas experience dry spells that lead to drought periods that may last for more than a year. They also cause the cold climate experienced in areas where cool waters are transported (Carson, 2007).
Layers of the atmosphere and their effect on weather
The atmosphere can be divided into four main layers. The first one is the troposphere, which is about 11 kilometers from the earth’s surface. It is the most aerated and misted compared to the layers. It makes up the atmosphere in which wildlife can thrive. This is where the weather is evident because air from the northern hemisphere mixes with air from the southern hemisphere.
The next layer is the troposphere, which has no water vapor or dust. This layer does not support life. The other layer is the mesosphere, which forms the ozone layer. Its main function is to block ultraviolent rays from reaching the earth’s surface. The topmost layer is the thermosphere, which is very hot. This layer serves to absorb heat from the sun and supports the hydrologic process without drying up the earth (Carson, 2007).
How natural forces shape the land
Erosion is the process in which loose top soil is moved by water, wind, ice and gravity away from its original location. This eventually leads to changes in shapes of rocks, formation of sand after rock breakage, and the breakage of minerals inside the rocks. Erosion exposes the inner layers of the earth leading to chemical changes that change the colors, texture, and shape of he inner layers (Kalman, 2009).
Mass wasting involves movement of material downhill and along the slopes over a long period. This leads to the accumulation of sediment on some parts of the earth thus affecting the topography. This affects the flow of rivers and the morphological characteristics of the mountains and valleys (Kalman, 2009).
Streams move sediments from higher regions to the lower regions to form columns, arches, or even caves. With time, these streams develop into rivers causing meandering due to the sediment that is deposited over time (Kalman, 2009).
Oceans change the shape of the land through currents and winds. When these forces move, water masses keep moving in a similar direction over a long period. The sea line is extended, and some of the land is occupied by sea (Lisitzin, 1974).
Glaciers are big masses of ice flow that have a slow movement which take bits of the earth with them. They wear away mountains and cause the formation of valleys on the land surface (Kalman, 2009).
Conclusion
The movement of water on the earth’s surface and atmosphere affect the ocean currents and climate. This happens due to changes in the atmosphere that are controlled by heat energy. This defines weather and the processes like erosion prevalent on the earth’s surface.
References
Bronstert, A. (2005). Coupled models for the hydrological cycle: Integrating atmosphere, biosphere and pedosphere; with 20 tables. Berlin [u.a.: Springer
Carson, M.K. (2007). Weather projects for young scientists: Experiments and science fair ideas. Chicago: Chicago Review Press.
Kalman, B. (2009). What shapes the land? New York: Crabtree Pub.
Lisitzin, E. (1974). Sea-level changes. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Pub. Co.
Neumann, G. (1968). Ocean currents. Amsterdam [u.a.: Elsevier.
Perchlorate is a chemical that occurs naturally, although it may as well be man-made. In addition, perchlorate can also be found in some fertilizers and in bleach. It has found wide application in the manufacture of fireworks, flares, rocket fuel, and explosives1. Many of the sites where perchlorate can be found occurring naturally are, by and large, limited to the arid areas. Such deposits are largely low concentration.
On the other hand, man-made sources of perchlorate are mainly highly concentrated in comparison with the natural sources. Sites with high levels of perchlorate contamination are mainly involved in the production, testing, and disposal of perchlorate compounds and solid rocket propellants. Others include industrial production sites that use perchlorate compounds as reagents2.
EPA response for regulating and remediation
The Safe Drinking Water Act gives the EPA the mandate to regulate perchlorate. Peer review reports by various public health experts and independent scientists as well have played a key role in influencing the decision y the EPA to impose a regulation on perchlorate. The new decision by the EPA would be a reversal of the 2008 preliminary determination3. It takes into account the over 39,000 comments from members of the public regarding multiple public notices on perchlorate3.
This action is an attempt to create awareness among interested parties on the decision reached by the EPA on regulating perchlorate. Nonetheless, the action does not in any way try to impose any public water systems (PWS) requirements4. On the other hand, this action has laid the framework for the designing and the development of a primary drinking water regulation at the national level (NPDWR).
Following the finalization of the NPDWR, a number of PWSs could be forced to make an effort to abide by the requirements in line with the program required by the regulation5. In addition, the EPA also intends to create a drinking water standard that will take care of about 16 toxic chemicals that have been noted to pose a danger top human health.
The aim of the EPA is to continue assessing the health effects of perchlorate, along with the science behind their occurrence in public water systems. Moreover, the EPA intends to embark on a project aimed at examining the affordability and feasibility of treatment technologies aimed at removing perchlorate. The agency shall also assess the benefits and costs of potential standards.
