Category: Water Quality

Water quality for human consumption has recently become a issue topic has recently gathered a lot of attention in the near future. With pollution of freshwater sources, drinking water resources could be diminished quickly if treatment from industrial, commercial, or private continues. The article argues that with the exponential human population growth, more problems will arise with available drinking water. The author also argues that about 70% of water sources that are renewable are not usable by the human population. A shortage in drinking water could lead to negative socioeconomic effects such as declines in agriculture and human health. The article tests out different methods in treating water for drinking quality methods.

The experiment used the drinking water standards set by the World Health Organization (WHO) and Egyptian Ministry of Health (EMH). The author discusses the potential methods for increasing drinking water quality by different removal of heavy metals and disinfections. There were many different samples taken and tested for the total amounts of possible hazards in the water were measured. The recommendations after the experiment list the effectiveness of certain ways to treat water using methods like reverse osmosis or chlorination effectiveness to treat water for drinking purposes.

In my opinion, this article was difficult to read and interpret. It was slightly confusing in the way it was organized and what the author was talking about. It held a lot of information, but the data tables were unappealing and chaotic in my opinion. I don’t know why many journal articles from the source site don’t give out the organization full names before they give their acronyms. I constantly have to look up what the acronyms mean in order to figure what organization or term the author is stating. The article was not the greatest article to read and title was a little bit misleading. It did not test ways to improve drinking water, it only gave different conclusions to treat water for drinking standards. Not the best article, but interesting nonetheless.

In relation to class, the article does share topics in which we are discussing in class. We recently were talking about water quality and testing. Water quality is a big issue when it comes to any type of pollution. With our current presentations of government agencies, many of the topics include water quality monitoring. Also, with talk of polymet and California droughts, clean water will soon become a scarce commodity if current usage and pollution trends continue.

Water plays a central role in the sustenance of any form of life, which underscores its importance in the current world. However, water could also be a source of life-threatening health conditions if not handled carefully. The present levels of pollution aggravate the situation because thousands of chemicals and other pollutants can easily find their way into water systems. In Savannah, Georgia, the City of Savannah Water Supply and Treatment Department conducts numerous annual tests to ensure that drinking water in the region is safe for human consumption. This paper is an analysis of the 2018 City of Savannah Water Quality Report.

Report Findings

In 2018, the City of Savannah Water Supply and Treatment Department announced that drinking water in the region was safe. The Savannah Main System supplies drinking water to the city drawn from the Floridian Aquifer with 22 wells, and in 2018, it pumped over 17.28 million gallons of water to serve 143,010 residents (Savannah Public Works & Water Resources, 2018). In the process of compiling this report, the City of Savannah Water Laboratory conducted over 123,000 water tests using around 160 water quality parameters (Savannah Public Works & Water Resources, 2018).

From the analysis, different substances were tested and detected in drinking water, but they were all within the maximum contaminant levels allowed for safe human consumption. The detected substances included chlorine, fluoride, total trihalomethanes (TTHMs), total haloacetic acids (THAAs), total coliform bacteria, lead, and copper. Other substances analyzed in the report include molybdenum, strontium, hexavalent chromium, and chromium. However, according to Sawyer (2018), these substances are classified under unregulated contaminants because the EPA has not set drinking water standards for the same. The following levels of the tested substances and the corresponding maximum contaminant levels allowed were recorded in the report.

Water Quality Issue

From the above table, TTHMs are some of the water quality issues being experienced in the local community in Savannah, Georgia. According to Cutrovo and Amato (2019), TTHMs are compounds formed when natural organic matter in water reacts with chlorine that is normally used in the treatment of drinking water. While the amount detected (16.9 ppb) is within the maximum accepted level (80 ppb), the goal of achieving 0 ppb of this substance has not been achieved (Savannah Public Works & Water Resources, 2018). The common forms of TTHMs include bromodichloromethane (BDCM), trichloromethane (TCM), also known as chloroform, and dibromochloromethane (DBCM). Apart from being formed from the reaction of chlorine and natural organic matter in water, some TTHMs come from industrial usage. For example, chloroform can enter the environment through wastewater from sewage treatment and industrial discharge from paper mills and chemical companies.

Environmental and Human Health Impacts

Contaminants found in drinking water could lead to serious health complications. A study by Evans, Campbell, and Naidenko (2019) found that water contamination by chemical pollutants was linked to over 100,000 cancer cases across the US between 2010 and 2017. Even though such incidence rate is low, it is significant given that sufficient data on the subject lacks in the literature. Therefore, as more studies are conducted on the subject, the numbers are expected to rise. Cutrovo and Amato (2019) different studies have associated TTHM exposure to the bladder, rectal, and colon cancers. The environment is also affected in the process of water treatment. The machines used in the treatment plants are a potential source of greenhouse gases, thus adding to the current carbon footprint. Prolonged bioaccumulation of TTHMs also affects marine ecosystems by changing water pH levels, thus making the environment unfavorable for habitation.

