Usually, people dispose of unusable materials in litterbins. However, few of them are concerned with whatever happens after throwing the rubbish into the pit. Australia is experiencing one of the fastest growing economies in the world.
As a result, there has been amplified utilisation of resources in an attempt to meet various needs of Australians. Consequently, there is a high rate of waste generation due to the existence of fast growing industries. This situation has resulted in increased use of landfills to dispose of depleted materials. Indeed, this method is suitable for efficient disposal of biodegradable wastes.
However, at the back of landfill use are serious consequences that result from anaerobic digestion. The garbage that is disposed of in landfills harbours various microbes that disintegrate organic wastes into harmful gases that escalate global warming. This situation has created unending debates about establishing methods of waste disposal rather than using capped heaps.
Various researches have revealed that there are alternative ways that individuals, communities, and organisations can adopt to get rid of organic wastes. This essay provides an insight into waste management by examining the reasons why Australians should embrace recovery of energy from unused materials rather than dispose them of in landfills.
Waste Management in Australia
In Australia, various authorities in the municipalities are charged with the responsibility of creating awareness of waste management in an attempt to maintain sanitary and healthy environment for human survival. This practice focuses on keeping hazardous materials away from living and working places.
It also reduces pressure on raw materials that are used to make consumer products such as plastics through recycling and reusing them (Zaman & Lehmann 2011). The cost of unhygienic environment is much higher than that of observing strict management practices. In the wake of waste management, many companies have sprouted in Australia to deal with the menace (Zaman & Lehmann 2011).
Studies show that New South Wales alone has over 30-percent of the total waste management companies in Australia. The industry is approximated to generate more than 3-billion dollars revenue annually. It has offered employment to over 12,000 citizens. Its annual growth rate is about 7.5-percent. Statistics clearly indicate that more than 2700 organisations in Australia were involved in management of waste by the fall of 2012.
Disposal of Wastes in Landfills in Australia
The increasing rate of industrialisation in Australia has significantly led to generation of both biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes. According to Parsons and Kriwoken (2010), there has been increased reliance on landfills as a primary method of disposing of organic wastes. Various surveys have revealed that the amount of waste that was disposed of in landfills has also amplified.
For instance, Parsons and Kriwoken (2010) confirm that the quantity of organic wastes that were heaped in landfills increased by approximately 15-percent from 2004 to 2009. Presently, the volume of waste that is buried in landfills has exceeded 250 million tons as compared to about 25 million tons in 2009. This difference statistics depicts the rate of industry growth in Australia that has resulted in massive generation of wastes.
The graph shows the tonnes of paper, landfill, co-mingled, and organic wastes that have been recycled in Australia between 2011 and 2013.
Graph 1: Waste recycling in Australia (Green & Dzidic 2014).
Impact of Landfill Use on the Environment and Society
The use of landfills has had various effects on the lives of Australians. Treloar (1998) reveals that leachate and gases that emanate from decomposing landfills expose human beings to varying health threats. Increased use of landfills in Australia has been characterised by corresponding levels of methane and carbon dioxide gases that aggravate global warming.
According to Pickin, Yuen, and Hennings (2002), leachate and gas that emanate from decomposing biodegradable waste in landfills have direct greenhouse effects. This situation has compelled the government to encourage conversion of waste into energy to save the environment from the menace.
Table 1: Estimated landfill emissions in Australia (Treloar 1998).
In addition, landfill waste exposes people to numerous infections that arise from bacteria and other pathogenic microorganisms that thrive in decomposing materials.
Classification of Landfill Waste
Numerous materials that end up in landfills determine the types of waste-to-energy management practices that should be executed to save the environment from pollution and devastation (Memon 2010). These types are grouped into two main categories. The first group comprises municipal wastes. Unused materials in this class are generated at the household level.
The local environmental authorities collect and dispose of the garbage in designated areas. The second category consists of commercial and industrial wastes that occur in larger quantities than the municipal wastes. Mainly, they are generated from business activities that involve large-scale processing of raw materials.
Wastes that result from construction sites or during demolition of buildings fall under this category. Such unused materials are removed using large skip bins. Other industrial wastes such as chemical effluents are hazardous in nature.
As a result, they require specialised handling. They are referred to as prescribed industrial wastes. The Environment Protection Regulations (EPR) of 2009 is charged with the responsibility of managing such effluents (Memon 2010).
National Waste-to-Energy Policy
The Australian national waste regulation was enacted in 2009 to promote management of wastes. The following were the aims of the policy.
To avoid or reduce generation of waste
To ensure proper management of waste as a resource
To make use of safe and environmentally sound scientific methods for treatment, disposal, and recovery of waste
The policy identified six key areas that are well coordinated to create more clarity to the community and businesses. The first area involves taking responsibility to promote a safe and clean environment. It is a duty of every person to make sure that materials that are produced for use do not lead to generation of waste that is harmful to the environment.
Secondly, the policy advocates for market improvement. There is a need to establish market for resources that are recovered from waste to reduce pressure on natural resources. As a result, innovation in the sector needs to be accelerated. Thirdly, the policy aims at establishing sustainable ways of reducing waste generation. Furthermore, it highlights the need to reduce hazards.
Potentially harmful waste production should be abolished and energy recovery measures put in place. Lastly, updated waste and resource recovery information should be made available to policymakers. Provision of such evidence promotes assessment of the implemented regulations.
Waste Management Audit
According to Shan-shan and Lo (2007), waste management audits entail the use of formal and structured processes to quantify the types and amounts of waste that are generated by Australian organisations. The information obtained from the audit assists in the identification of existing waste management practices in attempt to determine ways of improving them.
Either an in-house or a contracted certified public accountant states the objectives of the process prior to the auditing process (Shan-shan & Lo 2007). This information enables determination of the suitable waste-to-energy conversion technology. Various objectives that can be used in the audit are listed below.
To determine the composition of the waste generated and the quantity
To identify opportunities of improving waste management strategies and systems
To measure the effectiveness of the existing systems
To collect information about waste minimisation
Non-hazardous Solid Waste Management in Australia
Non-hazardous waste consists of everyday unused materials such as product packaging, torn clothing, damaged furniture, and appliances. The municipal council normally collects this waste for disposal. A hierarchy for management of this kind of waste has been designed.
It is illustrated using an inverted pyramid that presents the most desirable practices at the top and the least desirable ones at the bottom.
Figure 1: Waste Management Hierarchy (Boyd 1994)
Waste to Energy (Energy Recovery)
Energy recovery is found at the second level from the bottom of the waste management pyramid. In Australia, energy recovery is still a less preferred method of waste disposal regardless of the efforts that various authorities and companies have made towards its implementation.
Energy recovery refers to the conversion of waste that is non-recyclable into heat (Green & Dzidic 2014). In the wake of increasing global warming and general environmental pollution, the many communities and governments around the world have pressured the Australian local authorities to initiate sustainable waste management programmes. This situation has resulted from the increased use of landfills.
The mounting pressure on the Australian authorities has compelled them to embark on a move to convert waste into energy. Various companies have come up with various waste-to-energy conversion technologies that are aimed saving the environment from amplified global warming effects.
To achieve this objective, the companies that have adopted a number of waste-to-energy techniques such as conventional combustion, anaerobic digestion, and advanced thermal technology to promote sustainable waste management. According to Parsons and Kriwoken (2010), wastes have both physical and chemical significances owing to their ability to generate bioenergy. As a result, these materials can be subjected to both primary and secondary energy conversion processes.
The waste-to-energy conversion techniques entail harnessing heat from materials that have a high calorific content through processes such as gasification, incineration, and/or pyrolysis (Parsons & Kriwoken 2010). The heat energy is used to generate electricity that is used for both domestic and commercial purposes.
For instance, some industries such as sugar millers heap huge wastes on daily basis. Some of such companies have recently begun using this waste to produce thermal electricity. This practice cuts their costs of production. At the household level, some people use animal waste to produce biogas, which is regarded as clean energy, through anaerobic digestion (Boyd 1994).
Economics of Energy Recovery
Australia is known as one of most notorious environment emitters of greenhouse gases due to increased industrialisation and use of landfills. Waste-to-energy initiatives are projected to improve collection of revenue through activities such as electricity generation.
Parsons and Kriwoken (2010) reveal that various Australian authorities have signed power purchase agreements with the companies that have taken the initiative to pursue energy recovery. On another perspective, establishment of waste-to-energy projects will encompass installation, operational, and maintenance costs.
Conclusion
Although various achievements on waste management in the have been realised, there is still a lot research and work that needs to be done. The government should conduct civic education to sensitise people to ways of reducing waste generation. The rate at which natural resources are being used to make products is a major cause of waste generation.
At some point, is hard to imagine the availability of such resources in the next century. Recycling and reusing waste can slow down this rate effectively. Disposal of waste through landfills be a last resort when other forms have been proven ineffective for a particular kind of waste.
The waste capped in a landfill can otherwise create employment opportunities if a recycling plant is set up. Entrepreneurs should take advantage of the opportunities that are brought about by the availability of unused materials to venture in the multi-billion dollar waste management industry. This situation results in a clean environment that is necessary for a healthy nation.
References
Boyd, W 1994, ‘Agricultural waste management planning’, Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, vol. 49 no. 2, pp. 53.
Green, M & Dzidic, P 2014, ‘Social science and socialising: adopting causal layered analysis to reveal multi-stakeholder perceptions of natural resource management in Australia’, Journal of Environmental Planning & Management, vol. 57 no. 12, pp. 1782-1801.
Memon, M 2010, ‘Integrated solid waste management based on the 3R approach’, The Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, vol. 12 no. 1, pp. 30-40.
Shan-shan, C & Lo, C 2007, ‘The roles of grassroots local government in sustainable waste management in China’, International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology, vol. 14 no. 2, pp. 133-144.
Parsons, S & Kriwoken, L 2010, ‘Maximising recycling participation to reduce waste to landfill: a study of small to medium-sised enterprises in Hobart, Tasmania, Australia’, Waste Management and Research, vol. 28 no. 5, pp. 472.
Pickin, J, Yuen, S & Hennings, H 2002, ‘Waste management options to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from paper in Australia’, Atmospheric Environment, vol. 36 no. 4, pp. 741-52.
Treloar, J 1998, Recovery and Use of Landfill Gas in Adelaide, South Australia. Web.
Zaman, A & Lehmann, S 2011, ‘Urban growth and waste management optimisation towards ‘zero waste city’’, City, Culture and Society, vol. 2 no. 4, pp. 177-87.
Today the problem of solid waste management is current for developed and developing countries because the hazardous effects of the ineffective solution of the question can lead to influencing the state of the environment and changing the ecological situation at the polluted territories. There are many models and programs developed at local, regional, and governmental levels in the USA and the European countries which are worked out for providing the effective solution to the problem of solid waste management.
To overcome the issue of solid waste management, the USA and the European countries practice the collection, transportation, recycling of the waste at the local and regional levels, with focusing on the competitiveness of the industry, with involving the other countries’ landfills, or with concentrating on the inter-municipal cooperation.
It is necessary to develop the economically advantageous project of the industry’s modernization according to which the spending costs should become lower and results higher. The inter-municipal cooperation can be considered as the most economically effective solution to the problem.
The problem of solid waste is one of the most controversial for the urban territories with the constant growth of industries which provide the highest percentage of the solid waste. Moreover, the problem of municipal domestic waste is also current. Today it is more typical for the USA to use landfills and the system of recycling as the main methods of solid waste management.
Nevertheless, different states focus on various ways of waste management with paying attention to the regional and local programs (Bel et al.). However, the main problem which can limit the effectiveness of solid waste management remains unsolved. It is the problem of the local and governmental costs spent for the management. That is why the most effective solution to the problem must be also effective from the point of its financing.
The discussion on the effectiveness of this or that solution to the problem of solid waste management is still open. If it is possible to accentuate the successfulness of the realization of the inter-municipal cooperation in such European countries as Spain and the Netherlands and in the USA, it is also possible to focus on the regional programs typical for the US counties with involving the citizen information programs, recycling, and depending on waste-to-energy plants, and on the cooperation between two countries (Canada and the USA) because they are used with following the standards of technology and provide definite environmental benefits.
Thus, the example of the realization of the regional program associated with solid waste management in the US counties is the system of waste management in Cheshire County. The main characteristics of the system are the usage of the citizen information programs, the waste stream reduction and recycling, the development of the network which connect the territories with the centrally located county landfill.
To support the system, many counties can use public and private partnership with the local transport companies. All these factors accentuate the fact that “municipalities are paying too much for solid waste disposal” (Monahan 7). That is why it is necessary to find the more economically effective solution to the problem.
The idea to use the landfills of the neighbor countries, for instance Canada and the USA, for realizing waste management programs can be considered as effective from the point of economy. However, it is important only for those territories which are located close to the countries’ borders. Moreover, there are many aspects connected with the problems of crossing the borders (transportation) and locating the waste in the landfills (Schaefer). That is why this solution also cannot be considered as the most successful one.
To realize the effective solution to the problem of solid waste management in the USA, it is significant to use the principles of the inter-municipal cooperation which also can involve the definite aspects of the public-private mixed policy. This system is more appropriate for the USA because of the high level of the local fragmentation in the country.
Moreover, it can be also discussed as the more developed one in comparison with the typical local and regional programs. Thus, “in the US, inter-municipal cooperation is usually not compatible with private production, although it is seen as a form of contracting out” (Bel et al. 5).
The inter-municipal cooperation allows decreasing the amount of the costs used for the collection, transportation, effective disposal, and recycling of the solid waste with sharing the responsibility for providing the necessary management. Thus, the effective inter-municipal cooperation can solve the challenges of funding and social costs. Moreover, such form of cooperation between the local authorities contributes to solving the environmental issue which is rather difficult to discuss at local levels independently.
Nevertheless, why is the inter-municipal cooperation more effective than, for instance, regional county programs? It is important to note that modern programs used in counties are predominantly based on the successful aspects of the inter-municipal cooperation which is economically beneficial.