Risk potential
Sufficient doses of perchlorate can interfere with the normal operations of the thyroid gland. Perchlorate disrupts the transportation of iodide into the thyroid gland, in effect reducing iodide availability that is necessary for the manufacture of thyroid hormones. These hormones are vital for normal growth, metabolism and development.
Pregnant women are especially at a greater risk of thyroid hormone synthesis disruption2. Others include the developing fetuses, newly-born infants, young children, and also person with low thyroid hormones levels (Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection).
On the basis of such a potential concern, the EPA has deemed it necessary to propose a formal rule. The process shall entail the reception of feedback from important stakeholders in addition to the provision of any formal rule to members of the public via a comment process 3.
It is important to note that exposure to sufficient doses of perchlorate may result in adverse health effects similar to those brought about by iodine deficiency among humans. When there is not enough intake of iodine in the diet, the individual in question suffers from a decline in the synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormone.
Based on the severity of such an iodine deficiency, the individual in question can manifest such effects as impairment in behavior, speech, vision, movement, physical development, hearing, and intelligence4. Scientists also contend that sufficient doses of perchlorate can interfere with the ability of the thyroid gland to synthesize hormones vital for the development of both fetuses and infants1.
Monitoring data reveals that over 4 percent of public water systems contain detectable levels of perchlorate. In addition, the same data indicates that between 5 and 17 million individuals are at risk of drinking water containing sufficient levels of perchlorate.
Standards set by states such as California and Massachusetts
In Massachusetts, the MassDEP is in the process of commissioning a drinking water standard. The new standard will ensure that the maximum contaminant level of perchlorate in drinking water does not exceed 2 ppb3. It is important to appreciate that the new promulgation shall be the first veer drinking water standards in the country for perchlorate.
Furthermore, the Massachusetts Contingency Plan is also in the process of establishing perchlorate groundwater and soil standards to facilitate the cleaning up exercise of hazardous waste sites. Also, MassDEP plans to adopt a reference dose to facilitate risk assessment at specific sites. The state of California also regulates perchlorate as a contaminant in drinking water1. In this case, 6 micrograms per liter is the recommended maximum contaminant level of perchlorate in the state of California.
References
1. California Department of Toxic Substances Control, “Perchlorate ”. Web.
2. Isa, Jalil, “EPA To Develop Regulation for Perchlorate and Toxic Chemicals in Drinking Water.” Environmental Protection Agency. Web.
3. Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection. “ Frequently Asked Questions: Perchlorate”. Web.
4. Trumpolt, Clayton et al. “Perchlorate: Sources, Uses, and Occurrences in the Environment.”Wiley Periodicals. Web.
5. United States Environmental Protection Agency. “Perchlorate”. Web.
Bibliography
California Department of Toxic Substances Control. “Perchlorate. “ California Department of Toxic Substances Control.
Isa, Jalil. “EPA To Develop Regulation for Perchlorate and Toxic Chemicals in Drinking Water.” Environmental Protection Agency.
Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection. “Frequently Asked Questions: Perchlorate”. Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection.
Trumpolt, Clayton et al. “Perchlorate: Sources, Uses, and Occurrences in the Environment.”Wiley Periodicals.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. “Perchlorate.” United States Environmental Protection Agency.
The world has not reached a level where we can say that there is a global water shortage. However, there is an escalating shortage of fresh water compared to society’s demand and use.
Irrigation refers to the artificial use of water to assist in agriculture and is important in the suppression of weeds especially in grain fields and in the deterrence of soil hardening. This paper looks at the effective application of on-farm irrigation in the face of water scarcity and proposes an action plan of a policy approach that can be used to improve efficiency of irrigation systems.
The Problem of Irrigation and Water Scarcity
The ever-increasing pressure put on the available water resources by domestic use, industrial production and agricultural production is a major concern for policy makers. There is a gradual degradation of watersheds that support water reserves. Soil washed by erosion from uncovered hillsides clogs irrigation reservoirs and dams (Fereres and Soriano 148). All these are made worse by inappropriate irrigation methods that trigger salinity, soil erosion, waterlogging, and pollution of the scarce water reservoirs.
Salinity results from a mixture of bad drainage and elevated vaporization rates, which lead to an increased concentration of salts on agricultural land (Hillel 7). Irrigation water has an amount of dissolved salt, which is deposited in the soil during irrigation. Though there are other causes of salinity such as soil drainage, the major cause is poor irrigation technique. Waterlogging happens when excess water is applied in irrigation systems that have limited natural drainage.
To say that the world is dependent on agriculture is an understatement. With the extreme climate change and unpredictable rainfall, it seems irrigation is our only hope for sustainable agricultural production. However, the sustainability of any irrigation system must consider water conservation and efficiency of the method.