Management Practices to Minimize Water Pollution

Eliminating TTHMs from drinking water might be a complicated issue as long as chlorine is used in the treatment process. However, the levels could be minimized by using biological activated carbon filters (Lou, Chan, Han, &Yang, 2016). Another option is to eliminate or reduce the levels of chlorination before filters. Alternative disinfectants, such as peroxide, could be used for treatment instead of chlorine. Pollution from industrial sources could be reduced through proper disposal, efficient wastewater treatment, recycling, and reuse (Safe Drinking Water Foundation, 2019).

Conclusion

The 2018 City of Savannah Water Quality Report showed that drinking water in the region was safe for human consumption. However, several substances were found in the water, but they were within acceptable levels. TTHMs are some of the water problems affecting communities in Savannah, Georgia, and other places across the US. These chemicals have been associated with different cancer types, and they affect marine ecosystems and plant life. Pollution could be minimized by using bio-activated carbon filters, substituting chlorine with other alternatives, and proper handling of industrial waste.

In the contemporary world, industrialization has led to continuous water contamination. Ideally, companies related to water safety should offer a solution to water contamination where distillation is inevitable. The research used various water testing methods. For instance, the pH levels of bottled and tap water ware tested using effective methods such as filtration and water treatment. Thereafter, the observations were recorded. Concerning the results, the research established that bottled water contained fewer mineral components compared to mineral water. Also, bottled water had lower levels of pH unlike tap water. This paper seeks to provide a detailed report on what should be done to ensure quality water for human consumption.

Introduction

Water safety is paramount for the health of human beings. Therefore, it is a primary concern worldwide. Quality water research is critical because it will assist in finding suitable methods for treating contaminated water. This, therefore, will lead to water which is safe for human consumption. The main objective of the study will be to examine water treatment processes to achieve quality water which is free from contamination. Due to various factors such as the development of residential areas near water catchment areas and industrial pollution of water sources, water has been seen to be highly contaminated (Kostyla, Bain, Cronk & Bartram, 2015).

This has led to the development of companies in an effort to provide purified water for consumption purpose. Several properties determine the quality of water. Notably, color, hardness, dissolved oxygen, pH, salinity, suspended sediment and turbidity are some of the properties. Contamination and pollution of water are caused by factors like bacteria in water, acid rain, pesticides, sewage overflows, and phosphorous among others. Water quality is very important as it has a number of purposes. First, it is an essential need and it highly determines public health. Therefore, to protect public health, we must ensure that people consume clean quality water. Quality water is also essential because it is an ecosystem habitat and is used in our day-to-day activities.

The contamination of water catchment areas has limited the access to clean and safe drinking water (Goncharuk, 2014). Consequently, there has been a rise in the number of bottled water companies that offer an alternative source of clean water. The companies apply various methods such as distillation and filtration to produce sufficient quantities of water. The methods are capital intensive thus consumers have to purchase the water they need. Therefore, it becomes necessary to carry out detailed experiments on the bottled and tap water that is made available to consumers to establish whether it is worthwhile to purchase bottled water.

According to Waite (2012), an analysis of the water produced by bottling companies as well as tap water, revealed some differences in their mineral composition. While water contains some essential minerals, it may be noted that contamination may occur as water is being stored or transported through pipes from their source to consumers’ houses. Therefore, treatment at a water collection point does not always guarantee that the water is safe for domestic use. Bottled water, on the other hand, is treated, packed, and distributed under hygienic conditions that are usually set and regulated by federal or state agencies to ensure its safety. Therefore, an experiment to test the differences between tap water and bottled water can reveal the differences that exist between the two, thus helping to establish whether it is worth to pay for bottled water as is the case with bottled water.

Some actions can be taken to help improve water quality. Foremost, one of these actions includes investing in places that are known to be water catchment areas to prevent issues like settlement along the catchment areas and fight industrial pollution into water sources like rivers, lakes, and oceans. Regulations on activities that can be carried out in water sources to avoid some of the daily activities that may cause possible pollution to water sources should be set. This can be achieved by having an environmental monitoring program to make follow-ups on current and upcoming causes of pollution of natural water. Construction of healthy waterways is important to avoid contamination of tap water which mainly happens during distribution due to issues like pipe rusting, sewage breakage near water transporting pipes and chemicals like lead from metal pipes.

Conversely, water is termed safe for consumption if all harmful contaminants such as metals, fluoride, and chlorine are cleaned off. Safe drinking water should also have an alkaline pH balanced value. Besides, it should have natural minerals, which are essential for the growth of healthy bones and teeth. The taste of water also matters when it comes to consumption. Drinking water should have a natural spring water taste. Water bottling companies have been established aiming to provide safe drinking water. These companies use filtration method and other treatment measures to eliminate harmful microorganisms in water. The companies apply various methods such as distillation and filtration to produce sufficient quantities of water. The methods are capital intensive thus consumers have to purchase the water they need.

