Category: Water Quality

This proposal aims to determine the necessity of water quality from the perspective of global health. For this refugee camp with 5,000 inhabitants, it is necessary to set up a safe water source that will enable access to 19,000 gallons per day through 50 community taps. The funding will be provided by the government and non-governmental organizations, in partnership with Lifewater. The performance evaluation will be facilitated through an assessment of refugee’s opinion and comparison of the existing resources with planned.

Introduction

Clean water is among the main facilitators of global health because this factor influences the development of many infectious diseases that can be prevented by applying appropriate sanitation standards. Conditions such as cholera or hepatitis can be mitigated through adequate approaches to controlling the safety of water that a population accesses. This paper aims to examine the Global Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH), and develop a proposal for enhanced quality of water at a 5,000 refugee camp.

Population Health

WASH is designed to target the issue of access to safe water, which facilitates sanitation and adequate hygiene for individuals. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (n.d.), this initiative has a long-term objective of mitigating various components that enable WASH-related illnesses through prevention and development of performance measurements. Currently, WASH has six significant goals – creating approaches for obtaining and storing water that would be safe for humans, emphasizing hygiene standards in various communities, helping regions that experience disease outbreaks, identifying factors that can help illuminate conditions connected to WASH by determining their causes, and educating health professionals about the importance of water management. Therefore, the WASH program incorporates various initiatives that can help the global population live safer lives by minimizing the impact of components that enable preventable conditions.

WASH targets water as a significant health threat because many individuals across the globe do not have basic hygiene facilities. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (n.d.) states that “805,000 suspected cases and nearly 9,500 deaths” were reported in Haiti due to cholera water contamination (para. 12). A large number of people do not have basic facilities such as toilets at homes or public establishments. Nicole (2015) states that “fecal-oral diseases can proliferate rapidly, sometimes to epidemic proportions, when people in crowded conditions lack clean water for hygiene and sanitation” (p. A6). WASH develops solutions for creating boreholes and providing safe water to avoid these problems.

Thus, the WASH program complements global water and sanitation standards by developing strategies for educating health professionals and creating practices of water quality that apply to any population. The World Health Organization states that the global water and sanitation standards include integration of sanitation into the local planning of governmental services to enable access to safe sanitary facilities and water supply (“WHO launch global guidelines on sanitation and health,” 2018). In addition, they should be examined by authorities to ensure that they are not a health threat for individuals living in the area.

Scope

Approximately 5,000 people reside in the camp in question; thus the proposal should be developed in regards to the existing WASH standards for this quantity of people. According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the primary objective of similar projects is in establishing an infrastructure that would enable access to sufficient amount of safe water for drinking, sanitation, and hygiene (“WASH in camps,” n.d.). The assumptions are that within the refugee camp several institutions are established – a school and a hospital, which require access to the mentioned components. It is also anticipated that this project will be reviewed before choosing a specific site for this refugee camp, which will enable adequate planning of the infrastructure.

The primary step that has to be implemented immediately is access to drinking water. This will require a source of water, equipment, and storage facilities that individuals can use in their homes. Additionally, the UNHCR highlights that it is vital to calculate the quantity of water supply that will be required for a particular camp based on the number of people in it and specifics of application (“WASH in camps,” n.d.). The organization states that per every 80-100 inhabitants there should be one water collection location; thus, this camp requires at least 50 taps.

The second step includes developing a strategy that would enable the storage of water in the refugee’s home. It is necessary to use approaches that guarantee the safety of this water for drinking and other uses. According to the UNHCR, each person in the camp should have access to at least 3,8 gallons of water daily. Therefore, the camp requires a supply of 19,000 of gallons (“WASH in camps,” n.d.). The equipment necessary to carry out set one and two should be obtained within a timeframe of several weeks before the construction of a camp to ensure it functions properly.

The third step involves setting up sanitation facilities such as toilets that would enable the safety of the camp’s environment. The UNHCR recommends setting up communal latrines for every 20 individuals, and 250 will be required and at least 100 showers (“Camp planning standards (planned settlements),” n.d.). In addition, it is crucial to integrate a testing system that would determine the levels of unsafe particles in the water supply (“WASH in camps,” n.d.).

It should be done before the refugees are settled in the camp and can be completed within a week. Next, educational interventions are required to make certain that the population is aware of how to use and maintain the facilities that will be developed. The process depends on the existing knowledge of the refugees, which will be assessed prior and can continue within a timeframe of several weeks.

The following initiative will help ensure that the long-term health of the refugee camp population is facilitated. As was previously mentioned, testing the water is critical for ensuring that it is not contaminated is vital to this refugee camp because it will help prevent disease outbreaks. It is crucial to ensure that basic healthcare needs are fulfilled and preventative measures are taken to illuminate common diseases.

Costs

At the first stage of implementation, it is necessary to set up the initial infrastructure. Pezon, Bostoen, Carrasco, and Jacimovic (2015) state that this may cost up to $1,000,000 for a camp of 5,000. A separate step involves institutions such as health facilities and a school that will require an additional $25,000. Next, personnel costs include people who will maintain the infrastructure, educate inhabitants, and test the water. Pezon et al. (2015) state that this will require $80,000 in the first year, however, in the following years this spending should decrease to $20,000 and according to McGinnis et al. (2017), hygiene education will cost $31,000 per year.

Other spending components are connected to the need to supply electricity and rent equipment for establishing the water supply system and are estimated at $177,000 in the first year and $24,000 in the following years (Pezon et al., 2015). Emergency cost factors include the development of the initial emergency water supply and sanitation system and are higher than those associated with a permanent supply system. Thus, once the camp is entirely switched towards the latter, the yearly operational costs will be lowered due to the reduced cost factors such as water tank vehicles and cleaning services. The long term system requires maintenance and testing of the chemicals in the water, which are the primary cost factors.

Funding Sources

The primary funding source for this initiative is the government because this proposal is developed for its ministry. Also, this project will support a large number of refugees on the country’s territory and ensure the safety of its citizens by preventing possible outbreaks of diseases. It is necessary to obtain support for the emergency funds from the World Health Organization and the United Nations to ensure the functioning of the camp in question. Long-term support can be facilitated through the partnerships with the governmental and international organizations, and funds designed to support WASH, such as Lifewater (n.d.) that helps raise money for similar projects.

Performance Measures

The following performance measures are superior to others because the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) uses a similar approach for evaluating its national initiatives. A qualitative approach will focus on the safety and life experience of refugees in the camp based on the existing resources. UNICEF (2017) recommends assessing the views of stakeholders regarding the issue of water and sanitation in the camp.

An effective way to evaluate performance from this perspective is to gather responses from refugees regarding the sanitation and water supply. A quantitative approach should consider the number of taps, lavatories, and showers available when compared to the planned amount (UNICEF, 2017). The safety of water in the camp should be assessed against the existing standards. The combination of these resources should ensure continuous funding for this project.