The inter-municipal cooperation provides the opportunities to concentrate on the technological modernization of the processes, development of the transport system, to rationalize the division of the budget and involve all the necessary means with increasing the managerial capacity (Wilson and Scheinberg).
The inter-municipal cooperation as the solution to the problem of solid waste management is based on the efficient economy balance between the country’s territories and provides the effective developed system (Bel et al.).
In spite of the fact there are many programs which are used in the world for solving the problem of solid waste management, one the most economically effective systems is the inter-municipal cooperation which can be successfully realized in the USA.
Summary
Discussing possible solutions to the problem of solid waste management, Matthew Schaefer in his article “Waste Management in the U.S. Context: Trade or Environmental Issue?” pays attention to the relations between the USA and Canada, their integration in overcoming the issue of the solid waste with the help of the landfills abroad; Germa Bel and the group of researchers in their work “Similar Problems, Different solutions: Comparing Refuse Collection in the Netherlands and Spain” focus on comparison the effectiveness of the realization of the inter-municipal cooperation in Spain and the Netherlands; in their article “What Is Good Practice in Solid Management?”
David Wilson and Anne Scheinberg concentrate on the necessity of finding the easiest variant for solving the problem which can also be appropriate for implementing in cities and countries with low incomes; Matt Monahan in his “Municipal Solid Waste Study” develops the recommendations for using regional programs in US counties.
In his article “Waste Management in the U.S. Context: Trade or Environmental Issue?”, Matthew Schaefer discusses the peculiarities of the transportation of the waste between Canada and the USA. The author states that such practice has advantages for the economy of the both countries, but it also requires the solution to the question of the open borders and the creation of definite transnational standards for reducing the waste.
Germa Bel, Elbert Dijkgraaf, Xavier Fageda, and Raymond Gradus developed the work in which they analyzed the peculiarities of the realization of the inter-municipal cooperation in Spain and the Netherlands with references to the experience of Great Britain and the USA. It is the most beneficial program from the point of economy for countries with the high level of the local fragmentation.
In their article “What Is Good Practice in Solid Management?”, David Wilson and Anne Scheinberg discuss the findings of their prolong research which was conducted on the problem of finding the most effective and less expensive way to cope with the issue of solid waste management which could contribute to the requirements of the developed countries and developing countries.
They focus on the difference in approaches to solving the problem in big cities and low-income cities. The necessary technological modernization of the process should be supported by the authorities and political commitment. Nevertheless, it is also important to pay attention to the modernization of the economically advantageous recycling system.
In his “Municipal Solid Waste Study”, Matt Monahan analyzes the features of waste management in the counties of the USA and concludes that the current system is not effective in relation to the level of expensiveness and requires the further development. It is necessary to implement the constant system with basing on the cooperative work of municipalities in order to monitor the process of collection, transportation, and recycling the solid waste form the territory.
The articles are similar in providing the analysis of the effectiveness of this or that program depending on the economic factor with the focus on the examination of the benefits resulted from the usage of the mixed (public and private) policy.
These examined articles are different in providing the possible solutions to the problem of solid waste management which depend on various criteria (the involvement of municipalities, governments, integration with the neighbor countries).
Today’s technology is rapidly changing thus rendering existing technology and equipment obsolete quite often. This applies to electronic devices and equipment like computers, printers, copiers, scanners, keyboards and monitors. A recent study indicates that 300 million and above computers were obsolete in 2007 and the number was expected to triple by 2013.
This poses a challenge on disposal of such obsolete equipment by schools (Sawyer, 2010). E-Waste contains toxic elements that may be harmful to the environment if crushed, burned or disposed at landfills. Such toxic elements may be harmful to the school’s population. Therefore, there are several recommended disposal mechanisms.
Computer and equipment purchase done in a life cycle. Computers and equipment purchased by the school should be done in a life cycle. This means at the time of purchase the school makes an appropriation of how long the machines are to be used and disposed. The school disposes the machines in bulk which is simple.
Recycling by vendors. The school can contact the vendors and suppliers of such equipment for disposal. Also, when making new purchases, ensure the vendor has a return/ recycling program.
Donation to others. The school can opt to donate usable equipment to charitable organizations. This goes a long way as a way of giving back to the community.
Auctioning unused equipment. The school can identify the surplus equipment and organize a local auction to dispose them off. This generates some income for the school.
Use of commercial recyclers. The school can use the services of an electronic commercial recycler, county or state recycler to dispose its used computers and equipment. The school can fully adopt the above mechanisms for effective and efficient disposal off their e-waste.
References
Francis, C. A. (2009). Organic farming: the ecological system. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI.
Sawyer, P. L. (2010). Electronic waste management and recycling issues of old computers and electronics. Nova Science, New York.
This paper defines and considers the peculiar characteristics of electronic waste or E-Waste, and invites particular reference to the system of E-Waste management followed by the US federal government and the member States. The paper studies the legal and policy aspects of the entire issue of E-Waste collection, reuse and recycling. It lists the reasons for the urgent need to limit E-Waste from proliferating by referring to the toxic and harmful elements commonly present in such waste and also reviews the collection and recycling models followed generally by electronics businesses and the government in the US. While the defining legislation in solid waste management in the US is the RCRA, the EPA is perceived as the key agency in controlling E-Waste and managing EOL of electronic products. While there is some confusion in defining E-Waste as also in including possible materials in a comprehensive and definitive list of electronic products that can be called E-Waste, environmental issues do predominate and are attempted to be addressed through both voluntary effort and mandatory regulations. However, the most critical factor in implementing a satisfactory EOL policy and in maintaining an effective E-Waste collection, reuse and recycling system is the availability of finances. The NEPSI has tried to evolve 12 models for financing recycling of E-Waste and all the systems have their merits and demerits. Also, a consensus is yet to be reached among key stakeholders like government, producers, retailers, collectors, recyclers, and consumers in establishing either a satisfactory E-Waste reduction and recycling system or in generating finance for maintaining such a system continuously at both federal and state levels. The paper recommends more government involvement and the adoption of stringent systems similar to that followed in EU member countries so that the problem of E-Waste proliferation can be arrested quickly and at a low cost.
Introduction
The California Integrated Waste Management Board defines E-waste as “consumer and business electronic equipment that is near or at the end of its useful life”. The City of Los Angeles Department of Sanitation website describes the term Electronic Waste or E-Waste as a “popular, informal name for unwanted electronic products that include computers, TV’s, VCR’s, stereos, copiers, fax machines and telephones which are usually replaced by advanced and new products”. The Ohio Office of Compliance Assistance and Pollution Prevention website defines Electronic waste or “e waste” as “old, end-of-life electronic appliances and devices”. EU WEEE Directive (EU, 2002) defines waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) as “Electrical or electronic equipment, which is waste… including all components, sub-assemblies and consumables, which are part of the product at the time of discarding”. Directive 75/442/EEC, Article 1(a) defines waste as “any substance or object, which the holder disposes of or is required to dispose of pursuant to the provisions of national law in force”. The Basel Action Network (Puckett and Smith, 2002) states that “E-waste encompasses a broad and growing range of electronic devices ranging from large household devices such as refrigerators, air conditioners, cell phones, personal stereos, and consumer electronics to computers which have been discarded by their users”. The OECD (2001) defines E-waste as “any appliance using an electric power supply that has reached its end-of-life”. Widmer, Oswald-Krapf, Sinha-Khetriwal, Schnellman, & Boni (2005) observe that electronic waste or e-waste is a generic term that embraces various types of electric or electronic equipment, which are of no more value to their owners and the term also defines a standard definition.
Whatever the definition, electronic waste includes outdated or obsolete electronic items used by businesses or the common consumer. The US EPA Office of Solid Waste (2008) estimates that US citizens own around 3 billion electronic items and the national electronics industry generates almost $ 2 billion annually in electronic products. Hence, with fast technological changes that generally occur in the electronics sector, it is no wonder that a huge volume of the products manufactured becomes quickly obsolete and is discarded for better, advanced and newer products. The EPA website estimated in 2005 that around 1.9 – 2.2 million tons of electronics products were obsolete or discarded, and of this, around 1.5 to 1.8 million tons were disposed of in landfills while only 3,45,000 to 3,79,000 were recycled. In spite of the fact that electronic wastes were only a small fraction of the total solid wastes generated -below 2 percent of the total municipal solid waste generated- the situation is alarming owing to the hazardous nature of the products discarded and the environmental and safety concerns that such electronic wastes cause.
Legal Framework for Controlling E-Waste
In the United States, the government Environment Protection Agency or EPA has adopted a waste management policy hierarchy that comprises three modes of E-waste treatment. E-waste can be either disposed of in landfills or recycled or reused. The EPA has in place various regulatory and voluntary programs as an integral part of its E-Waste management policy approach. US laws differentiate between waste and non-waste, and hazardous and non-hazardous waste, and the EPA attempts to manage E-Waste as per the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), which is the governing legislation in this regard. The Act contains provisions for exemptions so that reuse and recycling are encouraged. The RCRA defines hazardous wastes as wastes that are generated by non-households at more than 220 lbs/mo, have distinct hazard characteristics, and are those that are to be sent or are actually sent for disposal. Most E-Wastes in the US are non-hazardous wastes. Some wastes require special handling. However, rules pertaining to E-Waste are generally more stringent in the individual states and many states classify E-Wastes as hazardous or universal wastes. Also, both state laws and the RCRA have in recent years incorporated rules pertaining to cathode-ray tubes or CRTs, including the exports and disposal of the same.
Why E-Waste needs to be Controlled
E-Waste generally comprises electronic products like computers, television monitors, VCRs, mobile phones, stereos, radios, etc. Although unwanted and hence discarded as waste, such materials often contain useful materials like aluminum, copper, gold, silver, etc which can be recovered from them. But such waste does contain harmful materials like mercury, lead, cadmium, chromium, etc which need to be removed from the environment for ensuring overall health and safety. Added to this is the need to conserve energy and the earth’s fast-depleting natural resources. The rate of generation of E-Waste is also alarming owing to the fast-technological obsolescence rates. It has been estimated (US EPA, 2004a) that consumers store huge amounts of E-Waste in their homes pending their final disposal and which would if disposed of, yield as much as “four billion pounds of plastic, around one billion pounds of lead, two million pounds of cadmium, and around four hundred thousand pounds of mercury”. In another report, the EPA (2004b) also estimates that “around two million tons of used electronics equipment is thrown away annually”. The damage or harmful effects caused by the materials that compose E-Waste can be highlighted briefly as follows owing to the degree of harm that they cause to human life and ecology.
Lead
Lead is found to be highly toxic and causes damage to the kidneys and reproductive and nervous systems. It also retards mental growth in children and newborns. A major hazardous material present in CRTs, where they constitute around 4-8 lbs, they are also a necessary component of solder commonly used in circuit boards in the electronics industry.
Mercury
Mercury is found in flat-panel display screens, printed circuit boards, switches, etc. In high amounts, mercury can damage the kidneys. The metal also has the potential to affect the growth of the young and can be passed on through breast milk.
Plastics
Computers comprise around 13.8 lbs of PVC and other plastic material. Sometimes, the combustion of PVC results in the generation of Dioxin, which is a very harmful toxin. Plastic covers, connectors, cables etc, which are a part of PCBs, are also a part of the E-Waste generated.
Cadmium
Chip resistors, semiconductors, batteries, infrared detectors, and computer circuit boards contain this metal. It is also used as a stabilizer of plastic. It causes severe kidney and bone damage.
Other Materials
Printed circuit boards (PCBs) and plastic cables contain brominated flame –retardants. CRTs contain barium and lead oxide. Cell phone parts are among the most harmful and contain various materials like copper, lead, beryllium, zinc and arsenic. Batteries contain lithium and nickel-cadmium. Even the manufacturing processes can cause contamination by oils and solvents. Printer toner cartridges contain lead, barium and carbon that can contaminate drinking water and such water cannot be rid of these harmful elements even by boiling. Disposal of hazardous materials by dumping electronic waste in landfills can gradually cause river and drinking water contamination. Also, the typical lifespan of computers has decreased from five to two years (www.cleanuptheworld.org). Desha, Hargroves, Smith, & Stasinopoulos (2008) observe that E-Waste comprises around 1,000 different substances, many of these being toxic and causing significant health risks and severe pollution that is associated with their disposal. According to Schmidt (2002), the European Commission considers E-Waste to be the fastest-growing (at thrice the municipal waste) component of municipal trash. Also, Brigden, Labunska, Santillo, & Allsopp (2005) quote estimates by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) that assesses the existence of around 20 to 50 million tons of E-Waste, generated annually worldwide. Additionally, short-life equipment like computers and mobiles constitute the most severe risks (Greenpeace). The matter is also compounded further by the increased growth in personal computers worldwide (a five-fold increase in 2002 over 1988 levels) (World Watch Institute, 2005).
Solutions for Reducing E-Waste
Both individual nations and world organizations are concerned with the growing hazards from the disposal of E-Waste. In the United States, the EPA has played a major role in regulating the generation and disposal of E-Waste in the country. The EPA (2004) recognizes that E-Waste, unlike ordinary waste, is bulky, has potentially toxic components, and also needs substantial funding for effectively managing its proliferation. It has hence adopted a policy approach that classifies waste, non-waste, hazardous waste and non-hazardous waste. The EPA regulates E-waste collection and disposal as a part of its overall waste disposal policy while the RCRA stipulates legal exemptions and restrictions relating directly or indirectly to the disposal of wastes in the country. Various states have different programs and rules in place and these are generally more stringent than the national laws and regulations.
The E-Waste accumulated by consumers and businesses can either be disposed of in special landfills or reused. They can also be recycled. Generally, recycling is one of the better options for E-Waste collection and disposal, since important and costly materials can be recovered during the process of recycling and reused in the production process. However, recycling is cost-intensive and high costs prohibit most businesses from adopting recycling methods of E-Waste disposal. Recycling includes processes like sorting of the E-Waste to identify and recover reusable materials, altering the manufacturing process itself so as to produce reusable components, etc.