It is also seen to be distributed in hygienic conditions ensuring that there is no further contamination after packaging of the purified water. Since untreated tap water poses several risks, many people have turned to the usage of bottled water. On the contrary, there is an existing controversy on bottled water where some people feel that not all water-bottling companies provide safe drinking water. There is also tap water, which is treated at a collection point before being distributed for consumption. There is therefore the need to analyze water from bottling companies in comparison to that of tap water. Therefore, the experiment seeks to identify whether processed and bottled water is healthier for consumption and whether it is worth paying the price for it. In my opinion, bottled water is safer for consumption compared to tap water.

Materials and Methods

Initially, the experiment involved testing the pH levels of bottled water and tap water. Samples from two bottled water companies, Dasani and Fiji, and tap water were used. The samples were used to rinse three test tubes while avoiding direct hand-water contact because bare hands could contaminate the water. 5ml of each sample were also added to each test tube after which the drops of indicator solution were added. The observations were made and recorded. For the testing of nitrate, acid reagents and nitrate nitrogen comparators were used. Similar tests were carried out to establish the levels of ammonia, chloride, phosphate, iron, chlorine, and hardness.

For pH testing, the following materials were used: test tubes, sample water (Dasani and Fuji), a beaker to hold tap water, a dropper for the indicator solution, indicator solution, color chart and a 3,10milliliter graduated cylinder.

The procedure for pH testing of water was as follows: we cleaned all the equipment to ensure there were no residual impurities from previous experiments; we filled up the beaker with tap water avoiding any possible hand-water contact, different samples of water were used to rinse the test tubes, one sample for each test tube,10ml-graduated cylinders were used to measure up to 5ml of each sample, pouring each sample to each test tube, using the dropper; we added 2-3 drops of indicator solution to each of the three samples in the test tubes; using color charts we compared any changes that occurred in the samples; observations were then made and recorded.

To test for nitrates, the following equipment was needed: test tubes, 50ml graduated beaker, sample water (Dasani, Fiji, and tap water), mixed acid reagents, nitrogen nitrate comparators, and 3,10ml graduated cylinder.

The procedure for this experiment was as follows: we rinsed each test tube with the sample water for each, using the 10ml-graduated cylinder; we filled up to 2.5 ml of the sample water and poured it into their respective test tubes; we then added 2.5 ml of the mixed acid reagent to the sample water in the test tubes, each test tube was then inserted into the nitrogen nitrate comparator; we matched the colors, the sample color to the standard color and recorded our observations.

The same procedure for nitrate testing was used to test for levels of ammonia, chloride, phosphate, iron, chlorine, and hardness of the sample water.

Water plays a major role in our day to day life cycle and it is a part and parcel of every human living in this planet. Our Earth contains 70% of water which should be sufficient for the growth of every human life form. But sadly millions of people die annually, most commonly children, because of the diseases caused by insufficient water supply, bad sanitation and hygiene. These factors impact the food security of people everywhere in the world.

What does “Clean water” really mean? Generally, clean water is referred to as water that is pure and safe for drinking. Safe water must be free from all forms of germs and pathogens that are primary source of deceases that may further lead to death. Water used for drinking should be fresh and pure and should not carry any bad odor or color making it undesirable to drink. People should feel confident to drink and to give the same to their family with certainty that they are giving them water that is fresh, clean, healthy and safe.

Access to safe, clean water opens up a world of possibilities for community development. Without water, the most basic element of life, all other development efforts cannot be imagined. Sanitation and hygiene, working together with a source of clean water create lasting community health and sustained human growth and development. Just the simple act of washing hands with soap can reduce the incidence of diarrheal disease. When coupled with the use of adequate sanitation facilities and a dependable source of clean water, the multiplied effects are even greater. With the benefits of clean water, adequate sanitation, and good hygiene in place, educated individuals grow up to be the future of their respective nations.

The water pollution these days has become a major problem around the world. The major factors for water being polluted are basically the mistakes that are caused by people’s negligence. Some of the key water pollution sources are industrial waste, radioactive waste, sewage and marine wastes that are being dumped directly into large sea bodies without treating them from chemicals.

There are many water borne diseases that can spoil the health of an individual and may even become the cause of a life threat. Some bacterial diseases often associated with drinking or using contaminated water are Cholera, E.coli infection, Dysentery, Salmonellosis, and Typhoid fever.

Nearly 2.6 billion people have access to pure form of drinking water since 1990, whereas around 663 million people are without. At least 1.8 billion people globally use a source of drinking water that is fecally contaminated. Between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of the global population using an improved drinking water source has increased from 76 per cent to 91 per cent. But water scarcity affects more than 40 per cent of the global population and is projected to rise. Over 1.7 billion people are currently living in river basins where water use exceeds recharge. 2.4 billion people lack access to basic sanitation services, such as toilets or latrines. More than 80 per cent of wastewater resulting from human activities is discharged into rivers or sea without any pollution removal. Each day, nearly 1,000 children die due to preventable water and sanitation-related diarrheal diseases according to Economic report (2008).