Summary Call to Action

Cost and benefit analysis can be applied to this action plan to determine the consequences of failing to help refugees. According to McGinnis et al. (2017), “10% of the total global burden of disease could be prevented by improvements to water supply, sanitation, and hygiene” while WASH initiatives generate “economic returns of $2 for every dollar spent on water and $5.50 for every dollar spent on sanitation” (p. 442).

This provides implications for both human and economic benefits of WASH projects because they can help reduce the emergency spending associated with disease outbreaks and minimize the number of deaths due to this cause. For instance, 80% of death caused by diarrhea are due to inadequate sanitation contribute to over 1,5 million deaths (McGinnis et al., 2017). The statistics illustrate the consequence of maintaining a status quo that damages the economy.

Conclusion

Overall, this proposal highlights the importance of the WASH initiative because it enables access to safe water supply for individuals. Many preventable disease outbreaks can be mitigated by ensuring appropriate water quality. Thus, this paper assesses the scope of requirements for setting up a 5,000-refugee camp including equipment and specific steps. Additionally, sources for funding and performance measures that help determine the outcomes are examined.

One of the most important issues that we Floridians are facing is that toxins have been found in our water. Most people don’t know how bad the problem is. I think Florida residents should be told about the toxins that is in our water and what health problems they are causing so we can make a difference by cleaning the ocean and stop polluting. In fact, our job as residents of Florida, we can help get rid of this problem. We should stop polluting the ocean and making it a suitable place for the algae to grow. Runoff from farms should go somewhere else where it will not cause a problem to the environment. We should also figure out a way to get rid of the algae that is present. We are being told that the toxins will not have long term effects on our health, so we are not as concerned as we should be.

Research has shown that “exposure to the blue-green algae could lead to death” (Hayden). We should learn more about the algae and what effects it is causing on both residents and wildlife. People living in areas where the algae blooms are present, are exposed to developing liver disease. Instead of denying the fact that the algae may be harmful, the health department should provide evidence of why they think that. It does not help that the sugarcane and other farms have fertilizers and agricultural byproducts that have been getting into the ocean as runoff. The nutrients from the fertilizers and agricultural byproducts and the saltwater from the ocean make it an ideal location for the algae to bloom. We also had a hurricane last year which could have possibly brought in nutrients from other places. Also, the warm weather causes the algae to “thrive”. A particular species of algae in the Gulf of Mexico, have been known to create a type of toxin that “kills fish and causes respiratory distress”.

Not only are the toxins in the water, but they can be transferred into the air. When the waves crash against the shore, the toxins are released into the air. As Florida residents Soto 2 walk along the beach, we are inhaling the toxins which would results in us getting side effects such as “nausea and vomiting” (Crunden). The algae problem is so bad that it is killing fish and sea turtles and their bodies are showing up on shore. In addition, we are getting toxins into our bodies from fish and shellfish. People who eat “seafood three times or more” per week have the highest risk of getting a “high mercury concentration” in their body (Williams). This will definitely cause serious health problems for those who eat a lot of fish. Florida residents who eat fish should know about the multiple consequences to understand why they should lower the amount of fish they eat. We are not the only ones affected by the mercury, dolphins have “the highest mercury concentrations found in the species” (Williams).

The high levels of mercury can “damage brain function” and it can also harm a “developing fetus” (Williams). Dolphins are considered coastal predators and since they are at the top of the food chain, they can help show us what is going on the environment. Seagrass, which sits at the bottom of the ocean, is also affected by the algae. The algae sits at the surface of the water blocking the sun which the seagrass needs in order to make photosynthesis. Without photosynthesis, the seagrass is dying. Florida’s most popular seafood is stone crab. The stone crabs are harvested from the Gulf Coast, where the harmful algae bloom is located.

In conclusion, there are many possible ways to help the Florida water crisis. We, Florida residents, can help by cleaning up the ocean and finding a new place for fertilizer runoff to be released. We can also help by choosing a new governor for Florida, one who will help solve this algae problem. Someone who will tell residents the truth about how bad it is. The health department and scientists should figure out a way to get rid of the algae blooms. Another way to help is to raise awareness all around the state about the algae. There are other ways that could get rid of the algae for good. Some long-term solutions could be “a new waste water system or a reservoir” (McCarthy).

A hypothesis within this report is proven correct concerning a correlation between higher mineral levels in bottled water than in tap water in London. The data is presented in many tables in the attached document, these tables are presenting constituent minerals, water hardness’s in 16 bottled water samples and London tap water, molarities of specific samples and minerals. Measurements of elements in tap water in various locations in London were undertaken via the use of a mass spectrometer. An analysis of a sample of Highlands Spring Water proves that the labelling on spring water can be highly inaccurate. Bottled water is also generally much softer than London tap water aside from a couple of anomalous results, these are mentioned later on in the report briefly in more detail. A brief summary upon the reasoning for the increased sodium and potassium levels in central London tap-water samples are addressed, generally explaining in a bit of detail the results of over-abstraction, resulting in salt encroachment and the surface pollution effects on the water table.

An industry worth more than £1.1 billion (1), the bottled water industry profits from commercially selling mineral-rich water claiming that drinking water with more minerals in, is significantly better for our health. Despite the exception of fluoride, which is added to assist dental health across the UK, tap water is certainly lacking in minerals in comparison. Of course, part of this is due to the lifespans of plumbing without treating the water, as certain minerals can precipitate out in underground pipes, creating blockages and strain on the system, but also because in excess, many of these minerals can damage our health.

Many companies have started to sell mineral water as facial sprays. Of these, a large amount of them are only made up of mineral water under the guise that the minerals contained are anti-ageing, energizing, soothing, antioxidizing among other claims. An example of this is MAC’s mineralized charged water spray, made up almost entirely of water with a few other minerals such as calcium, carbon and a hint of perfume. This product currently costs £190 per litre.(3)

In regards to earlier information in part 1 of this report, it is easily seen that the majority of the commercially bottled waters examined are soft to moderately hard in composition. Water 6 however, produced by San Pellegrino, is very hard in composition. Please refer to figure 2 in order to see the hardness’s of the 16 bottled water samples.

Different hardness’ of water taste different and some hardness is preferred for taste generally, but harder water is more difficult to lather and creates scale, furring up kettle, pipes and more. Water can be permanently hard as a result of a ‘high concentration of anions’ (4) and also the involvement of sulphate and chlorine salts. However, unlike temporary hardness, permanent hardness cannot be remedied by boiling the water thus forcing the offending salts to precipitate.