Another policy that is being propounded for effective waste management is Extended Producer Responsibility or EPR. As per the OECD (2001), EPR is an environmental policy methodology whereby a producer, in addition to the responsibility for production, is assigned responsibility also for the post-consumer part of the manufacturing process, even including the final disposal of the product. The producer is held responsible for pollution and hence has to bear costs or penalties for such action. Hence, by this principle, the additional cost of preventing environmental pollution is added to the production costs. The OECD (2001) observes both voluntary and mandatory approaches in implementing EPR. EPR programs could include programs like the product take-back programs, mandated regulations like mandatory recycling, banning hazardous substances, establishing product standards, etc., establishing voluntary codes through public and private partnerships with government, labeling, leasing, etc., and, implementation of economic approaches like the introduction of advance recycling fees, deposit-refund schemes, disposal fees and taxes and subsidies (OECD, 2001). The principle of EPR has been introduced in the US in the case of many important environmental laws relating to hazardous waste.
The US federal and state governments have attached considerable significance to end-of-life product management and have introduced take-back laws for introducing in practice the EPR principles discussed above. The laws devolve responsibility on producers for ensuring pollution-free E-Waste disposal for the entire life cycle of the products. The cost of products is incorporated into the pricing structure of the products and ultimately gets passed on to the consumer. The producers are thus required by law to manage the end-of-life stages of the products that they manufacture. However, high costs do inhibit a satisfactory system of take-back to be effective. Legislation to take back products at their end-of-life (EOL) essentially attempts to prevent the disposal of hazardous wastes into the soil, water or atmosphere through depositing in landfills or through incineration. The legislation also tries to strengthen the supply chain of recycled materials and also reduce the cost of the same. The recycling process often saves on energy consumption, in addition to recovering useful and costly materials present in E-Waste. Additionally, take-back laws also help in “preventing pollution by reducing the environmental burden of EOL products at their source” (Toffel, 2003). The producers of electronic products can incorporate EOL management tools by improving product durability, and also by ensuring a functional and effective repair, refurbishment, disassembly and recycling system. In the United States, it is only in recent years that a product take-back system has been introduced in various states.
Recovery of components for reuse from EOL products is another major concern for business enterprises. Generally, producers follow any one or more of seven strategies for product recovery from EOL products. Either they do nothing, i.e. producers do not initiate action in effecting product recovery for reuse. Or, they can promote the market for recycling programs. The producer company may also design its products so as to reduce recycling costs. It can also offer rebates to its customers. However, the company often enters into long-term contracts with recyclers, or into an alliance with a partner for establishing recycling facilities, and even establishes an industry consortium. The company can also actively promote dismantling and recycling operations through product recovery centers.
Effective Product Life Cycle Management
Any and every product has a life cycle right from raw material selection and purchase to the end-of-life (EOL) stage of the product. At the EOL stage, a product loses its functionality and fails to satisfy the needs of the original owner (Rose, 2000). Products that have reached their end-of-life can be either disposed of or their life span extended (Billatos & Basally, 1998; Rose, 2000). Business enterprises adopt any one of five available EOL strategies whose ranking or effectiveness is determined by their environmental, political and economic efficiency (Rose, Beiter & Ishii, 1999; Rose, 2000). Such EOL strategies include re-use, remanufacturing, servicing, disposal or recycling. While reuse essentially means the recovery and trade in used products or components, servicing attempts to extend the useful life of a product by maintenance or repair. Remanufacturing means the extraction and reuse of specific components from the waste product in making new products. Disposal includes the processes of landfill or incineration. Recycling means the treatment of the products for recovering vital components and then reprocessing or reusing the same. Most often, these strategies are combined for achieving maximum profitability and efficiency (Billatos & Basally, 1998; Rose, Beiter & Ishii, 1999; Rose, 2000). Usually, the efficiency of an EOL strategy is determined by both the design process and the method of collection for recovering discarded components (Rose, Beiter & Ishii, 1999). The collection method entails the recovery of discarded waste products (EPA, 1999), and the volume and quality of the incoming flow of recovered products constrain the efficiency of certain EOL strategies such as recycling and re-use (Billatos & Basally, 1998; Rose, Beiter & Ishii, 1999). Commonly employed collection methods rely on five models, namely, drop-off, curbside collection, permanent collection depot, point-of-purchase, and combined or coordinated system (EPA, 1999). Morioka & Jofre (2005) observe that diverse environmental and logistical matters need to be considered while choosing a suitable EOL strategy for a product. More particularly, electronic equipment has a high residual value after discard (EC, 2000). Substantial amounts of disposed of equipment can be effectively and profitably re-used or re-manufactured. The profit factor assumes significance particularly in the case of small manufacturing enterprises, which are required to incorporate costs of pollution control and conservation methodologies adopted by them as per legal and regulatory requirements.
E-Waste Recycling Systems
A viable and effective E-Waste recycling system comprises a clear definition of products to be covered in the model envisaged. Also, an effective system for the collection of waste materials needs to be implemented. The transportation system ensures the collected material is carried from the owner to the recycler. The system includes setting targets for maximizing collection and providing incentives for the same. But more than an effective collection and transportation system, it is the system of mandatory and voluntary regulatory mechanisms and the establishment of a cost-effective recycling system that can solve the problem of E-Waste accumulation. Waste needs to be minimized at the originating point. The reusable components are to be extracted in a cost-effective manner and again reused in manufacturing new products. Also, a market for recycled products needs to be created and all stages of the system backed up by a strong financial system.
Products Covered
Stakeholders provide diverse views on the products to be covered in an E-Waste recycling system. While some favor the adoption of a narrow product list, others recommend that the list of products covered be broad and all-inclusive at the very outset in defining the recycling model. Most state laws focus on CRTs in televisions and PC monitors. The US Dept of Commerce (USDOC) observes that whereas the Electronics Industry Association (EIA) has recommended as E-Waste only a small list of products including computer monitors, PCs and TVs having video screens more than nine inches in size (Jul 2006), NEPSI has recommended a more comprehensive list of products including CRT and flat-panel TVs, computer CRTs and flat panel monitors over 9 inches, laptop and notebook computers, CPUs, small peripherals like keyboards, cables, speakers, etc., and computer peripherals like printers (2001). On the other hand, observes the USDOC, the EU WEEE Directive’s approach is in contrast to U.S. state legislation and NEPSI is very comprehensive and includes electronics, tools, appliances, and medical equipment. Additionally, producers in the EU are required to affix the symbol of a wheeled trash bin along with an ‘x’ mark on the product. This serves as a reminder to consumers that such a product cannot be dumped as trash but has to be recycled as per EU laws.
Collection of E-Waste from Consumers
Processes of the collection generally include one or more processes like ‘curbside pick-up, local government drop-off centers, ongoing drop off at retailers of electronic products, one-for-one take-back by retailers, producer-established drop-off centers, mail-back to producers, ongoing drop off at non-profit or other private sector participants, and sporadic collection events” (US Dept of Commerce, 2006). A functional collection system needs to devolve appropriate responsibility and impart sufficient authority to government and private entities or stakeholders in the entire process. Collection also envisages a viable system of paying incentives and sufficient financial support for the effort to succeed. Other initiatives include the taking back of products by the producers or retailers themselves. Notably, the EIA affixes primary responsibility for the collection of E-Waste products on the government. The method of collection is also dependant on the type of waste products; whether such products can be collected and transported as a whole or whether they can be broken up into components and then transported for recycling. Also, the various systems for waste collection have their own advantages or disadvantages. For instance, curbside collection is convenient for collecting household E-Waste. The high cost of such a collection method can only be offset by increased volumes collected and higher returns and the process must be financially viable in order for the collection agency to carry on operations successfully and profitably. In contrast to curbside pick-ups, municipal drop-offs offer a cheaper option, particularly for collecting special waste products like obsolete or broken electronic items. However, other than the government or public bodies, retailers themselves can play a major role in minimizing E-Waste, ensuring their collection and promoting reuse and recycling of useful components in them. In fact, many retailers already have in place various buy-back or take-back schemes for ensuring that waste from their products re-enters the production cycle and E-Waste is not allowed to pollute or cause environmental and health hazards. However, such schemes are voluntary by nature and their effectiveness depends on the value perception of consumers on whether the incentive offered by such buy-back is attractive or not. Other options include a private mail-back program in which the consumers mail the product back to the producers, a private drop-off program in which the producers set up drop-off centers where the products could be dropped off by the consumers, etc.
Recycling
While the Environment Protection Agency or EPA controls the disposal and recycling of solid and hazardous waste, including E-Waste by organizations and large businesses and is given such authority by the provisions of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976, household hazardous waste materials are exempt from federal environmental laws. However, non-hazardous household waste is covered under the RCRA provisions. Also, there are numerous recyclers already functioning in various parts of the United States, as in other parts of the world. There are already over 200 recyclers working to reduce and reuse E-Waste components in the country. However, the continuing operations of such recyclers depend on profitability and this can only be assured or even increased in case of increased volumes of E-Waste treated by these recyclers. However, most of the E-Waste in the United States as also elsewhere has been found to lie at consumer homes, pending their final disposal. In this situation, state financing is called for or even financing through private third parties is called for.
Financial Systems for E-Waste Recycling
Since recycling of discarded electronics products or E-Waste is perceived as technology and cost-intensive, the government at both federal and state levels is continuously seized of finding out ways of either minimizing the costs of recycling or effectively distributing the cost elements along the entire product life cycle. The National Electronics Product Stewardship Initiative (NEPSI) set up in 1999 is aimed at achieving this end generally; its major objective is the financing of a national recycling mechanism with particular emphasis on PCs and TVs. The US GAO observes in a report (2005) that economic factors play a major role in inhibiting the recycling and reuse of discarded electronic products. The costs of recycling and reusing E-waste components are due to both high re-furbishing and recycling fees charged by re-furbishers and recyclers and the costs of transportation involved and borne by consumers for effecting such recycling at the recycling centers. Recyclers also cannot maintain profitable services without charging fees for such collection of E-Waste. Additionally, even in the present day, most states generally do not provide incentives to consumers or enterprises to avoid using landfills and to go in for recycling, which process entails higher costs. The federal system neither provides for a financial mechanism for management of business enterprises nor has in place a system of oversight of products, particularly of products that are exported to other nations having less stringent environmental laws in force. Thus, the GAO report also observes that “the costs associated with recycling and reuse, along with limited regulatory requirements or incentives, discourage environmentally preferable management of used electronics. Generally, consumers have to pay fees and take their used electronics to often inconvenient locations to have them recycled or refurbished for reuse. Recyclers and re-furbishers charge fees to cover the costs of their operations. In most states, consumers have an easier and cheaper alternative—they can take them to the local landfill. These easy and inexpensive alternatives help explain why so little recycling of used electronics has thus far taken place in the United States. This economic reality, together with federal regulations that do little to preclude disposal of used electronics along with other wastes, have led a growing number of states to enact their own laws to encourage environmentally preferable management of these products” (2005, p. 8).
The Office of Technology Policy (OTP) of the Technology Administration convened a Roundtable on Electronics Recycling in Sep 2004 for consideration of key issues outstanding and relating to recycling. It considered particularly the financial issues of recycling. Attempts were made to collect suggestions from various stakeholders in matters like the type of products to be included in an E-Waste recycling program, collection methods to be adopted, methods of recycling and transportation of discarded products, the role of the government in such recycling program, and the sourcing of finance for recycling programs. Among the suggestions that emerged from the Roundtable, many related to financial aspects. However, most stakeholders agreed that the government must legally enforce manufacturers to participate in the financing of the recycling process. The need was also expressed to introduce a single financial system for the whole country. Such a national financial system could include mechanisms like the Advance Recycling Fee or ARF adopted by many states already. The states also felt that the system had to incorporate competition and market forces into the system at the very outset so that costs of recycling would be low. Some even recommended the use of the services of a non-governmental agency or third party to manage the financial system for recycling. By doing so, felt the stakeholders, the system would be both fair and uniform in approach. Also, cost control in recycling was recommended to be achieved through establishing EPR, already described earlier. Fishbein observed (2005) that “EPR shifts the responsibility for discarded materials that would otherwise be managed by local government to private industry, thereby incorporating the costs of product disposal or recycling into the product price of new products”.
Models for Financing Collection, Transportation and Recycling
There are various models followed in many countries including in the USA that relate to the financing of collection, transportation and recycling of waste and E-Waste. Many of these are briefly mentioned below.
General Tax Base Funding
This envisages additional taxation at national or state levels which can be used to collect funds for financing collection, transportation and recycling activities. Some countries have a household waste tax in place. Others have general taxes which are used by local boards or municipalities in funding the collection, transportation and recycling activities. Such taxation distributes the incidence of taxation among all taxpayers. There is no responsibility attached for the same on producers of electronic or other wastes. There is also no mandatory state or federal incentive structure in place to promote environmental conservation unless provided for by the government or by individual business enterprises causing the E-Waste pollution. The government collects and retains the taxes for use in its stated purposes of E-Waste disposal, component reuse, and pollution control. However, the government can also offer tax incentives so as to encourage recycling practices. However, since tax rates cannot be made too high, and costs of recycling are on the higher side, a sustained governmental effort, all-round stakeholder involvement and proper financing structure are needed to make the processes successful.
End-Of-Life Fees or EOL Fees
EOL Fees are the costs borne by the end-user at the point of discarding the electronic product. Largely unregulated, such fees offer some marked benefits. These fees are helpful in financing recycling quickly and also indirectly helps extend the EOL of products. The fees are also recovered as costs of products from the consumers rather than from the general taxpayers of the country. The EOL fees also help build a market for recycling and increased participation results in decreasing the fees in the long run. However, EOL fees can lead to dumping since consumers can often opt-out due to higher costs. EOL Fees can also be regressive (Daniele, 2004). Also, in cases where the reusable parts of E-Waste are a small portion of the total wastes and it is not profitable to recycle reusable components, high EOL fees tend to be counterproductive rather than beneficial.