Hydropower is the most important and widely-used renewable source of energy and as of 2011, represented 16 per cent of total electricity production worldwide. Approximately 70 per cent of all water abstracted from rivers, lakes and aquifers is used for irrigation. If the problem of water pollution is not properly taken care of, the costs are going to be huge both for people and for the economy. There are already many organizations working towards providing pure drinking water even to the poorest of the poor, such organizations include WATER.ORG, WATER FOR GOOD, PURE WATER FOR THE WORLD and many more. Civil society organizations should work to keep governments accountable to invest in water research and development, and promote the basic sanitation practices that can help to maintain the people from falling prey to the deceases caused by poor sanitation practices. Creating proper awareness in public and to the governments will help maintain sustainability and integrity for both human and ecological systems.

Importance of Water in our daily life cannot be neglected at all because water is the main source of the survival of any living being living in this planet earth. Drinking healthy and hygienic drinking water will lead to a healthy life without any diseases, causes contaminated water get you many harmful disease which sometimes cost someone’s life. Water intake of a normal individual should be in the purest form the water running into taps of our home is not clean enough to drink and that’s where the water dispensers comes in as a luxury and premium water drinking appliance, which gives you cleanest from of drinking water at home.

Many consumers opt for drinking bottled water that’s very expensive to obtain while water dispenser is the easiest way to supply pure drinking water to you and to your family. In the advance water dispensers you will find two of the option both hot and cool so you can enjoy water at its best as per your desire, water dispenser is the convenient home appliance that can offer you drinking water which is 100 % pure and clean in a one push of a button. Some of the primary Advantages of water dispensers are listed below.

The modern day water dispensers filtered watered so they will be free from any impurities that includes germs, bacteria’s so the water should be hygienic, sparkling clean and dirt free. The overall taste of the water is improved more than the standard and therefore the user of the water dispenser doesn’t only have a crystal clear water but also fully improved taste better than the normal tap water.

When you used water dispenser you are affirmative that you choose the best suitable option to adapt a healthy life style, because healthy drinking water means more fitness of a well being and a ailment free life. Living healthy is on the high priority of every individual and the water has an important part to play in this so be sure to use water dispenser to get numerous benefits and the luxury of drinking pure water.

Water is a basic and fundamental need of every human being and to sustain a better life water dispenser is the affordable house hold appliance that can make drinking water easy for you. Water dispenser also gives you the comfort to drink more water than you intake each day. Today Water dispensers can be seen almost every where such as hospitals, offices, restaurant and café so every individual whether indoor or outdoor will avail pure drinking water with ease.

This study was designed to find out heavy metals contents from water samples that taken from tube wells and from different areas of district pishin. The analysis of different water samples done to check out the parameters such as electric conductivity, PH, burden of population that uses fertilizers in chosen area. According to this analysis process it is determined that the age of tube wells never affect the quantity of heavy metal. Heavy metals such as Antimony and Aluminum are present in greater content then standardized values. The presence of arsenic in drinking water is due to anthropogenic activities that performed near the tube wells (chemical industries) Introduction:· Area description:District Pishin is an area of Baluchistan province, due to the climatic conditions the temperature in winter season reach below freezing point and in summer temperature reach at 40 degree calicoes. This area is located 5104 feet above sea level. Pishin is famous because of its agricultural products. In this area process of irrigation is done by using water from artificial channels (boring holes) the most common source of ground water in pishin district is tube well and karez system.·

Pure quality of drinking water is fundamental need for good health. Pure water gives us essential mineral but when the water is contaminated it cause diseases such as cancer, Reproductive disorders, cardiovascular and neurological disorders. Heavy metals contamination mostly affects infants and younger population because of their developmental stage. Due to higher sensitivity in children’s heavy metals cause various disorders in children’s such as uncontrolled temperament, sub consciousness and hyperactivity. They consume more metals from food products because of higher heavy metal contamination in food. Heavy metals such as Arsenic and its compounds that are released from different chemical industries are toxic to human health (Choudhury et al., 2009).Antimony exposure lead cardiovascular disorder. According to EPA lead is carcinogenic to human health. Lead Exposure leads respiratory disorder there is high .Tap water is more contaminated due to lead (ASTDR, 2000).Aluminum (Al) is third most abundant element of earth crust. Al accumulation in body cells lead neurological disorders (Richard,1993). According to EPA excess amount of essential metal in water leads different disorder while Cu,Zn,Cr are essentially required to human body(Goyer and Clarkson, 2001).·

The aim of this study is to assess cluster of metals such as (Pb, Sb, Al, As) to find out water sample Ph and Conductivity and also to evaluate the impacts of heavy metals on human health.· Sample collection: Fifty (50) water samples collected from twelve villages of district Pishin. Sample was collected in polythene bottles and labeled. Each sample assorted with 4m of nitric acid (Michael, 1982; APHA, et al., 1992).· Sample Analysis: PH meter used to determine the ph of each sample (JENWAY MODEL NO. 3520).conductivity meter use to determine electric conductivity (JENWAY MODEL No. 470). Heavy metal contaminants concentration determined with flame Atomic Absorption spectroscopy with Acetylene or nitrous oxides (Michael, 1982).