It is not true to say that all bottled water isn’t as heavily monitored as tap water and Harrogate’s mineral water proves this, quoting on their website (6) that their ‘onsite microbiology laboratory constantly monitors production to maintain the highest possible quality’. The company prides itself upon the purity of their water, explaining the lack of nitrates. However, bottled mineral water contains many dissolved minerals even if it is marketed as pure water. Sometimes minerals are added artificially in order to meet labelling standards and regulations to qualify their water as mineral water, thus falsely promoting that the water is pure and natural(7).

Within this report, the hypothesis shall be either proved or disproved (in the section methodology for the ways in which this has been done).

The hypothesis for this report is the following:

Commercially bottled water contains a much higher abundance of dissolved minerals than in London tap water due to the intense treatment of the latter solution.

In order to compare and contrast the mineral content of bottled water and London tap water, 16 bottled water labels were tabulated in Microsoft excel; each sample bottle was numbered 1 to 16. In order to fill out values for coca-colas Smart water, the internet was consulted. At first, these were written as mg/l just as on the bottles. Later, in a table underneath, in order to see the molarity (mol/l), these values were written out again and re-calculated in order to show the composition of the waters in a different light and in terms of mass. The advantages of this is that the figures are easy to gather, but on the other hand, they may not be fully accurate and are rounded up. Also, on some bottles, the mass of solids in solution was shown. The minerals on the bottle did not add up to this and therefore trace minerals were missing. Therefore, it is not a fully accurate mineral composition of the water.

Please see reference for the full report (9). The average minerals in mg/l that were in common with the minerals of the bottled waters were recorded in a table, figure 4. This allows one to be able to directly compare and contrast the tap water and bottled water in both mineral composition and water quality. The report was a good secondary resource and compiled by Thames Water Utilities Limited. The figures are likely correct and unbiased unlike bottled water figures. This is due to the size, nature and responsibility of the company. The report also dates from 2017 and isn’t as recent as the collected water samples provided by students. Thus a slight error in precision is caused.

Analysis of Other London Tap Water Sources and Highland Spring Water- Mass Spectrometry:

The values within figures 5 and 6 were obtained by means of machinery at University College London. Mass spectrometry is a highly accurate and precise way of measuring mineral content within water samples such as these.

In November, samples in test tubes labelled with dates, names and the content were handed in for analysis. As a handful of samples were gathered from the taps in accommodations across London, this information could be used for the proving of the hypothesis. The analysis of the Highland Spring Water allowed the misinformation on the label to be revealed.

Mass spectrometers split the solutions apart into their individual components and gave information about the solution’s molecular weight. Information regarding the presence of certain elements works by analyzing the sample for specific isotopes. As a result of this, mass spectrometry is wonderful for revealing the identity of an unknown compound but does not work in regards to distinguishing between isomers. Samples can also be contaminated by previous analysis’ by the machine, thus the use of standards and blanks has to be implicated. Standards are materials with very precisely known values are analysed and once these have been analysed, if the analysis is inaccurate, the mass spectrometer can be calibrated to the standard. Blank samples are also baseline non- contaminated samples that can be run through the machine in order to test for any contamination issues or as a baseline before an altered sample is analysed. Mass spectrometry is accurate to 2.7ppm.(10)

Referring to Figure 1, the 16 bottled waters were generally soft to moderately hard with only bottle 6 breaking this mode. Many minerals had a significant presence in the water regardless of the water was still or sparkling. Many bottles were fairly high in sulphates and chloride, indicating a more permanent hardness in many waters. High Mg and Ca content also showed temporary hardness was present in many bottles. Total dissolved solids were not the product of adding the shown minerals on the bottles, hence we can conclude that there are many more trace elements within these waters.

pH’s were present on the labelling on 8 bottles. 5 of these had a pH of 7 and the others were slightly alkaline, at 7.2 (bottle 9), 7.6 (bottle 16) and 7.8 (bottle 13).

68% of the bottled water was soft, 25% was moderately hard and 7% very hard.

68% of the water was dominated by an anionic charge (negative) and the rest cationic (positive).This had no correlation with the hardness of the water however.

Mass Spectrometry results and London tap water-

The most prominent minerals in the Highland Spring Water analysed were calcium, potassium, lithium, magnesium and sodium. This aligns with the labelling however, not in the correct quantities at all. The large quantity of calcium, at 415.14mg/l and magnesium, at 231.77mg/l show us that this is a very hard water.

On the other hand, the London tap water samples from Camden, central London, have the highest hardness with a large amount of calcium present (averaging around 100mg/l) and a small amount of magnesium. Wimbledon water contains a lesser amount of calcium in the sample analysed but aside from that, there is not much variation between Camden, Wimbledon, Shoreditch and London Bridge tap water.

In Bloomsbury, the magnesium content is very similar to the other central London tap water samples analysed by UCL and the mass spectrometer. There is not a significant variation between sodium levels either. Bloomsbury water samples are slightly lower in Na. Potassium and manganese are seen as components in the tap water samples analysed but not in the Bloomsbury water report.

The differences between central London and the suburbs is evident when you see the tap water report for Sutton, 10.5 miles south from central London. There is much less calcium at 82.28mg/l and a reduction in the levels of potassium, sodium and manganese.

London tap water sources are highly treated before distribution to houses. As shown by figures 4 and 5 in the spreadsheet and outlined in the previous section, tap water in London is moderately hard (has a value over 60mg/l but under 120mg/l when the Mg and Ca contents are added).

Hardness is defined as ‘a measure of the amount of calcium and magnesium salts in water’ (2). The hardness of these solutions can vary from being very soft to very hard. Despite the natural softness of rainwater, any water can become hard, as the hardness of water is dependent on the ions dissolving into solution whilst it percolates through the rock it has infiltrated. Calcium and magnesium rich rocks will create a higher hardness of water. Water is trapped either in underground reservoir rocks, covered by cap rocks such as clay, which is impermeable, or in surface reservoirs. Many reservoirs are man-made and water can increase in hardness depending on the composition of the reservoir.

Figure 6- The Geology of the London Basin, displaying the syncline, chalk aquifer and cap rock structure. (11)

The water to London is supplied by an underground aquifer, the cretaceous chalk, a part of the London basin. The cretaceous chalk is porous (an abundance of pore space) and the pore spaces are interconnected. Consequently, the chalk is very permeable. Chalk is made of calcium carbonate and can be dissolved fairly easily into the water, thus there is a large amount of calcium in the tap water hence a higher hardness (a mean of 99.9mg/l- figure 5). The lack of Mg is easily explained, as chalk lacks magnesium and other felsic type minerals.

The cap rock is of a Paleogene and Neogene ages and made up of impermeable clays. Either side of this synclinal basin, there are two aquifer recharging points, one of which is the Chiltern Hills.

Potassium levels are higher in central London due to pollutants and the use of pesticides and the such, these find their way into the water via runoff.