Deposit and Refund
This is a system whereby the customer deposits a certain amount with the retailer while buying the products kept in containers and gets back such funds as a refund once he returns the used containers. Such a system entails large transaction costs and is also felt to be unviable in the case of electronic products.
Advance Recovery Fees or ARF
This envisages the payment of upfront fees while purchasing the products and such fees can finance a recycling program. It can be implemented and controlled by the government or even a third-party organization or TPO. Such a system helps in assuring funding across the entire recycling program and can be useful in funding recycling of products returned after their useful life span is over. The ARF also facilitates the involvement of various stakeholders like producers, government, retailers, consumers and recyclers. To further promote recycling programs, the government provides collectors of E-Waste a payment for such service rendered as an incentive to promote recycling. This payment is called Collection Incentive Payment or CIP. CIP only reinforces a frontline financing system like ARF or EPR. However, there are various models of ARF adopted by various states in the US. For instance, in one model, the ARF is collected and managed by the producers through a TPO while the funds are sourced from consumers. In another model, while the producers are responsible and manage the recycling process, they do not receive any part of the ARF. The collected funds are usually used in financing CIP to collection organizations. However, producers could also form a TPO to better manage the recycling and also to distribute the costs and responsibilities of the operations. Or the government could exercise full control over the system. Generally, administering an ARF entails substantial costs.
Producer Responsibility and Cost Internalization
This model also called EPR and discussed before was introduced in the 1990s. In it, the entire responsibility for the recycling of products generated by them and which can cause environmental harm devolves on producers. Producers can act singly or as a group of producers by means of a TPO to share responsibility for recycling their products and maintaining the system. Either producer undertakes to bear full costs i.e., in case of full cost internalization or CI, the producers absorb full costs of recycling and reuse of components of E-Waste. In the partial cost internalization or PCI method, the government undertakes responsibility for collection while the producers take on only the costs of consolidating, processing and recycling E-Waste or other solid waste products. Transaction costs are usually lower, the recycling market becomes more competitive, the overall cost for the government is low, and the design for the recycling system is a lot simpler and backed by incentives. Among States, California is the only state that has in place an EPR system. But one disadvantage of EPR is that the cost structure is non-uniform and varies from producer to producer.
Choosing a Financial Model: A Conclusion
The various financial models considered have their own merits and demerits. The National Electronics Product Stewardship Initiative or NEPSI considered 12 such models including the ones described in the foregoing paragraphs. The initiative was a multi-stakeholder program that was aimed at establishing a financial system for funding the reuse and recycling of various E-Wastes like TV and computer monitors, PCs, and other peripherals. The NEPSI recommended that the participation of producers of electronic equipment was necessary for managing the EOL of products better and in a cost-effective manner. The major goal of NEPSI was to “develop a system, providing for a viable financing mechanism, so as to maximize collection, reuse, and recycling of used electronics, while also implementing incentive system for proper product re-design that could result in source reduction, reuse, and recycling, reduce toxicity and increase the recycled content” (NEPSI, 2001). Even in the present time, there has not been any consensus among stakeholders as to the best system of financing the recycling of E-Waste to be adopted state-wise or federally.
Many financial models are better suited to financing other solid waste recycling while they can hardly be used in financing the recycling of used electronics products. Also, the social and economic conditions of the US are suitable for some, while not so for others. Thus, whereas the General Tax Based Funding system is a model that affixes higher taxes on general taxpayers, it does not shift the EOL costs of collecting, reusing and recycling E-Wastes on the originators of the products or manufacturers. This goes against the fundamental principle of costing that would ideally attach the responsibility for costs of recycling and maintaining an environmental conservation mechanism upon those originating the same. Nonetheless, such taxation can easily be incorporated into the monthly waste disposal fees of households. In another model, the responsibility for the entire process is shared among retailers, collectors, government and consumers. The taxpayers or the consumers pay for the collection services whereas the government, contractors and retailers would ensure such collection of EOL products. The producers would pay for the transport and recycling process either by means of the sale of new products or through internalization of costs. In yet another version of the same model, contractors have to ensure transportation and recycling, while disposal fees are to be collected from consumers.
It has also been found that most consumers indefinitely retain E-Waste in their houses or garages pending final disposal. Generally, consumers are averse to carrying their obsolete electronic products to the collection centers, owing to the distance from their homes or due to high transporting costs. Hence, the NEPSI also recommends a customer mail-in program by adopting which EOL products can be returned by mail to the producers or contractors. Although such a system can be used to serve rural and disadvantaged people in better managing their E-Wastes, the process is perceived to be costly and generally unviable owing to the bulky nature of electronic products. In circumventing similar hindrances for affecting an efficient and cost-effective system for financing E-Waste collection, reuse and recycling operations, concepts like ARF and CIP have been evolved at the NEPSI forum. However, most states are yet to reach a consensus in adopting a specific model of financing. Federally also, there is no uniform financing system mandated by law. Some systems like the Deposit and Refund System are found to be unsuitable for use in the electronics industry while, in general, no satisfactory system of sharing responsibility for and financing recycling processes has as yet been evolved specifically to cater to the needs of E-Waste management. Obviously, further and more involved government intervention and the institution of a clear, objective-oriented environmental conservation policy similar to the EU laws can help strengthen efforts in controlling E-Waste and the harmful fallout of hazardous E-Waste in the United States.
References
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The increasing urban population has led to an alarming rise in waste production rates. Some of these wastes are hazardous. The federal law and state regulations use the terms hazardous materials to refer to substances that have lethal, combustible, corrosive, and reactive properties that may be considered detrimental or potentially destructive to the environment and human beings. These materials take the form of gasses, solid contents, or even liquids. Sludge is also considered a hazardous waste. Some wastes are eco-friendly. Hazardous materials pose a major threat to both human health and the surroundings. To mitigate this challenge, urban centers, industries, and even individual consumers of mass-produced products need to reduce the amount of waste production and incorporate the appropriate strategies for effective waste management within their waste management facilities.
This concern presents both managerial and social issues that are associated with hazardous material consumption because of returns, recycling, and waste management of products. This paper reviews these issues. It also makes recommendations for future research.
Literature Review
Hazardous waste materials from industrial products are problematic in all places around the globe. However, even through the management of wastes presents challenges in the developed nations, developing nations experience unique challenges due to lack of capacity and poor implementation of regulations on environmental protection coupled with recycling and disposal of the wastes. Massawe, Legleu, Vasut, Brandon, and Shelden (2014) identify five stages of managing hazardous wastes in both developed and developing nations. The phases include, “problem identification and legislation, selection of a lead agency, promulgation of rules and regulations, development of treatment and disposal capacity, and the creation of a mature compliance and enforcement program” (Massawe et al., 2014, p. 27).
Nevertheless, developing nations lag behind in terms of enacting and promulgating established policies for waste management. Hence, social and management challenges for hazardous materials are pronounced in developing nations. This position may be true considering that solid wastes in urban centers may be hazardous if not correctively management and that this situation continues to present challenges in developing nations.
The World Bank (2013) confirms the severity of hazardous solid wastes in urban areas. Ten years ago, urban centers housed about 3 billion people where each person generated approximately 0.65kg of MSW (municipal solid waste) per day. This figure amounts to about 0.7 billion tons of MSW per annum. With the onset of the increased consumption of mass-produced manufactured products, urban populations have increased.
Waste production per individual urban residents has also increased. The World Bank (2013) provides an estimate that the population of urban centers’ residents is about 3 billion where each person produces about 1.3kg of wastes on a daily basis. Projecting these statistics in 10 years to come, the world’s urban population will have grown to about 4.5 billion people. The corresponding increase in waste production will go up to 1.4kg per individual on a daily basis. This projected figure amounts to close to 2.3 billion tons of MSW annually. This finding suggests that the menace of hazardous solid waste will continue to plague global populations of all nations if they do not adopt the best practice in recycling and disposing product-associated wastes.
Waste materials from the mining of oil appear in the form of oil spill that presents a clear picture of the danger posed by product-associated wastes. For example, in the Niger Delta, oil spill during mining, processing, and transportation of oil products poses environmental, health, and social problems to the marine life and even people. In this region, environmental sustainability is impaired to the extent that oil spillage has deteriorated the natural environment. The situation has reduced food production since it has impaired subsistence farming and fishing activities. Although the situation is uncontrollable in some situations, oil spillage leaves irreversible effects on the environment.
For instance, drilling and exploration involve specialized procedures that often lead to catastrophic incidents such as unexpected blowouts of gases and other hydrocarbons that have a negative impact on the environment. Spills at this stage generate unremitting effects on the marine atmosphere due to the prolonged hydrocarbon generation and its long-term health effects. Such consequences have the implication of reducing the capacity of the environment to support human life. The implication is that the natural environment becomes unsustainable.
Global economies depend on energy to drive them. However, the process of developing, extracting, and transporting energy as an input product to the industries gives rise to wastes, which present social and waste management challenges (Mallak, Ishak, Kasim, & Samah, 2015). For example, nuclear wastes that are generated during the production of nuclear energy are highly hazardous to people and the environment. However, despite the problems that are associated with the nuclear energy such as the disposal of radioactive wastes, nuclear energy is a more viable option in comparison with renewable energy.
Nevertheless, some governments, including the British Administration, believe that renewable energy comprises the most dependable mechanism for enhancing environmental sustainability compared to nuclear energy, which generates highly hazardous wastes. Indeed, the government pledged that it would reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 80 percent between 1990 and 2050. In 2009, the British government laid aside some €100 billion to fund the renewable energy sector through 2020 (Ulfik & Nowak, 2014). This position is much welcome considering the Japanese experience in managing the nuclear reactor disaster.
When green wastes pile in a landfill, the absence of air causes a breakdown of the material into methane, CO2, mulch, and water with the help of anaerobic organisms. In landfills, CO2 and methane come out in approximately equal magnitudes (Massawe et al., 2014). Further decomposition of methane to produce water and CO2 to produce energy for electricity production is necessary. If not well done, its liberation to the atmosphere produces almost 25-times effect via global warming in comparison with CO2 (Massawe et al., 2014). Therefore, the goal of waste management systems should ensure zero release of methane into the atmosphere as a precautionary measure for reducing the danger of global warming. However, this is not the case in some nations, especially developing ones.
In some situations, green waste is left unattended or allowed to decompose without the necessary attention. Mallak et al. (2015) support this position by reckoning that the majority of less developed nations experience the problem of waste damping and mismanagement. In such nations, economic liberalization exacerbates the problem of waste management by increasing the quantity, types, and source of various hazardous wastes.
Unsecured and wrongly stored hazardous wastes pose human health and environmental social challenges. The challenges are more escalated in case of direct contact of the waste with already contaminated medium. The implication of hazardous wastes on people’s health is experienced through microbiological contaminants by air, soil, or even water (Ulfik & Nowak, 2014). It also occurs through chemical exposure. Hence, hazardous waste management practices pose threats to public health.
Massawe et al. (2014) regard issues such as the high costs that are incurred in waste disposal, inadequacy of disposal facilities, strict regulations and laws, and the decline of natural resources as critical problems that are associated with effective management of domestic hazardous wastes. Some of the important ways of managing hazardous wastes include reprocessing, onsite treatment, and the reclamation of wastes. However, recycling presents challenges to human health considering that it requires waste collection and transportation to a reprocessing facility. In this process, the contact between the waste and people or the environment occurs.
Despite the challenge in social and management of wastes, it is necessary for people to seek mechanisms for reducing the implications of the hazardous wastes. This goal can be accomplished through the engagement of people in the control and management of hazardous wastes. Massawe et al. (2014) studied the recycling efforts of hazardous household wastes by Louisiana residents with the primary objective of determining the motivation for engaging in waste management programs. The interviewed residents noted that local authorities’ commitment to human health protection and conservation of the environment were the key determinants for their active involvement in the program. People who are in close vicinity to wastes and/or who are socially affected by the wastes provide an active support to waste management through recycling and reusing practices.
Findings
Challenges in hazardous waste management increase human health risks. They also introduce social costs such as the contact between waste hazards and people who live in the neighborhoods where such materials are generated. Human exposure occurs during the lifecycle of hazardous substance disposal, transportation process, and management. Nations with poor technological capabilities on hazardous material management suffer higher social risks. However, by improving this capability, such nations can mitigate the risks. For example, by increased recycling of hazardous materials, nations can reduce social risks and/or conserve valuable resources.
Recycling of both product-related wastes and returned products is necessary. It saves money for organisations, which find an opportunity to use product-associated wastes as a source of their input. Additionally, it is necessary to control and improve environmental sustainability in human activities, including mining oil, which increase health risks due to oil product-associated hazardous waste risks. For example, spillage of stored products poses a major risk to the aquatic biodiversity, especially when the contents of storage reservoirs are toxic. Spillage of stored products also poses dangers to the environment when the contents can react to emit harmful gases. Hence, in the mining process, processing, storage, and transportation, exercising environmental governance is an important strategy for enhancing a good match between organisational, governmental, and community interests.
Environmental governance refers to the means by which the public determines and acts on goals and priorities that relate to the management of hazardous wastes that pose social and management challenges. Such acts entail the formal and informal regulations, which help in governing behaviors of people during decision-making processes. Promoting environmental governance through regulation plays an important role in reducing hazardous wastes. This situation can be enhanced through exercising due diligence in the use of wastes, waste collection methods, and their recycling.
Due care should also be exercised when handling potentially dangerous or dangerous products and their contents to avoid generating wastes. This strategy is perhaps an important finding considering that one case of spillage may cause devastative destruction to both flora and fauna. The contents, as opposed to the volume of the spill, pose dangers to the marine life and ecosystem, especially if they are impure and/or have corrosive features. Consequently, in the oil mining industry, regulating the contents of oil tankers is important to help in promoting the capacity of the environment to sustain human life.