The current for lamp is operating in mA. It is necessary that you have confirm the presence of lamp before completing this step, because 30 mA current can damage lamp. The amplifier will be set spontaneously when current detected by lamp. Replicates: Each quantification should be repeated thrice that can be change according to requirements. The replicates range from 1 to 99.· Standard Reagent Preparation: For analysis process three different standard reagents prepared, of concentrations that given below.

Water sample obtained from different locations of district pishin are analyzed to find out the heavy metals content. The present amount of metals compared with different parameters to get general information about water quality the average PH of whole samples is 3.38 respectively. All the samples have optimal PH except the sample collected from Nawabad with PH 8.69. Electric conductivity gives measures to determine electrolyte concentration and minerals that present in water. Electrical conductivity or all samples normally estimated from 50 to 500Us/cm. age of tube wells determined through concentrations of heavy metals that present in water. The calculated age of all tube well was 4 year. The depth of wells that calculated was 157 meters. Arsenic and lead presence determined in each sample but les then that amount (given by WHO). The concentration of Aluminum from each sample found greater than standardized values in tube wells with lower depth and found lesser amount in tube wells with higher depth.· The concentration of antimony from each collected sample found greater than WHO standardized value. The mean concentration of antimony from each sample sweep from 0.277-1.021mg/l.

Through analysis it was concluded that with the increase in depth antimony concentration decreases. The calculated concentration of Aluminum compared with tube well age of all samples equal to the tube well age. Tube wells with less age have less concentration of Aluminum. The concentration of lead calculated inversely proportional to tube well age, tube well with les age contains higher concentration of lead while with greater age contain less concentration of lead. The concentration of antimony obtained is equal in each sample and there is no significant changes observed. Aluminum concentration of samples that collected from different locations contain different concentrations. Aluminum concentrations depend on water turbidity and soil type present in those areas.

Real-time monitoring of wastewater quality remains as unresolved problem to the waste water treatment industry. In order to comply with increasingly stringent environmental regulation, plant operators as well as industrial manufactures have expressed the the need of new standard and improved comparability of existing techniques. A review of currently available methods for monitoring global organic parameters (BOD,COD,PH,DO etc) is given. The study review both existing standard techniques and new innovative technologies with the focus on the sensors’ potential for on-line and real-time monitoring and control. Current developments of virtual sensors for the monitoring of wastewater organic load are presented and the interests and limitations of these techniques with respect to their application to the wastewater monitoring are discussed.

Water is the precious gift of nature to the humanbeing. The European Community decided in 1991 to oblige all EU Member States to equip with wastewater treatment plants all cities whose wastewater organic load is greater than 15 000 equivalent in habitants (to be implemented before 3 1 December 2000) and 2000 equivalentinhabitants (to be implemented before 31 December 2005 ). The characterization of wastewater at the inlet and outlet of the treatment plants is an effective way to control the process efficiency and to verify the final quality of treated waters. Usually, wastewater quality is characterized both by global parameters like biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total organic carbon (TOC) or total suspended solids (TSS), and by nitrogen and phosphorus compounds. All values must be lower than the maximum permissible values, depending on specific regulations.

These dispositions are of great importance but unfortunately the great importance but unfortunately the monitoring procedures presently performed are not very satisfactory because they involve sampling, storage and laboratory analysis – a succession of sample handlings which considerably enhances the risk of errors. There is now an increasing need to limit sample handlings and to develop fast and accurate devices enabling a range of parameters to be monitored by direct field measurements. The aim of this study was to review both existing standard techniques and new innovative technologies with the focus on the sensors’ potential for on-line and real-time monitoring and control.

The world is faced with problems related to the management of wastewater. This is due to extensive industrialization, increasing population density and high urbanized societies (EPA, 1993; McCasland et al. , 2008). The effluents generated from domestic and industrial activities constitute the major sources of the natural water pollution load. This is a great burden in terms of wastewater management and can consequently lead to a point-source pollution problem, which not only increases treatment cost considerably, but also introduces a wide range of chemical pollutants and microbial contaminants to water sources (EPA, 1993, 1996; Eikelboom and Draaijer, 1999; Amir et al. , 2004). The prevention of pollution of water sources and protection of public health by safeguarding water supplies against the spread of diseases, are the two fundamental reasons for treating wastewater. This is accomplished by removing substances that have a high demand for oxygen from the system through the metabolic reactions of micro organisms, the separation and settling of solids to create an acceptable quality of wastewater effluents, and the collection and recycling of microorganisms back into the system, or removal of excess microorganisms from the system (Abraham et al. , 1997).