Na levels also are higher due to a high population creating a higher demand for water. This can be seen in the difference between the sodium levels in Sutton and Camden tap water levels. An explanation of this is that as water is extracted, a cone of depression forms, lowering local water levels in a roughly V-shape. A deeper cone is formed the more stress is put upon the aquifer; a result of the aquifer’s inability to replenish it’s water supplies quickly enough/ faster than the rate of abstraction. A higher population means a higher rate of abstraction is needed. Thus water tries to even out the gradient of depression. By doing this, the process of salt water encroachment can occur, especially near the coast, like the London basin. In areas of less abstraction, away from central London abstraction sites, this doesn’t generally occur. Hence why Sutton has a lower sodium level.

In regards to the bottled water, the water is much less regulated by laws than tap water and so has many more constituent minerals. Pollutants are not as common, compared to central London and the higher level of potassium than in most of the bottled water samples. Most bottled water is abstracted in desolate areas and in the Northern areas of the UK, where the population is much less dense. Thus the potassium mg/l average is 1.33 excluding the anomaly (bottle 3, smart water, which has been artificially added) in the pattern.

As shown in part 1, the bottled water mineral statements generally match up to the rocks that they were extracted from, presented in the piper diagram, question 6. This is shows us that it is preferential to commercial water suppliers, signifying that consumers prefer the taste in terms of supply and demand, to abstract water commercially from further North than London. This is not the case for all water, (as shown from the fact bottle water 7 was abstracted in Devon). It is much more common to have much more mineral-enriched water in commercial bottled water than in London taps and the sources for the balance between not too hard but not too soft yet still mineral enriched waters tend to be abstracted from the Northern areas of the British Isles.

Overall, these findings prove the hypothesis that ‘commercially bottled water contains a much higher abundance of dissolved minerals than in London tap water due to the intense treatment of the latter solution.’ As discussed in the previous section and shown clearly within the tables and results presented, although bottled water is on average much softer than water from central London, bottled water is much more enriched with minerals. Often, bottled water is enriched with more minerals and calcium in order to fulfil labelling requirements for ‘mineral’ water. In this light, it could also be argued that bottled water is just as treated as tap water in London, however, after this, bottled water has more minerals overall inside as a result of a lack of monitoring/regulating the quality (and also opposingly the lack of care for the naturalness) of commercially sold water.

The focus of this essay is the power of water. Water is a necessity of life. Without water to sustain us, we cannot live. Because water is so vital to the survival of humans, settlements are usually located around a source. The development of urban societies depended on the management of the water resources around the settlements in order to produce food and supply this vital resource to its population.

The Indus civilization and civilizations like Dong Son are examples of the importance of water. The Indus civilization is situated around the Indus river valley. The Indus River flows from southern Tibet and comes down from the mountains and flows through to the semiarid Indus plains. (Scarre and Fagan 2016: 136) The silt left behind makes it easy to cultivate and grow things. The Indus and the Saraswati rivers and their yearly flooding were important to early Indus cities for their agriculture usually consisting of wheat and barley. The formative years of the Indus cities are difficult to discover due to the silt left behind that covers the cities. However, the development of the Indus culture into urban centers seems to have evolved in about two centuries which is very fast. It is believed that trade also played a role in the growth especially the sea trade along the coast of the Persian Gulf. They developed into larger hierarchy settlements that were over cities, towns, and villages. It is thought that the leaders were chieftains, priests, or kin leaders that intervened to the gods.

In Southeast Asia, rivers were also important. The main staple grown there was rice. Initially, rice was grown in small settlements and was called dry farming. But as larger populations increased and the chiefdoms appeared, the development of wet rice farming increased production. Plowing, moats and double cropping also helped when the populations increased. The Dong Son culture that developed in the Red River valley is a culture that used double cropping. This is where two crops of rice per year were harvested due to the amount of water in the area. (Scarre and Fagan 2016: 333) The Dong Son culture was ruled by chiefs, warriors, and keepers of the drums. The Chinese did not consider them to be very civilized, but warred and still traded with them for many years. Eventually, they were beaten by stronger forces of China.

Water is a vital part of life. While water may be used in different ways, it could be argued that societies would not have developed into large population centers without it. Water is a versatile and necessary amenity. It can be used for agriculture, ruling others, and defense/protection against enemies.

The problem of lack of access to improved drinking water is one of the most significant public health issues in developing countries nowadays. Every year people in developing countries die because of the lack of access to basic sanitation, personal hygiene, and clean drinking water. There are water missions that support people in overcoming these challenges, their work is rather useful but still, the problem of access to potable water remains the issue of the day for many countries. Developed countries don’t suffer the same questions; their water is less contaminated, and it is not full of bacteria. However, in leading countries, some water supply problems may occur but the governments of these countries resolve the issues urgently. Thus, the issue of access to safe drinking water and improved sanitation in developed countries is less vexed (Detels, Gulliford, Abdool Karim & Tan, 2015). For example, a morning shower in the United States takes as much water as people take during the day in developing countries.

Water-associated diseases kill more than 3 million people, especially children, per year in developing countries (Gray, 2008). In recent years, thanks to international support, the number of victims has decreased considerably. International missions work on providing adequate water supply in these countries. There are various efficient global programs, such as UN-Water, The Water Project, ACP-EU Water Facility. The year 2008 was the international year of sanitation; it was aimed at the achievement of the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) sanitation target; 2,5 billion people have lack access to improved sanitation and 1,2 billion have no access at all.

International rights to water and sanitation should be provided in the countries of South-eastern and Eastern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. Developing countries should make some vital changes in their policy to reduce the risks, connected with drinking water access and sanitation. The first step to the active solution of water access issues is the implementation of the policy for improving water services. Developing countries should retain a healthy water supply through various policy measures, they are the following: providing the pre-treatment of industrial waste, allocation of industrial facilities out of town, consistent political management on water discharge, reducing the concentration of contaminants, optimization of water-based industrial operations.

Before trying to solve the water-related problems, one should clearly understand what factors influence water scarcity. Socio-ecological factors influence educational interventions and solutions to water-related problems significantly. There are the following stages of the solution of this issue: various intervention programs should be worked out and implemented, according to some social peculiarities of the population, formal education, especially health education in some areas should be improved, the supervision of ecological sanitation should be provided. It is obvious that there are no results without some sanitation facilities or water supply. But people, inhabiting developing countries should know how to use them correctly. Thus, educational interventions are aimed at the achievement of this goal. International organizations should not only ensure these people with all needed, but they should teach them to use all they have effectively to change the ecological situation in their countries. It is evident that low educational progress is directly related to environmental degradation and disregard of hygiene. As practice shows, people with a lack of education are more inclined to break the rules of personal hygiene and sanitation. Only the interaction of all the factors, influencing the environment in developing countries can reduce the risks of water-related diseases and deaths (World Health Organization, 2014).