Conclusion
Actions such as product processing, distribution, and consumption release wastes. The wastes can be in the form of solids, liquids, or gases. The waste can emanate from product leftovers, returns, or the associated processes such as packaging. Processing wastes may include toxic and non-toxic byproducts. For example, nuclear energy generation facilities produce nuclear waste, which is highly hazardous to both the environment and human life.
Processes such as the mining for oil and its transportation also generate wastes. Although the oil may not be hazardous, oil spills are immensely risky to the aquatic life. Although biodegradable product wastes may not be dangerous soon after consumption of the actual products, landfill becomes hazardous when a breakdown of the wastes into products such as methane and carbon dioxide begins. Returned products may pile within an organization, degrade, and become potential sources of health hazards. With the appreciation of the susceptibility to health and social risks by hazardous wastes that are associated with product recycling, returns, and waste management, it is necessary to adopt best practices in waste treatment and recycling.
Summary of Future Research Recommendations
From the discussions of the paper, it emerges that adequate reasons have been established to support the need for developing product-associated waste management strategies. The wastes cause pollution to the environment. Hence, managerial and social issues that are associated with hazardous material consumption because of returns, recycling, and waste management of product constitute a matter of not only local but also global concern. The problem afflicts all people. It has increased the government expenditure to address its negative implications. Hence, addressing it sufficiently requires the participation of all stakeholders around the globe. This move indicates the necessity for future research on how the stakeholder theory can help to increase or ensure environmental sustainability by reducing the exposure of people to hazardous product-associated wastes.
The paper confirms that when addressing product wastes, social and management challenges vary depending on the status of development for a given nation. To this extent, future research opportunities exist on how developing nations can emulate the developed nations’ technologies and approaches to managing hazardous wastes that are associated with product returns and recycling. The arguments raised in paper were not based on empirical data. More research should be done to find out how communities can participate in managing product-associated wastes. This move can help to provide evidence-based mechanisms for dealing with managerial and social issues that are linked to hazardous material consumption because of returns, recycling, and product waste management.
Reference List
Mallak, S., Ishak, M., Kasim, M., & Samah, M. (2015). Assessing the Effectiveness of Waste Minimization Methods in Solid Waste Reduction at the Source by Manufacturing Firms in Malaysia. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 24(5), 2063-2071. Web.
Massawe, E., Legleu, T., Vasut, L., Brandon, K., & Shelden, G. (2014). Voluntary Approaches to Solid Waste Management in Small Towns: A Case Study of Community Involvement in Household Hazardous Waste Recycling. Journal of Environmental Science, 76(10), 26-33. Web.
The World Bank. (2013). Global Review of Solid Waste Management. Web.
Ulfik, A., & Nowak, S. (2014). Determinants of Municipal Waste Management in Sustainable Development of Regions in Poland. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 23(3), 1039-1044. Web.
Need assessment is an important way of attaining change in the people of a community. Health is one issue which demands different strategies depending on the situation. Need assessment procedures are very helpful in such varying circumstances. In light of these facts, community health educators are required to select suitable health plans and the related needs assessment methods.
The first step in the assessment process is planning and the organizing phase (Sharma & Lanum, 02). This includes information gathering, learning about the issue for which the assessment is being held and identifying goals and objectives of the need assessment. Information gathering is very important as it will tell the current methods of waste management present in the community and the existing resources. Creating awareness about the issue will encourage people and waste management organizations in the community as to why waste management is important and how it relates to health. Identifying goals helps to stick to a specified path and come up with plans that lead to desired goals as in this case the goal is to identify the specific issues related to waste management.
Developing nations are continuously trying to improve their waste management but at the moment they are clearly struggling for proper waste disposal. Issues related to waste collection, combustion, landfills etc are very common in the developing countries. Pakistan for example is one of the developing nations with a lot of waste management issues. Improper disposal and deficiency of adequate management are some of the main problems related to waste management. The current system of waste management includes municipal waste management authority and two private organizations. No proper disposal sites are available in the country and recycling is not considered as an option. Most of the material which can be recycled is not in the condition to be reused after the waste has been collected (Batool, 02). Third world countries too often try to imitate procedures for waste management used by the developed nations but fail at this. The reasons for this are corruption, lack of knowledge, non viable policies etc (Curi, p. 31). Thus in order to asses these issues and the current resources that are available with the community, and in order to improve these discrepancies, we can use the need assessment techniques. Methods such as scanning social indicators, records and area analysis give a thorough idea of existing issues and available resources. The utilization review technique can also be used as it gives an arranged date on socio-demographic indicators. Health status indicators also tell what kinds of diseases are spread in the locality. The cause of diseases can then be traced easily and whether they are related to waste management or not. (Umble, p. 17).
Thus the next step is development of a needs assessment survey. After the survey has been developed citizens should be requested to take part in the survey. Door to door surveys and forums are the best way of community involvement in a need assessment plan (Umble, p. 17). Focus groups can be held as well before the questionnaires as they help in getting a clearer picture form the consumer’s point of view. Community mapping can also help develop a good survey questionnaire as it shows how people see the community and what they think will be most beneficial for the community. Community mapping shows where the problem is, who gets affected by it and how it can be better managed (Fadem & Conant, p. 15). Online forum for such discussion have already been started by many communities in Pakistan. After the survey is done a computer database can be used to analyze the results and then work on areas which need improvement according to the results. Summarizing the results helps the need assessment committee to see a pin point picture of the state of affairs and then act accordingly. Thus, a need assessment plan can be carried out in this way for waste management issues in developing nations.
Work Cited
Curi, K. (1985). Appropriate waste management for developing countries. Illustrated Edition. Published by Plenum Press
Batool, A. and Chaudhry, N. (2007). Economic potential of recycling business in Lahore, Pakistan. Waste Management, Volume 28, Issue 2.
The increasing population and urbanization of third world countries has been widely documented. Recent studies by Hasanah from World Bank in 2003, shows that waste management is a challenge to environmental and social scientists. Waste management within communities is an intricate activity that involves collection, storing, handling and disposal of waste which has serious environmental implications in terms of ground water pollution, public health risk and contribution to global warming. Factors such as rapid urbanization, globalization and economic growth within major cities have compounded the problem of increased waste disposal. There have been reported instances all over the Africa countries of the neglect of treating and disposing the waste.
Purpose
An exhaustive study was carried out to analyze waste management in African countries focusing on Port Said, a city in North-East Egypt. Despite the increasing concern on the amount of waste generated in both urban and rural areas, studies have revealed that two thirds of solid wastes generated are not collected in African countries. Studies by Bushra in 2000, show that Egypt is generating 10 million tons of municipal solid waste annually.
Scope
According to Badran and El-Haggar in 2005, solid waste that drains in Port Said is generated from several sources such as residential, commercial, institutional, construction and demolition, and municipal services. The scope of the report have specifically dealt with three critical themes; waste transportation, waste collection and recycling. The report addresses problems in developing African countries in general and the city of Port Said in particular. It is a good example of what is currently going on in most developing countries in Africa and hence sets a good case for comparison and analysis.
Sources and Methods
The study was conducted using qualitative research method by comparing data and works from various past studies on waste management within African nations and the developing world at large. Qualitative method within this particular area is more diverse and emphasizes particularity over generalizations. Diverse literature about waste management has been widely documented especially for Port Said from professional journal articles, books, websites and newspapers. All these sources were considered and used for the study.
Limitations and Assumptionns
Although numerous studies have been undertaken in Port Said, it is worth noting that some of the statistical data presented are approximate. Furthermore, since no precise pictures were taken on the case of Port Said, some of them provide information that may be general.
Background
Martin Medina in 2004 urges that third World cities have undergone a rapid urbanization during the past fifty years. Deliberated one of the salient Egyptian ports as a result of its distinctive location at the entrance of the Suez Canal and one of the most significant waterways in the world, Port Said is located in North East Egypt within the biggest merchant shipping line between Europe and Asia, (Badran and El-Haggar, 2005). Port Said as show in pictures 1and 2 (Collected from the internet), is also regarded as the biggest transit port in the world with an estimated population of 588, 768 as at 2007.
Comparative to other Egyptian and African Cities, the city has not optimized its waste management systems thereby creating serious environmental problems. According to Badran and El-Haggar (2005), in excess of 700 tons of wastes are generated within the port daily. They further note that the city uses a system used by nearly all other African urban centers in which waste are transferred between the collection points and the land fields. With the several cultural differences in the country, these contribute to the different clusters of waste generated from the city.
Picture 1 and 2. Shows Port Said.
Waste Transportation
The most commonly used means of transporting waste in Port Said are trucks, trailers and animal drawn carriers. The modernization process in waste transportation has seen the entry of lag carriers which transport larger volume of waste. Despite being classified by most scientists as primitive and weak transportation systems, the modern trends in developed countries depicts ineffective and very costly. Studies by Achankeng (2003) reveals that African countries (Egypt included) invest on average about 50% of the waste management budget on waste transportation but only 20% of the total waste is transported. It is the responsibility of the local government to transport waste since this falls under their docket according to the government strategic plan.
Waste Collection
The appropriate method of waste collection has been detailed by Medina study of 1998 that involves setting designate collecting bins all of different characteristic. The waste is then sorted and proper disposal implemented by the relevant authority. In Port Said, waste collection is done by local authority employees and is largely dependent on two critical factors, transportation capacity and the availability of manpower. Most of developing African cities, of which Port Said is part of, falls below the accepted benchmark for the optimum workforce requirement in waste collection.
Recycling
Environmental concerns on the amount of waste management stretched to critical levels globally leading to acceptance and promotion of recycling and reuse of waste which was regarded as an excellent waste management approach. Comparing with the developed countries, majority of the developing nations have fairly lower consumption levels hence the recycling practices are often guided by values, traditional practices and the prevailing socio-economic conditions (Achankeng, 2003).
The larger amounts of wastes generated from Port Said are: paper, plastics, metals, glass and rags respectively. Even though most of waste collection is done local authorities, there are pool representatives within specific sites which collect the majority of the recycled waste. Call for greener and clean development mechanisms to recover and recycle waste has lead the initiatives by NGOs, environmentalists, municipal councils and other stakeholders promoting a culture of recycling not only in Port Said but in most of the African countries.
Analysis
The facts collected on the waste management methods depicted in Port Said, it is clear that there is a direct relationship on the environmental aspects and the relevant body involved in the management of waste. Port Said waste management strategies drawn from the study indicate a centralized approach in which the local government is responsible for waste collection, transportation and disposal. This approach does not only limit community participation but is capital intensive.
Conclusion
With the data collected and case analyzed for Port Said, it is clearly emphatic and specific that the methods of waste management used in most African cities are rigid, unified and do not involve the casual sector hence the reason why the menace have not been properly solved. It is very clear that waste conditions in African cities are different as compared to those of the developed world hence innovative approaches such as decentralized system of waste management should be put in place to address the problem. Medina (1998), proposes a high breed approach which involves the participation of the Low, middle and high income earners to be part of the team and be involved in all stages of waste management thus solving the problem amicably.
Recommendations
The study recommends that the local authority should privatize waste collection and transportation thereby incorporating the private sector to provide the necessary services for additional demand. There should also be sensitization and awareness creation of the communities on increased volume of recycled waste within the city. In addition, transportation trucks should be provided by the local government in Port Said to effectively manage the estimated 160 m3 of waste discharged daily within the city. It is also paramount for the government to move from the centralized model and involve other small players such as the community members, micro-enterprises and the private sector.
References
Achankeng, E. (2003) Globalization, Urbanization and Municipal Solid Waste Management in Africa. African Studies Associations of Australasia and the Pacific. Conference Proceedings-African on a Global Stage, 65 (1), pp. 4-13.
Badran M. F. and El-Haggar S. M., 2005. Optimization of municipal solid waste management in Port Said – Egypt, 23 (1), pp. 27-33.
Bushra, M., 2000. Regional Study on Policies and Institutional Assessment of Solid Waste Management in Egypt. Blue Plan Regional Activity Centre, Sophia Antipolis. 66 (1), pp. 58-61.
Enurlaela, H., (2003) Crises and Contradictions: Understanding the Origins of a Community Development Project in Indonesia Scott Guggenheim, 8 (1), pp. 7-9.
Medina, M., 1998. Globalization, Development and Municipal Solid Waste Management in Third World Cities. El Colegio de la Frontera Notre, Tijuana, Mexico, 77(1), pp. 45-48.
Transpacific is a leading waste treatment and recycling and management facility (company) operating in Australia. The company has been delivering safe, responsible waste management services for many years. The facility serves a range of businesses from small-sized to large multinational companies. The company has one of the largest and most specialized laboratories in Australia (Transpacific.com n.p).
The location of the Transpacific waste management facility and its users
Its liquid hazardous waste treatment and recycling department are located at Woree in Cairns, Queensland, Australia. The company’s experience enables it to manage waste from customers in all the industries – ranging from workshops, restaurants to large mining firms. Regardless of the type of waste you produce, Transpacific provides customized waste management solutions (Transpacific.com n.p).
What systems are in place to maximize diversion from landfills?
The technical department of the company is highly backed up with high-tech purpose-built, environmentally compliant waste management tools and equipment. For example, vacuum loaders are used by its on-site waste management plant (Bowman, 1985).
The plant management and technical teams have a continuous improvement plan set in place to investigate new treatment and recycling procedures to further cause a reduction in waste sent to landfills. Through its continuous improvement plan, Transpacific ensures there is a reduction in the energy and waste usage as well as reduced negative effects on the environment (Daven & Klein, 2008).
They also have special processing equipment and technical staff that have extensive knowledge in liquid waste management.