In municipal wastewater treatment systems, the common water quality variables of concern are biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), dissolved oxygen (DO), suspended solids, nitrate, nitrite and ammonia nitrogen, phosphate, salinity and a range of other nutrients and trace metals (DeCico, 1979; Brooks, 1996). The presence of high concentrations of these pollutants above the critical values stipulated by national and international regulatory bodies is considered unacceptable in receiving water bodies. This is because, apart from causing a major drawback in wastewater treatment systems, they also lead to eutrophication and various health impacts in humans and animals (EPA, 2000; CDC, 2002; Runion, 2008). In recent years, the reuse of treated effluent that is normally discharged to the environment from municipal wastewater treatment plants is receiving an increasing attention as a reliable water resource. In many countries, wastewater treatment for reuse is an important dimension of water resources planning and implementation. This is aimed at releasing high quality water supplies for potable use. Some countries, such as Jordan and Saudi Arabia have national policies to reuse all treated wastewater effluents, thus have made considerable progress towards this end. In China, sewage use in agriculture has developed rapidly several decades ago and millions of hectares are irrigated with sewage effluent. The general acceptance is that wastewater use in agriculture is justified on agronomic and economic grounds, although care must be taken to minimize adverse health and environmental impacts (FAO, 1992; Metcalf and Eddy, 2003; Rietveld et al. , 2009; Sowers, 2009). [2004] have studied the industrial wastewater and ground water, and pollution problem in ground water. V. Singh and C. P. S. Chandel [2006] have analyzed the wastewater of Jaipur City, which is used for agricultural purpose Furthermore, wastewater reuse is increasingly becoming important for supplementing drinking water needs in some countries around the world. The option of reuse of wastewater is becoming necessary and possible as a result of increased climate change, thus leading to droughts and water scarcity, and the fact that wastewater effluent discharge regulations have become stricter leading to a better water quality (Rietveld et al. , 2009).

In addition to traditional laboratory-based analytical techniques used in the water industry, recent years have seen the development of a range of innovative monitoring equipment. Although only a small number of such product has yet reached the market or has been accepted, there is already a great diversity of techniques and technologies available, both commercially and in research laboratories, which are reported in the literature. As a consequence, different schemes have been used in an attempt to classify existing sensors and analysers according to their respective properties. (Lynggaard-Jensen1999) listed eight different sensor/analyser properties.

Relevant sensor properties (after Lynggaard-Jensen A 1999) which should be taken into consideration before their introduction into wastewater systems (ie for monitoring or process control). Indeed key features such as the cost of ownership, ease of use, placement of the sensors, as well the response time, will influence the consumer’s choice. Other technical aspects such as the principle of measurement, reliability, accuracy and detection limits will also dictate whether or not the technology will be accepted and promoted as astandard (or alternative) method by the end user and relevant authorities. It is, therefore, evident that both the performance characteristics (range, linearity, accuracy response time, limit of detection, etc. ) and the intrinsic properties of the sensors (single or multiparameter Relevant sensor properties (after Lynggaard-Jensen A 1999) which should be taken into consideration before their introduction into wastewater systems (ie for monitoring or process control). Indeed key features such as the cost of ownership, ease of use, placement of the sensors, as well the response time, will influence the consumer’s choice. Other technical aspects such as the principle of measurement, reliability, accuracy and detection limits will also dictate whether or not the technology will be accepted and promoted as astandard (or alternative) method by the end user and relevant authorities. It is, therefore, evident that both the performance characteristics (range, linearity, accuracy response time, limit of detection, etc. ) and the intrinsic properties of the sensors (single or multiparameter.

However, when the temperature is more, the dissolved oxygen content (D. O. ) of sewage gets reduced. 3. 5 The pH: The hydrogen ion concentration expressed as pH, is a valuable parameter in the operation of biological units. The pH of the fresh sewage is slightly more than the water supplied to the community. However, decomposition of organic matter may lower the pH, while the presence of industrial wastewater may produce extreme fluctuations. Water and wastewater can be classified as neutral, acidic or alkaline according to the following range: PH=7 neutral. PH>7 alkaline.

Streamflow is the major resource for management of watershed and hence estimation of rainfall runoff from the hydrological models are very useful nowadays as they provide better result without consuming more time. In the present case, rainfall runoff estimation was done for Hasan Watershed of Malaprabha River basin in Karnataka, India by using the HEC-HMS model along with the help of Arc GIS extension tools ike Arc Hydro and HEC-Geo HMS. For calculating runoff in HEC-HMS model, SCS Curve Number and SCS Unit Hydrograph methods were used. The runoff results obtained after calibration was found to be 2118.6m3/s which is very equal to the observed value 2225.4m3/s and Nash-Sutcliffe value is to be 0.554. Hence, HECHMS model is found useful to estimate the runoff for un-gauged basins. Watershed management is one of the processes for utilizing the natural resources optimally for production with minimum hazard. Where soil, water, and vegetation are the main natural resources for the survival of living organisms on earth. For managing watershed, one of the natural resource called rainfall-runoff a simulation was carried out. A tropical country like India, rainfall is not uniform and also it is non-seasonal over the country hence simulation of rainfall-runoff is necessary to manage watersheds. Where there are no gauges for measuring the runoff, hydrological models are used as these models provide a better result and they do not need much time for computation. In this paper, the main objective is to the simulation of runoff by using the semi-distributed hydrological model like HEC-HMS.