The popularity of recreational sports and swimming caused the need for profound research of the risks and dangers surrounding water supply and water quality. People that use recreational water are in danger of severe or even fatal diseases. Also, various infections may cause serious consequences. Microbial hazards and pathogenic micro-organisms are the risks of sports that demand close contact with recreational water. The most dangerous kinds of sports are surfing, windsurfing, and scuba diving. So, people should choose whether they consider recreational water a serious threat to their health or just a medium for relaxation and rest. It is evident that some of the recreational sports are good physical exercises necessary for our health. One should weigh the benefits and the drawbacks of this pastime carefully. In order to reduce the risk in water recreation, people should follow some rules: boating only in lifejackets, watching the broadcasting of storm warnings, wearing protective clothing, being attentive to different dangerous signs on the beaches, avoiding the infected regions, using antimalarial therapy. One man in California, went camping with his children. There they used unboiled water from a pond near the toilet. He also used water from the lake where he was fishing. They ate contaminated fish from this lake. His children did not catch any disease after the camping, but he was infected. It is also possible that some people will develop illnesses and others will not.

The most frequent users of coastal recreational water are children, students, tourists, sportsmen, and hotel guests. Children are more susceptible to hazards than others. Most often children are the violators of the rules of bathing in ponds. Thus they can injure not only themselves but other people. Besides, they are most inclined to spend a lot of time in the recreational water, so they risk swallowing water. Elder and disabled people may not have enough strength and skill to deal with hazards in recreational waters. People with weakened immune systems are most susceptible to pathogens that are found in this environment. The danger is great for all persons equally; however, young people are more often interested in recreational sports and, hence, they are most susceptible to various diseases (Pond, 2005).

There are some measures and solutions for reducing or even eliminating the problem of various health risks surrounding water supply and water quality. Of course, beach cleaning, warning signs on the beach, litter bins, some prohibiting regulations, lifeguarding, and appropriate inspection of the beaches should be provided. But all these factors do not guarantee safe swimming. There are also some personal rules for the recreation water users. Having outdoor activities people should limit time in the midday sun, wear sunscreens, protective clothing, and use a shade. The main problem on the way to the solution of environmental issues is a violation of generally accepted rules. Water pollution remains one of the most significant problems for modern society. Lack of clean drinking and recreational water causes human losses every day. There are a lot of international organizations trying to contribute to overcoming these issues. Thus, there is noticeable progress in the solution of water supply challenges. People all over the world suffer from the lack of water and water contamination. Thus, only ordinary interaction and mutual aid can save billions of lives. One person can make a difference.

Environmental conditions have profound effects on the well-being of the humankind. However, despite the recognition of their importance, they remain unaddressed by many business entities. Such an approach is considered undesirable both for the corporate and individual stakeholders in the long run. The following case study explores the effect of negligence towards water stewardship and provides recommendations on the roles of stakeholders in the process.

Conflict of Goals

In order to discuss the responsibilities of the stakeholders in the environmental issues of global warming, it is first necessary to identify the area where the goals of economic growth conflict with the concept of sustainable development. As can be seen from the case, the focal point is the rapid growth of economies in several developing countries. This assertion is corroborated by numerous reports by the environmental organizations and opinions of experts in the field, who point to links between the economic activities of specific countries and observed environmental effects. According to the consensus, China is one of the largest contributors to global carbon emissions (see Appendix A).

It is also widely believed that the magnitude of the effect is sufficient to impact public health within the country and, to some extent, indirectly influence the citizens of other countries (Wolch, Byrne, & Newell, 2014). A similar concern has been raised in regard to India – another major player emerging on a global scale. The massive adverse impact on the environment, including the areas of water and air pollution and carbon emissions, has been attributed primarily to the remarkable economic growth of the recent years (Glasson, Therivel, & Chadwick, 2012). The main reason behind the identified connection is the demand for energy.

A functional economic environment requires the presence of numerous systems, including transportation, communication, and banking, among others. Each of these systems requires significant amounts of energy for effective functioning. In addition, there is an ongoing trend towards the rapid increase in energy demands throughout the economy (see Appendix B). Currently, its production relies heavily on traditional methods, with fossil fuels being the main source of energy.

This method is considered among the primary contributors to the global warming due to massive carbon emissions resulting from it. While cleaner alternative sources of energy exist and are becoming increasingly accessible, many stakeholders still consider them prohibitively expensive and inefficient, especially in the short term. As can be seen, the conflict between the goals of economic growth and the concept of sustainable development stems primarily from the energy requirements and the reluctance to face additional costs associated with the introduction of sustainable energy sources.

Developing Countries Perspective

The described issues are particularly relevant for developing counties. Several causes can be identified as contributing to the issue. First, as was explained in the case study, developing countries experience more challenges in addressing the environmental needs due to the lack of required resources. According to the Kuznets Curve concept, the compliance with environmental regulations requires a significant amount of investment that is likely unavailable to the developing economies (Hamilton & Webster, 2015). While the effect weakens over the course of time, the early stage of development becomes the most challenging. Second, environmental change introduces numerous social and political challenges, each of which is sufficient to create an adverse impact on the country’s population.

For instance, poor environmental conditions inevitably lead to adverse health effects that can be effectively addressed only through a well-developed healthcare system. Since such systems are relatively uncommon for the developing countries, it is evident that the population is expected to suffer from a decline in public health (Watts et al., 2015). In a similar manner, the country’s agricultural segment is easily affected by the climatic changes, which in the case of developing countries has a direct impact on the well-being, and, in extreme cases, survival of the population (Laurance, Sayer, & Cassman, 2014).

Finally, the majority of the effects of environmental issues create financial challenges both at the corporate and the individual level by introducing additional expenses, which makes the populations with lower income especially vulnerable to the issue. As the developing countries are commonly associated with higher levels of poverty, it would be logical to conclude that the effect will be especially prominent.

Water Security Risks

The adverse effects of environmental factors discussed above can be exemplified by the water security concerns. Two main areas of concern can be identified. The first is the use of water for agricultural purposes by the businesses directly involved in the industry. In addition to the effects on the food supplies mentioned in the previous section, this factor impacts the profitability of the companies involved in food production.

Due to the fact that economies of some countries rely heavily on the agricultural sector, it is easy to see how the state of water resources can affect the GDP of the entire country. In addition, the effect can extend beyond the source country and influence the well-being of other stakeholders. As was mentioned in the case, the drought of 2010 in Russia had a profound effect on the prices of food across North Africa and the Middle East, both of which depended on the export of Russian wheat (Hamilton & Webster, 2015). While the effect on agricultural sector is relatively straightforward, its indirect outcomes, such as the political and social unrest resulting from the price changes, are less evident and cannot be reliably predicted.