Types of waste accepted, and how the facility manages them
The Transpacific treatment plant is highly specialized in the collection, treatment of various liquid wastes and other prescribed industrial waste. The company has a wide range of waste removal, management, and disposal arrangements that have been fully certified to manage liquid and hazardous waste materials (Hosetti, 2006).
The plant has a remarkable ability to handle a range of liquid and hazardous wastes. Here is a list of the wastes that the company specializes on:
Acid waste
Caustic waste
Oily sludges,
Grease trap waste
Contaminated stormwater
Septic waste
Used cooking oil
Solvents
Waste oil
Wastewater
Triple interceptors
Trade waste
The facility’s compliance with the provisions of any legislation
The facility has laboratories that have been accredited by the Australian National Association of Testing Authorities (NATA). This means that the facility can guarantee compliance with the statutory and environmental standards, as well as industry best practices (Hosetti, 2006). The plant operates its hazardous waste management activities in compliance with the provisions of externally certified Integrated Management Systems. The company also aims to meet the strict requirements of Australian quality standards and OHS (Rhyner, Schwartz, Wenger, & Kohrell, 1995).
Is the facility appropriate for the types of waste that are sent there for treatment/disposal?
In my view, the facility is fully equipped to handle all the liquid waste materials that are sent to its plant. This is because the company has the most up-to-date processing technologies with a capacity to handle all the physical and chemical properties contained in almost all liquid and hazardous wastes. The assessment report released recently regarding its liquid processing facility shows that the facility is capable of treating the waste before it can be reused or released to landfills safely.
Charges applied for the different wastes
The facility charges the fees on a per-kilolitre basis, and each waste category has different pricing as follows:
Low strength BOD – $1.6/kilolitre
High-strength BOD food – $2.8/ kilolitre
Automotive – $0.5
These charges are likely to go up if the customer does not maintain a pre-treatment.
Innovative steps are taken to minimize the impact of the operations on the environment and any neighbors
The company has developed comprehensive emergency spills and recovery services to provide emergency waste management services to customers. This emergency spills plan has been successful in minimizing the dangers posed by hazardous liquid wastes. With this creative plan, Transpacific has been certified to handle all types of quarantine wastes (Martin & Johnson, 1987; Dhamija, 2006).
Regulatory compliance
As a licensed trackable waste collector and recycler, Transpacific has systems to help customers track their waste on-site. This allows customers to reduce the risk of overstocking or overproduction of waste materials. As an EPA complaint company, Transpacific has set up a rapid response plan to help reduce the risk profile of its customers (Haggar, 2007).
Recommendations for future Improvements
While Transpacific has plans put in place to guarantee safety in handling liquid waste on-site, there are a few issues that the company can implement to strengthen its liquid waste management capacity (Daven & Klein, 2008).
First, the company should develop the process of designing and implementing a plan that complies with the Carbon Management Principles, such as avoidance, switching, reduction and offsetting (Environment Protection Authority, 2007; Vanatta, 2000). The change impact will be a reduced amount of greenhouse emissions from its landfills, on-site fuel and energy use.
The company can also produce and implement a comprehensive greenhouse gas emission reduction plan that complies with the Carbon Farming Initiative. This will reduce costs and increase savings that come with a carbon tax.
References
Bowman, AO 1985, “Hazardous Waste Management: An Emerging Policy Area within an Emerging Federalism”, Journal of Federalism, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 131-144.
Daven, JI., & Klein, RN 2008, Progress in waste management research, Nova Science Publishers, New York.
Dhamija, U 2006, Sustainable solid waste management: issues policies and structures, Academic Foundation, New Delhi.
The concept of waste management continues to boost environmental efforts throughout the world. Many countries realize that certain categories of waste contain a utilitarian value. Waste that may be toxic should be disposed of appropriately to avoid causing harm to humans, the environment, and animals. Waste management efforts cannot succeed without suitable policies and goodwill from the state. Australia is a country that succeeds in waste management and this paper focuses on a case study based in the area of Collie. The plan on waste management for the city of Collie enables governments and donors to appreciate the concept of waste management. The approach, however, requires a strategic approach. The Shire of Collie demonstrates that waste management can accrue profits to local authorities as recycled materials can be sold to industries.
A proper waste management plan can bring profits through service charges. The Shire of Collie develops its waste management plan in accordance with the Waste Management Organization Board of Western Australia. The city has a zero waste development plan that advocates for intolerance to the existence of waste in different parts of the region. The approach provides necessary guidelines on the current situation of waste management in the Shire of Collie. It also incorporates strategies that may be used to combat and redirect the situation towards an efficient future. Australia seeks to be one of the regions across the world with a competitive waste management scheme and policy. Most of the regions within the proximity of the Shire of Collie undertake drastic measures to control the growth of the waste management problem. In addition, local governments receive significant amounts of money to work in association with other authorities in efforts to control and manage waste (Conner, 2011).
This case study explores diverse findings and recommendations from this project of waste management. Waste management sites may be ignored due to their low value. However, the traditional dimension treats waste management an unimportant field. However, with the advent of massive appreciation for the environment and the culture of sustainable development, this assessment recognises a substantial shift from this view. For instance, recycling and resource recovery is consequential, and one of the most appreciated cultures across the globe.
Historically, all waste was dumped recklessly in undesignated sites to be either buried or burned by relevant authorities, but this practice is no longer acceptable. This plan recognises recycling and resource recovery as remarkable alternatives. Continued public education may bring further improvements to the approaches. The Shire of Collie remains proactive on its waste management procedures. The area was the first within the South West Group to take action on waste control. In 1997, the city developed and controlled a waste management transfer centre. The authorities did not previously control the facility. Today, the dumping ground continues to undergo development efforts. The governance of the Shire of Collie has embarked on a mission to reprocess oils and different types of metals. The Shire of Collie considers procuring a wood chipper that can be used for mulching green waste materials. This aspect may work better than the system that has been in operation over the past 8 to 9 years. The wood chipper can be a manifestation of the shift from a dumping ground to a reprocessed utility. At the moment, the town contains only a single certified dumpsite called the Gibbs Road Site. The strategic draft for the management of debris should be aligned with that of the authorities of the Shire of Collie. The strategic procedures must derive a lot of guidance from environmental and local government policies.
Facility’s description
The Shire of Collie is one of the local government areas in Australia. The region is about 60 kilometres in length. The town lies in the south western side of Canberra. The region falls within the inland of the Darling Ranges. Residents sometimes refer to these ranges as the Collie River Valley. The Shire zone covers an area of approximately 1,712 square kilometres or 661 square miles. The government gazetted it in 1901, as a separate municipal district to accomplish the affairs of the town of Collie.
Shire of Collie waste management site.
Background information on location and types of facilities
The Collie economy mostly depends on industrial activities. The region contains heavy commercial industries that range from Wesfarmers and Griffin Coal mining projects and the Worsley Alumina Bauxite mining and processing resource (Catherine et al 2008). This aspect implies that the city is likely to produce high amounts of waste products. A team of government and private experts manages the factories. Most of the industries produce light, industrial based chemicals. Harris Dam is the main source of clean water. The Wellington Dam also provides water to the city of Collie. The two are the major water supply resources for the Shire of Collie (Environmental Protection Agency 2013).
Demographic data
The Shire of Collie comprises of various zones. These areas contain different population sizes. The regions include the Mungalup Road Settlement located approximately 6 kilometres from the site. Preston Road Zone features approximately 11 kilometres from the area. The Worsley area is relatively smaller in the area as opposed to other zones. In addition, the Allanson Estate features about 7 kilometres from the region (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2006).
Population and related projections
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, (2013).
The Shire of Collie may realise an increased population growth rate of 2% until 2032. Predicted population projections show declining numbers of people of the Collie region with a negative 0.38% growth rate (Chris 2011). This aspect predicts a reduced population for the region by the year 2030 (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2013).
Waste management practices
Currently, the Shire of Collie operates an internal waste management program. The region uses a standard “242L MGB” to collect waste for a period of one week. The Australian authorities established the Kerbside Reprocessing Project in 2008. This program related to the collection of waste and management of the issue for all residential estates in the region (Concern World, 2012). Furthermore, reclaiming for economic reasons was also a viable option. The area has a waste management site that stands at “Reserve 36458 Gibbs Road or Coalfields Highway”. The waste management location stands about 2.6 km east of the CBD of Collie. The zone is currently serving as the primary waste management area in the region and comprises of a combined landfill and waste transfer position. The Australian authorities certify the landfill in accordance to the environmental regulations of 1986. The government accords the debris site a dual classification rank in accordance to existing environmental policies. A number of the current waste management practices of the site include a “¾ category 63 site”. It contains a solid waste depot with a design aptitude of 500 tonnes annually. The other classification comprises of the “¾ Category 65 of Class II waste management site” with a production and design volume of 20 tonnes in a year (David 2009).
The council conducts a general practice of garbage transfer that comprises of acceptance, sorting and storage of the waste. The locality also undertakes forms of reprocessing of unique resources. The authorities classify the dangerous and harmful waste materials and other additional waste products. Perilous dump resources include oil products and asbestos. These resources are admissible at the site for processing and further re-utilisation. The government allows the site to operate as an active waste “burial” facility. The authorities operate other activities in the site like landfills, type 2 inert, type 1 and type 2 specialist, putrescible and contaminated solid waste (Henrik & Merete 2012). The debris ground is the only facility administered by the council within the Shire of Collie. It caters for the re-use of construction, demolition and industrial debris.
An example of a waste management practice in the site.
A number of the projected infrastructural needs for Shire may comprise of a “¾ waste compactor or spike wheeled roller”, a “¾ weighbridge facility” and “¾ rubbish screens or fence” (Government of Western Australia 2008). In addition, this report lays emphasis on the necessity to hire an environment expert to provide consultancy services on proper management of the site. The professional should be paid by the government using grants. The expert should serve Donnybrook and Boddington localities.
Waste management framework
Rationale for waste assessment
The area has identified the natural environment as an important part in the restoration of the environment. The plan emphasises on the importance of promoting environmental protection in the region. This aspect increases the quality of the environment and life. A waste management plan helps in the minimisation of the effect of solid and other types of waste, contributes to the rehabilitation of the degraded Collie River and enhances sustainable environmental efforts in Collie (Land Design Group 2009). The draft promotes the values of sustainable development in commercial and industrial development. Waste management can promote the capacity of industries to reduce carbon emissions to the environment. It helps in the reduction of environmental effects of debris and its future management. Furthermore, it is an appropriate approach of improving community inclusion on the effect of waste on the society.
Methodology
The whole process begins with the identification of the case study and the problem of waste management. This fact helps the researcher to identify and understand the issues underlying the site and to conduct a comprehensive assessment. Literature review relates to the various secondary sources with regard to the waste management site of Collie. The field surveys enhance the activity that the researcher carries out in the study area. After the field survey, the researcher analyses the data for one week and finally presents in different formats.
Primary data involves information that the researcher collects from the field survey. The main sources of this data relate to the city. The researcher derives the secondary data from the literature review. The main sources of this data include documents like books, journals, newspapers, magazines, previous studies on solid waste management and reports, policies, regulations, development plans and laws and by-laws on solid waste management.
The city of Collie’s refuse production
The Shire of Collie does not own a weighbridge amenity. This fact is similar to the majority of rural landfills in Western Australia. However, different studies show that construction and demolition wastes contribute most to the dump sites in the region. In addition, commercial and industrial areas form a remarkable segment of waste generation. Other common wastes in the region include asbestos waste. Motor oils from the automobile industry comprise of other forms of waste generated in Collie.
Waste management legislation
This case study examines several pieces of legislation that govern the management of waste in the region. These statutes include the Waste Avoidance Resource and Recovery Act 2007 (Oeltzschner & Mutz 2011). The regulations only permit local authorities to administer waste management. The legislation modified the concept of waste services of the Health Act of 1911. The Waste Avoidance Resource and Recovery Levy Act 2007 also set the levy for waste that the authorities receive at the metropolitan landfills. This report notes on-going consultations to include large, rural regional sites. The council utilises the taxes imposed on waste management services in accordance to the Waste Authority. The Health Act may be relevant to waste management and environmental conservation because it interprets and acts on policies related to public wellness. The regulatory procedure of 1992 controls matters related to the waste management of asbestos. The other statute that addresses issues that relate to the administration of waste resources in Australia includes the “Environmental Protection Act 1986” which oversees that the waste authorities prioritise environmental conservation efforts.
Analysis of results
The evaluation of the site indicates that the city of Collie conducts its debris management activities independently. The region generates a significant amount of waste in Australia.
Table: Waste streams to landfills in Collie. Source: Waste Management Board, (2010).
The findings indicate that the authorities do not collect the green waste at the kerbside. However, the council receives the debris separately when local and business parties deliver it. This paper affirms that commercial and industrial waste make the biggest contribution to the entire debris collection in the area. This draft observes an increase in interest from private contractors in the waste management industry. These contractors improve the efficiency of waste management and control in the region.
Analyses for waste minimisation opportunities and savings
The plan outlines significant waste minimisation opportunities in the region. The instances of waste minimisation may increase recycling drop- off facilities. The plan evaluates the need to increase recycling bays in the region. The other opportunity involves the survey of re-use facilities in waste management. These components can be installed in different buildings. The other opportunity is to allow for the entry of the public into the waste management industry. This aspect can be a crucial milestone in waste minimisation (National Emissions Trading Taskforce 2010).
The “Landfill Expectancy Model” serves to assess the rationale and the impact of the waste management model. The plan indicates the likelihood of high saving as a result of application of efficient waste management techniques. In order to ascertain the landfill site’s life, the model includes a number of factors, like quantity of cover materials applied, waste density, and compaction rates (Lands and Parks 2008). These factors can be varied to determine their impact on the landfill site process. The introduction of different waste management operational and engineering alternatives ensures that the authorities save the resources in the waste management exercise. The council realises profits from the waste conservation efforts. It uses modern equipments like a garbage compactor. It also uses strategic management programs and expansion plans to make money.