The study area is a Hasan watershed, which lies in Malaprabha sub-basin of Krishna basin. The Malaprabha River of Hasan Watershed originates in Sahyadri Mountains at an altitude of 792.4m at Kanakumbi village near to Jamboti village of Khanapur taluk of Belagavi district. The study area lies in between at a longitude of 74 37 to 75 14(WE) and at a latitude of 15 28 to 16 5 (S-N). The geographical area of the study area is 3988.14km2 and it includes part of Khanapur, Belagavi, Bailhongal, Saundatti, and Ramdurg taluk’s of Belagavi district and some part Badami taluk of Bagalkot district.

The methodology of the study, describes the collection of various data and their interpretation in the model at different stages. The data required for the study are the Digital Elevation Model (DEM), Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) map, Soil map, Rainfall data were collected. For the extraction of terrain characteristics of the study area Environmental System Research Institute (ESRI) developed Arc Hydro tool is used. For collecting spatial information and conversion of physical characteristics into hydrological parameters and developing input file for HEC-HMS of the study area, US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) and Hydrologic Engineering Centre (HEC) developed HEC-Geo HMS tool is used. The input file of HEC-HMS developed in the HEC-Geo HMS is opened in HEC-HMS for further process. The HEC-HMS model was developed by the USACE for simulating the runoff generated in the watershed. HECHMS model is used for simulation of runoff for wide range sub-basins and it includes the loss methods, runoff transform methods, and rainfall-runoff simulation. Along with these methods it includes the main components required to run the model they are Basin model component, Meteorological model component, Control specification component, and Input data component.

The input file of HEC-HMS developed in the HEC-Geo HMS is opened in HEC-HMS for further process. The HEC-HMS model was developed by the USACE for simulating the runoff generated in the watershed. HEC-HMS model is used for simulation of runoff for wide range sub-basins and it includes the loss methods, runoff transform methods, and rainfall-runoff simulation. Along with these methods it includes the main components required to run the model they are Basin model component, Meteorological model comment, Control specification component, and Input data component. Digital Elevation Model (DEM): The digital elevation model of 32m resolution for study purpose is downloaded from Bhutan website. The DEM is used for the analysis of drainage by using Arc Hydro tool terrains processing methods like fill sinks, flow direction, flow accumulation, stream definition, stream segmentation, catchment grid delineation, catchment polygon processing, drainage line processing, adjoin catchment processing, and drainage point processing.

Various regulations have been put for water quality and multiple indicators were used. Fecal contamination was and is the most widely looked for in water contaminants and Escherichia coli, a bacterial species found in all mammal feces, became the international indicator for fecal water contamination (Edberg et al. , 2000). Besides microbial contaminations, 50 % of chlorinated drinking water samples were shown to be contaminated with yeast (Brinkman, et al. , 2003). All the currently used methods for water treatment have drawbacks, and rarely examined the impact on yeast.

Therefore, it is vital to search for novel methods that could overcome all the drawbacks. Water treatment methods are wide and diverse. They include the use of ozone, ultra violet radiation, hydrogen peroxide and others. By far, the most commonly used and deemed safest is chlorine addition. Chlorinated water is not only used in swimming pools but rather in most chemically treated water around the globe. Disinfection of water can be achieved in two ways: the physical removal of the pathogens and the inactivation and/or death of the pathogens. The several approaches followed are: coagulation and sedimentation, filtration, rapid filtration, slow sand filtration, activated carbon filtration, chlorination, ozonation, UV disinfection, and solar disinfection. Each one of these technique has it disadvantages. Drinking water distribution systems may harbor various saprophytic heterotrophic microorganisms (such as bacteria, fungi and protozoa) that grow on biodegradable organic matter (Servais, et al. , 1992). Fungi are a diverse group of organisms belonging to the kingdom Eumycota, they are classified into filamentous fungi (molds) and yeasts. Certain fungi are adapted to aquatic habitats and are expected to be naturally present in water.

Historically, studying fungi in water have been mostly overlooked and so the knowledge of the occurrence of fungi in drinking water is still limited (Hageskal, et al. , 2009). Fungi can enter water distribution systems in various ways. It may grow in the pipework that have low circulation and form resistant biofilms (Virginia, et al. , 2011). Furthermore, the materials forming tanks of water can contribute to biofilms containing fungi through the slow release of organic material (Souza & Tundisi, 2003). Fungi contaminating water forms a global conflict affecting all citizens of the world; and it is more alarming at hospitals, where opportunistic fungal infections may be caused by contaminated water sources (Hageskal, et al. , 2009)