The second area is the effects on local communities as a result of the industrial use of water. Unlike the agricultural sector, which uses the water mainly for irrigation, various industries utilize it for a variety of purposes, such as a coolant or a component in chemical processes. Water is also an efficient and cheap solvent, which makes it an attractive option in the manufacturing of various goods. Predictably, such treatment often leads to adverse effects such as industrial pollution. In the extreme cases, a significant amount of water resources are rendered unsuitable for consumption and sanitary purposes (WHO, 2013).

The issue is further aggravated by the fact that appropriate water treatment requires significant investment in equipment and staff training, which discourages the companies from responsible environmental practices (McElroy & Van Engelen, 2012). In addition, the adverse impacts eventually become apparent to the local population, which leads to the deteriorating reputation of the business responsible for the effect (Clarke, 2017). In some instances, this prompts companies to conceal their involvement and introduce other unfair practices. It should be emphasized that the described barriers to sustainable practices are widely believed to be short-term (IPCC, 2015). Nevertheless, the lack of strategic planning and an absence of corporate social responsibility practices often limit the corporate vision on the matter.

Stakeholder Responsibilities

The encompassing effect of water quality necessitates a response in the form of responsible practices. However, it should be understood that there is no agreement regarding the distribution of responsibilities on water stewardship. The main reason is the fact that water cannot be owed by any given entity in a sense familiar to businesses and is instead viewed as a common good (Roa, 2013). By extension, it is often assumed that while they have the right to use it on par with others, businesses have no responsibilities regarding the state of water resources. On the other hand, local population, which often suffers the most from the detrimental effects of improper business practices, lacks resources and time necessary to make an impact.

Finally, it should be acknowledged that the issue of uniform access and adequate quality of water is complex and encompassing enough to render piecemeal attempts ineffective. In other words, it requires a coordinated effort of several major stakeholders in order to achieve a noticeable result. From this perspective, for-profit companies should incorporate reasonable corporate social responsibility policies that would allow maintaining healthy business practices that do not compromise water resources in the region.

If designed and implemented properly, in the long term such practices are expected to yield numerous benefits for the business, including a consistent supply of labor force, availability of a crucial resource in the long run, and appositive image. The community should participate by forming activist groups that would raise awareness on the issue and gain sufficient traction to negotiate with influential organizations and businesses. In this way, they can communicate their interests and needs more effectively and achieve the desired result.

Conclusion

Water accessibility and quality are complex issues that require a comprehensive response. Despite the perceived barriers in the form of additional expenses, an appropriately planned response is expected to provide numerous long-term benefits both to the businesses and the local population. Thus, it is reasonable to recommend a collaboration between these stakeholders in order to achieve a favorable result without disrupting the performance and profitability of the organizations.

Water treatment is any process that improves the quality of water to make it more acceptable for various uses. Water treatment removes contaminants and undesirable components, or reduces their concentration so that the water becomes fit for its desired use. For the water treatment process different methods are used like filtration, zeolite process, ion-exchange, reverse osmosis, ozonation, ultraviolet light, activated carbon towersand membrane distillation. Waterbodies contains many harmful constrain like specifically heavy metals It is very important to identify the relationship between the presence of heavy metals in drinking water and the prevalence of renal failure, liver cirrhosis, hair loss, and chronic anemia diseases. The prevalence of these diseases were markedly increases in the last few years due to air pollution, water pollution, and hazards over uses of pesticides in agriculture.

Trace amounts of metals are common in water, and these are normally not harmful to our health. In fact, some metals are essential to sustain life. Calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium must be present for normal body functions. Cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc are needed at low levels as catalysts for enzyme activities. Drinking water containing high levels of these essential metals, or toxic metals such as aluminum, arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, selenium, and silver, may be hazardous to our health. For water treatment membrane distillation process is used, principle of membrane distillation is the art processes that separate mass flows by a membrane, mostly use a static pressure difference as the driving force between the two bounding surfaces, a difference in concentration or an electric field . Selectivity of a membrane is produced by, either its pore size in relation to the size of the substance to be retained, its diffusion coefficient or electrical polarity. However, the selectivity of membranes used for membrane distillation is based on the retention of liquid water with-at the same time-permeability for free water molecules and thus, for water vapour. These membranes are made of hydrophobic synthetic material and offer pores with a standard diameter between 0.1 and 0.5 µm. As water has strong dipole characteristics, whilst the membrane fabric is non-polar, the membrane material is not wetted by the liquid. Even though the pores are considerably larger than the molecules, the liquid phase does not enter the pores because of the high water surface tension. The driving force which delivers the vapour through the membrane, in order to collect it on the permeate side as product water, is the partial water vapour pressure difference between the two bounding surfaces. This partial pressure difference is the result of a temperature difference between the two bounding surfaces. As can be seen in the image, the membrane is charged with a hot feed flow on one side and a cooled permeate flow on the other side. The temperature difference through the membrane, usually between 5 and 20 K, conveys a partial pressure difference which ensures that the vapour developing at the membrane surface follows the pressure drop, permeating through the pores and condensing on the cooler side.

Expressions for the heat transfer resistances and mass transfer resistances of all the physical domains composing direct contact membrane distillation processes are developed and their absolute and relative effects are evaluated to improve the process understanding and identify promising ways for its improvement. The resistances are computed based on two-dimensional conjugate model in which a simultaneous numerical solution of the momentum, energy and diffusion equations of the feed and cold solutions have been carried out, and the results of which were validated in comparison with available experimental results.

Most of America knows the Flint water crisis of the last four years has become quite the epidemic and the more we learn the worse things seem to become. Since the discovery of discolored water in peoples tap water we’ve found out a lot of the affects switching to the Flint River had on the residents of Flint. Not only do people have to cope without being able to use their own taps in their homes and having to get water by other means, they have also found they are generally stuck dealing with the health side effects of the crisis on their own as well. Lead which seeped into the water supply is an extremely toxic metal, it can sicken people of all ages, but young children are even more susceptible to it.

According to the World Health Organization “Lead in the body is distributed to the brain, liver, kidney and bones. It is stored in the teeth and bones, where it accumulates over time” with this being such a threat to our health it is unsettling to know so many people in flint, including children, were affected. Not only were people not allowed to use their taps for drinking water or making food but the risk of exposure did not end there, people who bathed in the water could have been affected in that way as well, the evaporating tainted water could have made its way into people’s lungs, it is not unreasonable to expect this happened to so many people before what they realized what was happening. Until now the only thing that has really been done to help those who could not afford to help themselves was to provide bottled water, which as a short-term solution was undeniably very helpful to residents who had no other options. This cannot be a permanent solution however and even the filters which claim to filter the lead out of water were not only very expensive and hard for residents to justify purchasing but they were known to collect bacteria. Residents who could afford it could buy filters and use them if they liked, or a more expensive alternative was to have the lead piping replaced leading into their homes. While this could be a more permanent solution, it is extremely costly to do for every resident in flint and would require lots of state funding considering residents would not be able to cough up the money.