Analyses for costs and benefits
At the present state, the Shire of Collie charges about $83 to households per year for their 27 fortnightly collections of the “1 x 242L MGB” recycling bin (Mark 2011). The approximate number of dwellings or users is about 3,608 and the figure may increase with time (Neufert et al 2010). The amount is about 2.7% of residual waste disposal.
The city of Collie: Kerbside dump management
The local government of Collie administers a waste collection system for its residents. More than half of the standard household bin container for general nonrecyclable waste is a “241L MGB” (Total Environment Centre 2008). The council makes three quarters of its total collection of waste once per week and greater than half of its cost for the MSW. The domestic waste service per household is $166‐00 annually (WALGA 2008).
The authorities include the costs associated with disposal of this waste by residents in the yearly charges per household of $166 ‐ 00 (Coley et al 2007). The entry into the landfill by residents currently incurs no extra charges above the $166 ‐ 00 (Scottish Executive Social Research 2009). The accountants of the council apply economic practices like waste costs to calculate charges on an annual basis. The authorities determine the charges of waste services based on the size of the bins or the actual waste load. They also impose fixed charges for the purposes of maintenance of their vehicles. The deficiency of a weighbridge in the city makes it possible for the authorities to collect garbage and transport it to the site without transportation barriers.
Recommendations for waste minimisation
This plan outlines various recommendations for the minimisation of waste in the Shire of Collie. The area should implement a kerbside recycling program. This aspect is a notable endorsement for the site. Another commendation entails the initiation of a recycling plant. The Kerbside project should improve its capacity to high volumes of recycling. Currently, the authorities collect the recycling bin every fortnight. The yearly cost to rate payers is $82. The draft emphasises on increasing the collection of re-used paper. Re-claimed cardboard should form part of the recyclable resources. The landfill should be fenced. The Collie dump has entered into contracts with authorities in order to provide fencing to the debris ground. The government does not see the need for a fence to control “windblown” debris. This plan recommends the authority to construct a fence to limit access to the debris site. Barricades may be used to prevent illegal entries into the site.
Aims for future waste minimisation practices
The Shire of Collie intends to achieve significant progress towards realising a policy of zero waste. This objective may be in line with the deliberations of the Australian government. A number of the strategic actions for realising these goals include the post closure activities and surveillance at the Gibbs Road Landfill, the progressive work with other South Western Australia local government councils on regionalisation strategies wherever they may be practicable and possible. The aim should be to achieve waste management funding that may meet the required debris management efforts. The draft lays emphasis on the need to have a continuous monitoring and evaluation framework for the dump sites. A number of the practices like waste avoidance should be part of the culture of the area. The local authorities of Collie should create mechanisms for secondary refuse management and educate its residents on ways of reducing waste.
A waste minimisation strategy for the facility
The Shire of Collie needs to adopt a waste minimisation program for the facility. This aspect should include organic processing. This approach may entail enhancing the capacity of the site to reduce biodegradable waste going into the landfill. The other dimension may involve the construction and demolition of waste reuse. This fact may comprise of crushing waste in the area for further assessment. Crushed debris may be utilised for the purpose of covering the local government waste. This point may contribute towards significantly reducing the cost of waste management. The other requirement denotes the transfer of the station and re-use facility.
Recycling of waste from the Shire of Collie.
Actions necessary for implementing the recommendations
Various fundamental actions may be essential for the implementation of the recommendations. A number of the relevant actions include improving the existing services and efficiencies and increasing the efficacy of waste management. Collie may need to work with other Australian local councils. It may become a signatory to waste management agreements among local governments in Australia. It may also hold educative seminars aimed at empowering local councils on ways of improving, processing and managing their garbage collection. The Shire of Collie may serve as a model waste management entity for other councils to emulate.
The capacity of waste management personnel may need enhancement. Human resource needs may include skills, training and professional development. The Australian government recognises the Shire of Collie as an area in which group training of employees from several different local authorities may be done. The area can be essential in providing and improving the economies of scale regarding training and continued professional development. This draft establishes the necessity of establishing an adequate queuing area for vehicles using the facility so that the government does not interrupt the external traffic flows. Other interventions may include preferential access to recycling facilities, emergency vehicles at all times, possibly through an alternative entrance. The authorities need to limit access to the public road network. This idea can reduce vision across the locality for council employees. The administration of the site needs to separate vehicles and pedestrians. Another measure may involve effective traffic control devices and provision of essential infrastructure for the management of waste. The other critical requirement may entail the improvement of public communication. The plan affirms the need for the Shire of Collie as part of its communication strategy, to carry out a public survey using different models. This aspect can improve the public participation objectives achieved as survey returns may be considered substantial in addressing community expectations (Department of Parks and Recreation 2011).
Timeframe for achieving the recommendations
Source:(Waste Management Board, 2010).
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The people living in the hilly district of Gorkha are full of expectations this year. A challenge sponsored by Engineers without Borders is focusing on the plight of the communities living on these hilltops. The activities of this group are concentrated on Sandikhola village, which was selected as the representative community in the region. As an organisation, Engineers without Borders intends to help the people living in this village to find sustainable solutions for the problems that affect them.
The group acknowledges that waste management is one of the greatest problems affecting the people of Sandikhola. The waste directly impacts on the wellbeing of the communities living in the village, especially with regards to health. The realisation has seen a number of non-governmental organisations initiate projects in the area to empower the community on ways to create a sustainable waste management system. Nepal Water for Health (NEWAH) is one such NGO operating in Sandikhola village. The group realised that in order to have lasting solutions concerning waste management in the area, it is important to involve the people who are to benefit from the project. For this reason, the group embarked on a research and a number of discussions with EWB to come up with the best design to address the problem of waste management in the area. The design to be adopted was meant to meet the criteria formulated.
Following a series of evaluations and calculations, NEWAH came up with the final design that narrowed down to solid waste. The system was viewed as the most suitable for the problem affecting the people of Nepal since it combines four different waste management solutions. That is why it is named the 4S method. It is important to ensure that the system is supported by a well-designed education program for the local people. The success of the design depends on the effectiveness of the education program. The project is aimed at improving the lives of the people of Sandikhola, Gorkha district. It is also aimed at helping the people of Nepal at large. Through better waste management solutions, the residents of Sandikhola will be in a position to change their lifestyle in order to reduce waste.
Introduction
Nepal is one of the developing countries in the world. As such, it is experiencing rapid urbanisation due to increased population growth. Urbanisation in the country has been as a result of increased trading and commercial activities. Increased business activities have, however, led to the generation of enormous amounts of waste (Anderzen & Blees 2014). However, little has been done by municipal councils in the country to deal with the waste menace. For this reason, the municipalities are said to lack the capacity to deal with the rising quantities of waste. Considering that it is a developing nation, Nepal has to allocate its scarce resources to a number of development projects. As a result, little attention is given to the issue of waste management. The country also lacks controlled areas for waste handling. As a result, refused is disposed of in a haphazard way.
People living in the slums are the most affected by the problem of waste disposal. They lack the resources to pay for quality waste disposal services compared to their wealthy counterparts (Dangi, Urynowicz & Belbase 2013). People who live in poor regions, such as Sandikhola village, are also affected by the problem of waste. Persons living in these areas lack knowledge of effective waste disposal mechanisms. In addition, they have to contend with the problem of limited space for the disposal of waste (Anderzen & Blees 2014). As a result, it is important to empower them to develop lasting solutions in relation to the issue of waste management.
Failure to adequately manage waste in the country has raised a number of health and environmental issues (Anderzen & Blees 2014). To begin with, the refuse generated as a result of increased commercial activities in the country are hazardous. Failure to manage it has led to prolonged exposure to toxic gases and chemicals emanating from the waste (Dorsetforyou.com 2013). Failure to manage waste also leads to environmental degradation.
The current report seeks to introduce the reader to the issue of waste management in Nepal, with a special focus on the people living in Sandikhola village. A number of alternative methods of waste management that would be implemented in the country are highlighted. The alternative designs are analysed in terms of feasibility and sustainability to come up with the best solution for the Sandikhola problem. The report concludes by highlighting the implications of the alternative design used in the management of waste in Nepal. Recommendations for future research areas are also made at the end of the report.
Background
As stated earlier, Nepal is facing a waste management problem. Failure to take collective measures has exposed the population to a number of health problems. The waste menace has also resulted in environmental pollution (How can I reduce waste? n.d). A number of measures have been taken by the municipal council to address the problem. Such measures include reuse of household waste through composting, segregation of refuse based on the source at the domestic level, and door-to-door collection. Municipalities have also resorted to charging fees for the disposal of waste. The charges help finance the authorities in handling the refuse.
Revenue generation also helps create sustainability. However, most of the waste management problems are experienced in slums and poor areas. Persons living in these areas lack the knowledge on how to deal with waste. They also lack the income to pay for the services offered at the municipality level. For these reasons, the problem of waste management in the region has continued to worsen. Individuals living in these areas continue to suffer from health complications resulting from the persistence of waste in the environment.
The report seeks to explore a number of alternatives to help the people of Sandikhola. Each of the alternatives is systematically analysed to shed light on its potential to solve the menace. The limitations of these alternatives are also analysed. Following the analysis, the most suitable approach is arrived at. The approach is referred to as the final design. The sustainability of this design is analysed in terms of its environmental effects, as well as social and economic factors affecting it. The analysis is done using two tools. The two are the pairwise comparison and the selected alternative impact criteria. One of the greatest problems encountered in the process was the selection of the most appropriate alternative.
Each of the alternatives has a number of advantages and limitations. As a result, none of them is perfect in solving all waste-related problems (United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP] n.d). However, the final design will help the people of Sandikhola reduce the quantity of waste they generate. It will also help them to manage the waste that has already been produced adequately.
Literature Review
The municipal services are not in a position to regularly collect the waste produced by the ever-increasing population in the country (Waste Online 2006). The new development has led to the accumulation of waste at local dumpsites (March 2011). Garbage also remains in public places for long (WaterAid 2008). It is important to note that garbage results from household wastes (Cornell Waste Management Institute, 2014). Failure to collect garbage regularly results in its decomposition (Benefits of Recycling, 2014). Decomposition leads to the release of harmful gases and toxins to the environment (Turner & Geraldine 2010).
The garbage also serves as a medium for the growth of pathogens. Since most of these dumping sites are located near community-dwelling places, they lead to contamination of water and the environment with disease-causing microorganisms (Dorsetforyou.com 2013). Failure by the authorities to adequately manage waste has prompted the people of Nepal to seek unorthodox means of disposing of it (UNEP n.d). Such means of disposal include dumping garbage near natural resources, such as river banks and other water bodies. Such approaches expose people to more health risks.
Through education, community members are enlightened on matters surrounding the pollution effects of solid waste (Thompson 2012). After people have understood how solid waste exposes them to health problems indirectly through air pollution, they will look for measures to reduce the release of toxins into their surroundings (Anderzen & Blees 2014). Through education, members of the community can also be taught on how to reduce exposure to health risks when dealing with solid waste (Shrestha & Singh 2012). Locals are taught on the importance of using protective clothing when handling solid waste. Community members are also informed on how to recycle solid waste (Cash the trash: plastic waste management in Nepal n.d).
It is important to involve the local people in development projects taking place in their locality (Visvanathan & Norbu 2006). Involving these individuals helps them to embrace the project and identify with it (Dangi et al. 2013). Through participation, members of the community are in a position to gain the leadership skills needed in the running of the projects, even after the exit of the donors and facilitators (Robbins & Dustin 2011). Participation helps bring about sustainability. Since members of the community are the targeted beneficiaries, their participation will help them acquire the skills required to run the projects (Neupane & Neupane 2013). They also get the chance to believe in their abilities, having participated in successful demonstrations during the introduction of the plan. The locals also understand the major issues affecting them. Their participation in the projects, as a result, ensures that the matters that are of great importance to them are given priority (Gurung & Oh 2012).
The efforts made by the municipalities have failed to eradicate the problem of waste management in Nepal. As a result, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and private investors have moved in to help deal with the problem (Cornell Waste Management Institute 2014). One such NGO is the Nepal Water for Health (NEWAH). The organisation is working closely with EWB and the people of Sandikhola to help create a sustainable system of waste management (Asian Development Bank 2013). The NGO is also engaging in other projects throughout the country aimed at improving sanitation, promoting hygiene, as well as working towards the provision of clean drinking water to the people of Nepal (How can I reduce waste? n.d).
Selected Alternatives
Overview
A number of alternative designs to address the problem of waste management in Sandikhola village have been identified. The alternatives have been identified following keen deliberations with the people of Sandikhola with the assistance of NEWAH officials. They include composting, landfill disposal, incineration of waste, solid-waste, bioremediation, and onsite burial (How can I reduce waste? n.d).
In this section, the alternatives are assessed in terms of feasibility and sustainability. Nepal, a developing country, has limited resources to support many projects. As such, the waste management alternatives selected must reflect the efforts made to conserve the available resources (Asian Development Bank 2013). To this end, the projects must be of reasonable cost. Feasibility studies must reflect the affordability and cost of maintenance as far as the alternative is concerned (Dangi et al. 2013). As one of the criteria used to assess the proposed approaches, sustainability checks on the ability of the people to keep the project operational even after the NEWAH and EWB has withdrawn.
Selected Alternative 1: Solid Waste
Introduction to solid waste
Solid waste emanates from human activities. The amount of garbage generated increases with improvements in living conditions, urbanisation, and a shift in consumption patterns. For this reason, the management of waste is one of the major challenges facing communities today (Waste Online, 2006). The problem is more persistent in developing countries. Such nations have limited resources. As a result, the issue of solid waste is not treated with the seriousness it deserves despite the major health issues it poses to the population. Over the past years, accumulation of garbage has negatively impacted on the quality of life in Nepal. With increased population growth and urbanisation, solid waste is becoming a major environmental and health issue in the country. However, it is possible for a country to deal with this problem, especially through combined efforts between communities, the private sector, NGOs, and the authorities (Dangi et al. 2013).