Genus Candida encompasses numerous species that inhabit a variety of hosts, either as commensal microbes and/or as pathogens. Candida species belong to the normal microbiota of an individual’s mucosal oral cavity, gastrointestinal tract and vagina (Sardi et al. , 2013). Species of Candida are a major cause of fungal infections, and to date there is no vaccine against Candida or any other fungal pathogen (Whibley & Gaffen, 2015). Candida albicans is the predominant cause of invasive candidiasis in the majority of clinical settings, accounting for more than 90% of invasive candidiasis cases. Non-albicans Candida (NAC) species of clinical importance include C. glabrata, C. tropicalis, C. parapsilosis and C. krusei. Other less frequently reported species include C. guilliermondii, C. lusitaniae, C. kefyr, C. famata, C. inconspicua, C. rugosa, C. dubliniensis and C. norvegensis. (Sanguinetti, et al. , 2015). Although C. albicans is the most frequent species associated with disease, non-albicans Candida (NAC) species also cause disease and their prevalence is growing. It is becoming apparent that immunity to C. albicans varies in significant ways from non-albicans species, with important implications for treatment, therapy and predicting demographic susceptibility (Whibley & Gaffen, 2015). Oral colonization by Candida spp. has been reported to range between 17%-75% worldwide (Mushi, et al. , 2016). C. albicans occurs among 17. 7% in the healthy population and rises to 40. 6% among hospitalized patients (Jenkinson & Douglas, 2002). Oral candidiasis is established after colonization of the oral cavity and C. albicans is able to switch between different morphologies (yeast, hyphae, pseudohyphae, chlamydospores and newly identified yeast-like morphotype sited in Figure 1), which is thought to underlie much of the variation in virulence observed in different host tissues. However, novel yeast-like cell morphotypes, including opaque (a/α), grey and gastro intestinally induced transition (GUT) cell types, were reported (Noble, et al. , 2016).

The case of Erin Brockovich took place in Hinkley, California during 1993 to 1996 against the Pacific Gas & Electric Co (PG&E). The case concerned that PG&E was using an anti-corrosive chemical called chromium 6 between 1952 and 1966. So customer advocate and environmental lobbyist, Erin Brockovich, started to look into PG&E and found out about the 370 million gallons of Hexavalent chromium (Chromium 6) they were adding to Hinkley’s water and how dangerous it is to the human body.

Brockovich at first was a divorced mother who got into a car accident that required her to get neck surgery. After that she moved to Los Angeles’s San Fernando Valley, and then she filed a lawsuit against the guy who crashed into her care with the law firm Masry & Vititoe to represent her. She got hardly any money from her lawsuit and coulndt support her four kids. An attorney named, Ed Masry, offered her a job as a celirc at Masry & Vititoe. That’s when Brockovich noticed that in the documents she was filing there were papers from PG&E that included blood samples. She got permission from Ed to look into PG&E and she found out that the gas, chromium 6, was used to prevent rust from corroding its water-cooling system. And that the chemical runoff was dumped in wastewater ponds, located in the Mojave Desert, which eventually got into the residents groundwater which is used for drinking, swimming, and more. Additionally, when human bodies are exposed to Chromium 6 medical issues occur. These medical issues are, lung disease, oral ulcers, leukocytosis, stomach torment, the runs, skin aggravation or ulceration, unfavorably susceptible contact dermatitis, word related asthma, nasal bothering and ulceration, punctured nasal septa, rhinitis, nosebleeds, respiratory disturbance, nasal malignant growth, sinus malignancy, eye bothering and harm, punctured eardrums, kidney harm, liver harm, pneumonic clog and edema, epigastric torment, and disintegration and staining teeth. In Conclusion, after Erin Brochavich had all of her evidence needed she filed a lawsuit against PG&E with the help of Masry & Vititoe, and the residents of Hinkley in total got awarded about $333 Million.

In the movie “Erin Brockovich” there are many key points that were either represented incorrectly or not represented at all in the movie. One of the points is that in the movie there was a trial but that is not what happened. The case against PG&E never went to trial because PG&E and the plaintiffs agreed to a private arbitration which contained a panel of judges that could be hired. Moreover, PG&E agreed to private arbitration which favors only people who can afford it and opens conflict related to interests and opinions. This case was not only about the contamination of water but on the rise of private arbitration. Another point is that PG&E talked to the plaintiff’s attorneys before the trail which shouldn’t be allowed since it can create interests and associates with the opposing side. Another main point is that in the movie they didn’t show that many of the citizens sued because there awards were smaller than they were entitled to. The residents agreed with their lawyers that the lawyers would get 40% of the settlement but then without being asked the clients were charged an extra 10 million dollars for costs. Also another point is that the Lawyers held the award money for about six months before it was distributed to the town. Another point is that the citizens complained that the different amounts of money that each plaintiff got was not logical, and that the arbitrators never looked at each of the citizens medical records. This concludes that there are many points in the movie that were false or never included in the movie.

Societal and environmental impacts that the actual case was it introduced more attention to water contamination. Furthermore, Erin Brockovich and other studies have shown that the Kickly case was not an isolated event and that 200 million Americans all across the 50 states are exposed to chromium 6 which is at unsafe levels. This brought attention to media and people started to worry about their water. Also industries have reported that they have been adding chromium into the environment. For instance in 2009 an electric power industry just said that they have released 10.6 pounds of chromium into the environment. Also many studies have been conducted to show that ingesting even a tiny amount of chromium 6 can cause cancer and other medical issues. Also the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was required by environmental activists to add chromium-6 to the rundown of synthetic substances for which nearby utilities must test under the Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule. The rule also requires the EPA to create a new list of substances every five years that must be watched by public water systems. Therefore, people have been looking into chromium 6 more often now that the Erin Brockovich case was introduced.