For my paper I focused my research on finding innovative solutions. Solutions that have been often overlooked, not given the exposure it deserves, or is not generally as popular as others. Countless people who were unfamiliar with the crisis thought the simple solution would be just to switch Flints water supply back to the Detroit water system like it had before, but this is simply not that easy. The damage has already been done, the lead pipes have irreversibly been corroded and must be dealt with.

For the duration of my paper I’ll be covering the three solutions I found in my research that seem to be the most likely and possible.The first solution I came across was one thought up by a 12-year-old girl. Over the past months this solution has produced a following and quite a bit of attention. She continues improve and continue working on her invention and this could end up being the real deal. This young genius goes by the name Gitanjali Rao and she’s developed a portable water testing kit which you can use to test for lead levels anywhere. She calls her device Tethys and believes it could be a great alternative to home testing which is not the most accurate, while it does only cost around $10 – $30, or if you wanted to receive more accurate results you could have your water sampled and tested in labs this method while being accurate is on the rather pricey end as well as being very time consuming, it can cost upwards of a hundred dollars to send your water in to be tested.

Gitanjali hopes that her device “Tethys” can provide affordable, accurate, and convenient testing capabilities expecting the cost to be near $20 it’s around the same price as a at home test kit, and with a small footprint it is about the size of an energy drink can. What enables Rao’s invention to be so advanced and revolutionary is the tech she has put behind it. The devices utilizes “carbon nanotubes, microscopic cylindrical structures that have a range of unusual properties and innovative applications” she got the idea from an MIT project which uses them to detect harmful gases in the air. To detect the lead a carbon nanotube sensor is employed with the addition of special atoms that react to lead and give the device a reading of when lead is present. On top of all that she developed an app for your smart phone which wirelessly connects to Tethys and displays the results of your test on your smart phone telling you if the water is safe to drink or if you should be cautious in using it.

My second solution is one I had no idea about prior to studying it, and I assume most people are strangers to the idea as well. At first when I read about the plants possibly being the solution I didn’t know what to think, but upon further investigating I came across a small article explaining how researchers at Riken Center for Sustainable Resources in Japan have found a type of moss that can absorb large amounts of lead in water. This Moss is called Furina hygrometrica, or F. hygrometrica, and it is known to grow especially well in sites contaminated with metals like lead and others.

According to researchers “phytoremediation is a method that uses photosynthesizing organisms to clean up soil or water contamination. The CSRS researchers began their search for a phytoremediation-based removal method by looking at F. hygrometrica” (Riken 1) they chose to start their studies with this plant because it is known to thrive in areas with higher levels of metals like copper, zinc, and lead. In some of their testing researchers found astonishingly that “the team first prepared solutions with varying concentrations of 15 different metals and exposed them to F. hygrometrica protonema. After 22 hours of exposure, mass-spectrometer analysis showed that the moss cells had absorbed lead up to 74% of their dry weight, which is quite high and much higher than any of the other metals.” (Riken 1)

Additionally with further experimentation and testing they saw that even after being removed from the living moss it could still absorb lead. This breakthrough could surely be a possible solution. A sure-fire way of using the moss has not been discussed yet to most effectively use it to remove lead but with more researchers and trials being done currently this special moss could be an organic solution to Flint’s water crisis.Now for the last of my solutions I found, and possibly my favorite, is one a high school student developed, and I thought it was so interesting not only due to the possibilities but that there are really kids out there doing this kind of research on their own. Michal Ruprecht is a student at Grosse Pointe North High School who researched green chemistry. Through his research he discovered what could be the fix to Flint’s water crisis by creating what is known as a Ligand. A Ligand is “an ion or molecule attached to a metal atom by coordinate bonding” which means it can be put in water after being developed for a certain task like bonding to lead. so, once it is mixed in the water, specialized ligands will bond with lead which can allow us to remove it from the water.

Another way to describe what a ligand does is to think of it like a claw, it is specially designed to pick up other atoms. Not much professional scale research has been done yet involving the use of ligands to remove lead, but Michal does plan to continue his research and possibly run tests by working with waste water treatment facilities to get ahold of tainted water to run his tests on. Now that I have stated my findings id like to give my opinion on some of these solutions to the problem so many people are facing, and that is not exclusively concerning Flint, but people all over the world who are affected by lead tainted water. For starters I do think that the best solution I’ve come across is not listed in my paper, but it is just to simply replace the lead piping which was affected and corroded. I believe this is the most effective longterm solution to the crisis, but it is by far one of the most expensive and one of the things that will take the longest.

Additionally aside from the Tethys, portable water testing device, I do not have a price estimate as to how much this research and development for new strategies will cost but I what I do know is, that once a these are further along their stage of development and able to be used to complete their intended task I think they will have more versatile roles than just being used on our Flint water crisis and they can also be adapted to solve other crisis in the future. As far as short-term fixes go, the Tethys is not going to solve the issue, but it can be a tool used by residents to help stay safe and avoid excess damage to their lives. Research with regards to the Ligands and F. hygrometrica (lead absorbing moss) is still being conducted and can potentially be used in the future.

Water is an important aspect of our ecosystem, where the water quality has a major role in the human and animal life. The water quality refers to the condition of water regarding the chemical, physical and biological aspects. Water clarity is the most obvious measurement of water quality. In this research I will be researching about the chemical composition of the water quality of Iowa’s river, in specific the transparency of water InSite E (the stream that enters Iowa’s river after it goes through town).

The Transparency of water refers to the depth of light that can go through water. light is an essential source of energy, specifically for most biological communities in the river. Therefore, this physical property of water is important in the aquatic systems. Which affects main chemical components of rivers water are nitrite, phosphate and dissolved oxygen. These 3 indifferent proportions will affect the level of transparency of water in different areas of Iowa’s river. Including agricultural and urban runoff. Although nitrates, phosphate and oxygen are important in water, an excess amount of these chemical components could harm the aquatic life. When the particles in water increase, it causes a reduction in the transparency of water, which would in turn result in a reduction in the transparency for aquatic animal as well as a decrease in the rate of photosynthesis.

A river is a natural stream of freshwater that is usually the main channel for drainage systems. Typically, rivers start from areas made up of small tributaries, which travel in streams and at various speeds before they re- join in a bigger water body which is the case with Iowa’s river. Since streams travel in different areas, there will be different water-land interactions meaning the composition of water will be altered by human activities according to the environment in the particular area such as farms harmful runoffs or the negligence of proper disposal of factories wastes. This would explain the phenomenon of the differences in the level of water transparency in different parts of the river streams.