Existing Policies on Efficient Water Use at the Farm Level
Irrigated farming is a major contributor towards food production. It is also an important source of employment not only in the farm, but also in industries that manufacture irrigation equipment. Most policies, such as the one adopted in Samoa assert that the roles of rain-dependent agriculture should be determined and quantified.
The agricultural policy in Samoa emphasizes the need to increase rain-fed agricultural land in improving food production. Although this is a very valuable insight, it is not easily achievable in this century since most policies prevent agricultural practices in major towns irrespective of the rainfall reliability in these towns.
Instead of focusing on rainfall, the author of this paper believes that the policy should emphasize the application of sustainable irrigation systems in agriculture. The existing systems can be improved to prevent land degradation and depletion of the scarce water sources.
Irrigation policies need to be compatible with the current socioeconomic situations. In this era of climate change politics, an effective policy needs to be updated to meet the requirements set by the national and international environmental agencies. National and international political pressures can prevent the execution of practical irrigation reforms.
Suggestions for Policy Improvement
An effective policy on irrigation focuses on small-scale as well as large-scale irrigation (Cai, McKinney and Rosegrant 3). Samoa’s policy on irrigation should be improved so to reduce the farmers’ dependence on rain. Though an effective policy has provisions for rain-fed agriculture, it is not over-dependent on rain.
The policy should devise ways of responsibly using the available resources as it aims at trapping and conserving rain water. It must also recognize the interdependent nature of water as a resource. In doing so, each irrigation policy developed by Samoa should consider the impact of such a policy on the global water reserve.
Most developing countries such as Samoa do not have effective training programs for farmers and stakeholders in the agricultural industry. In Samoa, for instance, most farmers are not properly educated and do not understand the technical languages used in most of the training sessions.
This can be changed by introducing proper training of farmers that include the use of local languages. The role of monitoring and evaluation is also overlooked in the application of the policy. The policy model proposed here pays attention to training as an integral step in the effective implementation of a policy.
To prevent waterlogging, it is necessary to observe the levels of water in the soil at the beginning of a project. This enables the implementation of remedial procedures before much harm is done to the soil. Artificial drainage is also recommended for improving water flow during irrigation. Constant monitoring of the water level in the ground also helps in envisaging drainage necessities.
Action Plan
The policy changes can be implemented in the plan outlined in this table.
Objective: Formulation of a practical strategy for the management of irrigation water for sustainable development in agriculture
Strategy
Responsibility
Timeframe
Notes
Expected results
Source of funds
Identification of the problems facing irrigation and proposed solutions
Community local leaders
Two months
Community participation will be mobilized using radio advertisements and local leaders.
Community members will come up with genuine problems that affect them at grass root level.
Ministry of Agriculture
Identification of a program
Crop advisory officer
One year
The Ministry of Agriculture will conduct feasibility studies to come up with a practical solution.
A sustainable solution will be identified.
Ministry of Agriculture
Objective: Implementation of the new irrigation system
Activity
Responsibility
Timeframe
Notes
Expected results
Source of funds
Training
Officials from the department of agriculture and agents from non-governmental organizations
Three months
The language used should be simple since most of the farmers have low levels of education.
Farmers will acquire an understanding of the technical and mechanical requirements of the new system.
Ministry of Agriculture
Adoption of the program
Farmers
If the system meets the required standards and is approved, it can be adopted by farmers. Incentives such as reduced cost of machinery and mechanical assistance can be used to encourage adoption.
Ministry of Agriculture
Objective: Assessing the system’s progress and failures
Activity
Responsibility
Timeframe
Notes
Expected results
Source of funds
Monitoring and evaluation
Evaluation experts
One month, but is continued after the system is adopted
Evaluation is important in establishing the successes and failures of the policy and suggesting improvements. This stage must also involve community participation. Monitoring and evaluation programs should assess the quality of water used and the impact it has on agriculture.
The outcomes of such implementation will be used to minimize the degree of water pollution and wastage.
Ministry of Agriculture
Conclusion
Sustainable irrigation is very important for continued food production and in ensuring that we do not deplete the available water resources. Soil maintenance also determines the irrigation system used. An effective policy must take these factors into consideration as well as the national and international politics surrounding irrigation and water.
Works Cited
Fereres, Elias and Marı´a Soriano. “Deficit Irrigation for Reducing Agricultural Water Use” Journal of Experimental Botany, 58.2 (2006): 147-159. Print.
Cai, Ximing, Daene C. McKinney and Mark W. Rosegrant 2001, Sustainability Analysis for Irrigation Water Management: Concepts, Methodology, and Application to the Aral Sea Region. Web.
Hillel, Daniel. Salinity Management for Sustainable Irrigation: Integrating Science, Environment, and Economics, Washington, DC: World Bank Publications, 2000. Print.