Sun light has a major role in Photosynthesis for plants under water, which is one of the main sources of oxygen. Which as a result increases the level of dissolved oxygen production in water and can be altered by the transparency level, and when there is low transparency levels sunlight can’t reach plant therefore it affects the photosynthesis process which affects the respiration and survival of aquatic animals and under water plants. Like humans, underwater organisms depend on the dissolved oxygen level in water. In addition, D.O is needed for the bacteria involved in the decomposition of organic matter. Lack of oxygen could cause anoxia which is deadly for invertebrates, shellfish and fish. Thus, limiting the capacity of marine life. Not only is the aquatic life affected, it could also have a considerable effect on the human’s quality of life in regards to the health of nearby community as well as the human perception of recreational water environments and water activities such as fishing. This would, as a result have economic consequences.

Soil ,sediments and fertilizers runoffs can decrease Transparency levels and it affects the Phosphate and nitrate level. They are an essential chemical for aquatic life because it helps the growth of aquatic plants which provides food and oxygen for fish. Human activities such as construction sites, residential areas and farm fertilization can increase the concentration of phosphates and nitrites. As a result, it affects the water transparence. Which accelerate the growth of harmful algae. Harmful algae cause a decrease in the dissolved oxygen levels. This is called eutrophication (growth of harmful algae because of high concentration of nutrients in water). This phenomenon can cause dead zones, like the what has occurred on the Arabian sea and Gulf of Mexico, these are areas where no organisms can survive. Algae can cover up large surface areas of bodies of water, which affects the transparency level in which will change human perception about construction sites and farm fertilizations usage due to the risk of a dead zone occurring.

Water transparency is measured by Secchi disk. Transparency ranges from 5cm – 60cm. poor transparency is measurement below 20cm (colored in red). Fair transparency ranges from 20cm to 40cm (colored in yellow) and good transparency is 41 to 60 cm(colored in green) and 60+ is excellent transparency (colored in blue).

Water safety is a primary concern for many people not only in America but globally. The development of residential and industrial properties in water-catchment areas and close to waterways has triggered widespread water contamination thus limiting access to clean and safe drinking water (Goncharuk, 2014). Consequently, there has been a rise in the number of bottled water companies that offer an alternative source of clean water. The companies apply various methods such as distillation and filtration to produce sufficient quantities of water. The methods are capital intensive thus consumers have to purchase the water they need. Therefore, it becomes necessary to carry out detailed experiments on the bottled and tap water that is made available to consumers to establish whether it is worthwhile to purchase bottled water.

According to Waite (2012), an analysis of the water produced by bottling companies as well as tap water revealed some differences in their mineral composition. While water contains some essential minerals, it may be noted that contamination may occur as the water is being stored or as it is being transported through pipes from their source to the consumers’ houses. Therefore, treatment at a water collection point does not always guarantee that the water is safe for domestic use. Bottled water, on the other hand, is treated, packed, and distributed under hygienic conditions that are usually set and regulated by federal or state agencies to ensure its safety. Therefore, an experiment to test the differences between tap water and bottled water can reveal the differences that exist between the two thus helping to establish whether it worth to pay for bottled water as is the case with bottled water.

The water bottling process involves filtration and other treatment measures that eliminate harmful microorganisms. Conversely, untreated tap water poses several health risks because it is obtained and distributed in its raw form which could be contaminated due to contact with human waste, garbage, and chemicals (Ware, 2012). It is necessary to consider that the contaminants easily seep into the water table in lowlands and other waterlogged areas. Therefore, the experiment seeks to identify whether processed and bottled water is healthier for consumption and whether it is worth paying the price for it (Goncharuk, 2014).

Methodology and Materials

The initial experiment involved testing the pH levels of bottled water and tap water. Samples from two bottled water companies, Dasani and Fiji, and tap water were used. The samples were used to rinse three test tubes while avoiding direct hand-water contact because the bare hands could contaminate the water. 5ml of each sample were also added to each test tube after which drops of indicator solution were added. The observations were then recorded. For the testing of nitrate, acid reagents and nitrate nitrogen comparators were used. Similar tests were carried out to establish the levels of ammonia, chloride, phosphate, iron, chlorine, and hardness.

Results

According to the experiments, it was established that bottled water contained fewer contaminants in their mineral composition. The pH levels were also lower in bottled water compared to tap water thus indicating that water filtration and other procedures used in water bottling were effective in eliminating harmful microorganisms.

Discussion

The measures established by water bottling companies were regarded as useful in the control of waterborne diseases (Goncharuk, 2014). For example, high levels of chlorine were recorded in the two brands of bottled water thus implying that the chemical is heavily used in water treatment and bottling plants. Therefore, bottled water presents antimicrobial benefits thus helping to prevent the prevalence of waterborne ailments.

Concerns have also been raised over the safety of rainwater as an alternative to bottled and tap water. However, it is worth noting that although rain water does not contain any impurities, it eventually gets contaminated upon hitting the ground due to the presence of contaminants that exist either in the soil or water bodies (Waite, 2012). As such, it is evident that the processes involved in water bottling are useful in eliminating harmful contaminants and softening it for human consumption (Goncharuk, 2014). Regarding the hypothesis, it is possible to conclude that bottled water is safer for use thus it is worth paying the price for a healthy drink.

It is also critical to note that the quality of bottled water varies from one company to another (Ware, 2012). For instance, the level of contaminants including minerals in various brands of bottled water varies depending on a company’s source of raw water and the steps utilized in purifying it. The bottled water industry has experienced tremendous growth in the past few years due to the increasing awareness of the need to consume safe water. The introduction of flavored mineral water has also created a niche for bottling companies through which they can attract and retain more customers and subsequently raising the demand for their products (Goncharuk, 2014).

Despite the rising demand for bottled water, however, concerns have been raised over the safety of water that is packed in plastic containers. Plastics are believed to release carcinogenic elements especially when subjected to high temperatures in enclosed places such as the inside of a vehicle. Although studies are yet to establish a clear standpoint regarding the same, it is necessary for consumers to take precautionary measures to avoid implications which include the growth of cancer cells due to the accumulation of carcinogenic residues in the body.

The experiment focused on identifying the presence of various chemicals in the water. However, it would be necessary to establish the extent to which the chemicals affect normal body functions in humans when ingested in varying quantities (Goncharuk, 2014). Therefore, a future experiment will focus on the ratio of contaminants to water in a given sample and seek the implications of such ratios. The idea is based on the fact that some mineral components were observed to have varying concentrations in the three water samples. For example, high levels of chlorine are regarded as detrimental the bones and other body functions. Therefore, it would be necessary to establish the sample that had the right amount of chlorine and other components. Also, the experiment will utilize different testing techniques to get results that reflect a clearer analysis of the samples to be tested.

Conclusion

The consumption of bottled water presents a greater significance as opposed to consuming tap water. The purification processes utilized in bottling plants are designed to ensure that the water retains as many natural components as possible. Therefore, it is advisable for consumers to prefer the bottled water over tap water which could contain contaminants acquired from the soil, underground or surface catchment points. As such, it is evident that purchasing bottled water is beneficial to an individual’s wellness.