Solid waste is associated with a number of hazards. For example, it affects the quality of soil, air, and water (Dorsetforyou.com, 2013). It also has the ability to affect human health through a number of diseases. Infections caused by waste can be spread through a number of vectors, such as rodents and insects. As such, garbage should be handled in a manner that makes it degradable. Failure to degrade turns the heaps of waste into a haven for the multiplication of rodents and insects. Garbage can also lead to health problems among humans through pollution (WaterAid, 2008). When released into the atmosphere, chemical pollutants emanating from the waste have short and long-term effects on the population. A good example of short-term effects is acid rain. The rain affects the quality of water available for consumption. Long term effects include chronic illnesses resulting from prolonged exposure to chemicals and gasses emanating from the solid waste.
Educating persons about the various harmful effects posed by this form of waste is one of the most effective measures of dealing with health problems (Thompson 2012). Community members should be educated on the most effective ways of waste disposal. It is also important to teach people how to recycle solid garbage emanating from households, offices, and such other sources. Reusing waste products not only helps clean up the environment but also empower the local communities by providing them with cheap resources. Reducing the quantity of solid waste within a certain locality helps to fight rodents by destroying their habitat and discouraging their multiplication. As a result, diseases that were previously transmitted by the vectors no longer affect the population.
When dealing with the problem of waste management in Sandikhola, it is important to engage the local people (Engineers without Borders 2014). Participation is the best way to reduce wastage of resources. By involving the locals in the waste management project, few resources will be spent in terms of hiring employees. Members of the community will act as the source of labour in their own schemes.
The community members will also learn the virtue of working together towards the success of local development projects (WaterAid 2008). For example, ideas generated through education can be easily passed from the literate to the illiterate people through the use of native languages. Local dialects act as an important tool for passing ideas and educating members of the society. For this reason, through participation, even the illiterate persons in Sandikhola will gain knowledge and will help educate other members of the community. Residents of Sandikhola will also be in a position to understand the current status in terms of waste management and the possible outcomes of their failure to act.
Waste management projects have a number of objectives. The major aim of the current undertaking involves convincing every individual in Sandikhola to reduce the amount of waste that they produce (Anderzen & Blees 2014). Reducing the amount of solid waste generated by households will translate to an overall decrease in the quantity of garbage collected in the entire community. After each and every individual has adopted the practice of reducing the quantity of waste, it is easier for the people of Sandikhola to deliberate on the way forward with regards to the elimination of the refuse produced in the entire community. The participation of the people of Sandikhola in the project will ensure that all community members collaborate in the new management efforts. Members of the society will use equal efforts in collecting and disposing of waste that they had accumulated prior to the initiation of the project.
How to address the people of Sandikhola
The residents of this village need guidance on how to best deal with the problem of solid waste. A four-step procedure can be used to help the village manage this problem. The procedure begins at the household level. It is referred to as the ‘4Rs’. It involves reducing, reusing, recycling, and responding (Gurung & Oh, 2012). The four steps form a cycle that should be observed on a daily basis in order to reduce the amount of solid waste in the environment. Although it is difficult for the people of Sandikhola to get used to the process, they will finally embrace it having seen the benefits that come with it. The four steps are discussed in detail below:
Reducing
In Sandikhola, the focus is on reducing the problem by choosing a range of products and materials that generate the least amount of solid waste after they have been used. It is important to acknowledge the fact that items are discarded after their usefulness is exhausted (March 2011).
By buying such products, the households in Sandikhola will produce less waste than in the past. Buying products that are easier to degrade is also important when dealing with the accumulation of waste. Such products include those delivered in packages that are biodegradable. Items like fridges and television sets should be packed in wooden cartons and such other materials. Most of the solid waste that the people of Nepal have to contend with involves product wrappers (Asian Development Bank 2013). They are used as protective coats for household commodities purchased from major stores. In the case of Nepal, waste from these packaging materials should not be a big problem. The country’s tropical environment has plenty of vegetation that is capable of providing enough natural food to the population.
The communities living in Sandikhola should buy locally assembled products instead of obtaining items from stores (Asian Development Bank 2013). The decision is informed by the fact that most of the goods obtained from the stores come in plastic packages. Once the product is used, the wrappers are no longer important. As such, they are discarded. When waste is not collected, the plastic packaging materials become a major health concern to the dwellers. The impacts of locally generated products on waste management may be negligible at the household level. However, there will be an overall reduction in the amount of waste generated in the village as a whole.
Reusing
Recycling of items is identified as one of the most effective ways through which waste can be reduced. It is noted that there are two major guiding principles when it comes to the reuse of waste. To begin with, the people must be aware of the products that are reusable (Cash the trash: plastic waste management in Nepal n.d). People should also learn to share the items that they do not use on a regular basis. Reusing ensures that items are utilised until they are no longer beneficial to the owner. For this reason, little waste is produced in a given duration of time. The element of wastage is eliminated in the process. Through reuse of products, the people of Sandikhola will be able to produce manageable amounts of waste over time.
As stated earlier, it is important to know the kind of products that can be reused and those that cannot. It is noted that most organic products cannot be reused. However, most inorganic goods can be used more than once (Neupane & Neupane 2013).
Plastics are some of the most reused products. Their ability to be used more than once is attributed to the fact that they are tough in nature and are not easily worn out. Unlike organic products, plastics are synthetic and their quality does not deteriorate with time. Communities living in Sandikhola can wash and use these products, including polythene papers and plastic water bottles. For example, a person washing and reusing the same water bottle for a month will have produced thirty times as less waste compared to an individual who purchases a new bottle of water daily and discards it. Fabrics, such as table clothes and garments, can also be reused for a long time. Washing the fabrics improves their appearance, making sure that they can continue to be used for many years. Some organic products, such as scrap paper, can also be reused. The amount of waste paper produced can be reduced by writing on both sides of the paper.
Sharing items that are not needed regularly has also been identified as one of the key principles of reusing. Equipments, such as drills, printers, and pumps, are not put into use for long durations (Cash the trash: plastic waste management in Nepal n.d). They are only retrieved by the users when the need arises. As a result, it is easy for these equipments to get damaged due to prolonged stay in the store where they collect dust and rust. As a result, such products are discarded as a result of malfunctioning and lack of regular servicing. When discarded in large numbers, they may lead to pollution of the environment.
Sharing of items ensures that a single resource is shared amongst several households, rather than having each of them purchase the same tool (Neupane & Neupane 2013). It also reduces the accumulation of items that are not of any use to the household. Renting out these tools for a given duration of time should also be encouraged. Through sharing, the items are properly maintained by the people who use them. The tools and equipment that are no longer needed can be donated to charity, rather than discarding them.
Recycling
Recycling is closely related to reusing. It refers to the process through which waste is converted into new products. The process is important since it ensures that potentially useful materials do not go to waste (Shrestha & Singh 2012). Recycling of waste products, however, requires specialised technology and equipment. As a result, not all individuals in Sandikhola village can directly participate in the recycling process. However, the locals can help in the separation of non-recyclable solid waste from recyclable materials (Shrestha & Singh 2012). Two basic processes must be followed for the process to be possible. To begin with, composting of food scraps is needed. Secondly, the recyclable products must be carefully chosen and separated from those that cannot be recycled.
Compositing of food scraps is a simple process that each and every household in Sandikhola can be able to engage in (Marsh 2011). Yard garbage and waste emanating from the kitchen is composted and moved to the backyards. Composting will help the residents to turn waste into nutrients that can be added into the soil to improve its fertility (Turner & Geraldine 2010). The process also improves the amount of water and air that is needed by the soil by enhancing its texture. In addition, it controls weed, eliminating the need to use chemicals, such as herbicides, in farming.
The process of choosing recyclable products is important in the management of waste. By using these products, the people living in Sandikhola will be in a position to reduce the amount of waste in their surroundings (Shrestha & Singh 2012). Education can be used to complement this approach. To this end, members of the society are advised on means through which they can be able to gather the recyclable waste for collection. Collection of these waste products can be done at the household or at the community level. It is also important for the locals to be able to point out examples of materials that can be recycled. They (materials) include glass, plastic, and steel. Recycling of waste is important since it requires low amounts of energy to come up with the final products. Natural resources that would have been used in the assembly of entirely new products are conserved. As such, the government and the residents benefit from this process.
Responding
The process takes place when people are left to share and help each other on issues to do with waste management. Without the sharing of information amongst the people living in Sandikhola, the efforts made to reduce the amount of waste generated will be futile (Waste Online 2006). It is important to note that no single individual is in a position to retain everything taught during the launch and implementation of the project. Members of the community have to come together and share what they have learnt during the implementation of the entire program. As a result, individuals will have an idea of what is expected of them. Through sharing, ignorance among the members of the society is also eliminated. Each and every individual assumes responsibility when it comes to matters of solid waste management. Sustainability will be achieved since all individuals will learn how to care for their environment, even without the presence of NGOs to guide them.
Everyone should take the responsibility of spreading information relating to the reduction, reuse, and recycling of waste. It is a fact that it is not possible for a single individual to impact on the entire village of Sandikhola. However, everyone should take the initiative to share the information with their friends, families, neighbours, and workmates. Providing these people with information will give them the ability to reduce waste (Visvanathan & Norbu 2006).
By educating their friends, individuals can help reduce waste at their work places. It is important to realise that the aim of the project is to prevent the accumulation of waste by targeting all the possible sources. One should take the responsibility of encouraging and checking the progress of other members of the society in their bid to reduce waste. The practice will motivate people to stick to the process of cleaning up the environment and reducing the amount of waste that they generate in order to stop further degradation (Visvanathan & Norbu 2006). Through follow up, they will gain a sense of responsibility since they feel that they are not the only ones who are using their time in making efforts to clean up the environment.
Information on reducing the amount of waste should also be provided to school going children. For example, the children can be taught on how to build composting systems. Involving the young members of the society will ensure that they reduce the amount of waste that they generate at school. Lessons given to the students can also be applied at home. The students can share the information with their parents, siblings, friends, and neighbours. Schools provide a platform from which information on waste management can be passed to a large number of persons at a go (UNEP n.d).
School meetings in Nepal can, for example, be used to educate members of the society. Information that is provided in such forums will impact on the lives of many members of the society in terms of their ability to reduce waste. Teaching the individuals on how to manage waste at a tender age will turn them into responsible citizens. They are also likely to grow accustomed to waste reduction. In addition, they are likely to take care of their environment in a better way compared to previous generations. Sustainability will be achieved in the process since new generations will have the knowledge to combat the waste menace.
Educating others on waste management is also important since it enables members of the society to come together to seek a lasting solution (UNEP n.d). Education forums encourage creativity in the community. Through the exchange of ideas, new possibilities to reduce waste can be suggested and explored. By exchanging ideas, the people of Sandikhola can come up with alternative ways of dealing with waste. For example, suggestions may be made on how to improve the efficiency of the design used to manufacture or assemble the composting systems (Dangi et al. 2013). Individuals can also come up with better ways of reusing waste. For example, biscuit tins can be used to grow plants. Tires that are worn out can be used to make swings for the children, rather than buying new ones. Through education, individuals are empowered. Entrepreneurial minds may also be created in the process. An individual can, for instance, discover a viable economic opportunity in the collection of renewable waste.
Selected Alternative 2 – Incineration of Waste
Incineration is one of the traditional practices that are used in Nepal to dispose large amounts of waste. The practice is common in many other Asian countries. In Nepal, the approach is mostly used in the disposal of hospital wastes. A study to this end was conducted by Pesticide Watch Group on 16 hospitals in Kathmandu valley. The research found that 62 percent of health institutions resorted to combustion to manage their waste.
The hospitals practiced either open burning or incineration. Both practices were carried out within the premises. In addition, the study revealed that there were two main types of incinerators that were commonly used. The incinerators used were observed to have either one or two chambers. Some of them were locally made, while others were imported. Some hospitals incinerated all their waste products, while others only burnt items that were considered to have the potential of spreading infections (Dorsetforyou.com 2013). The government of Nepal has funded many incinerator projects across the country. However, the construction of a state-of-the-art incinerator plant at Sherlo Monastery is seen as one of the most optimistic projects implemented by the government of Nepal to deal with the waste problem in the country. The image in appendix 1 shows a picture of a worker putting waste into an incinerator situated at Sherlo Monastery.
There are a number of advantages associated with the incineration of waste in Nepal, particularly for the people of Sandikhola. To start with, incineration requires a small piece of land for the management of waste compared to other alternative designs, such as landfill (WaterAid 2008). With the help of this process, the weight and volume of waste is reduced to manageable levels. As such, incineration helps reduce the bulk of the waste.
Only a small piece of land is required for the disposal of the waste using the incineration method. There is a 75 percent reduction in the weight of waste following incineration. The burning is also important as it ensures that the flue and the heavy metal-laden gases produced following incineration are cleaned to reduce their effect on the environment. The approach is important in that it ensures that the gases produced are released to the environment in a friendly manner. It averts the occurrence of pollution related problems, such as the greenhouse effect.
It is possible to locate incinerators near residential areas. As already indicated, most of the waste produced in Sandikhola emanates from households (Waste Online 2006). The ability to construct the incinerators close to residential areas with minimal effects on the people will reduce the volume of traffic associated with waste disposal efforts. The waste does not have to be transported over long distances since it is incinerated close to the site where it was produced. Incinerators set up in residential areas also help reduce the cost of transporting waste. In addition, air pollution is reduced since less fossil fuel is burnt to transport the waste using heavy trucks.
Incinerators do not cause noise pollution since waste is burnt under controlled environment (Waste Online 2006). By adopting this approach, members of the community will not need to use other waste management alternatives, such as landfill. The heat generated by these burners can be put into good use. It can be used to power steam turbines for the generation of power. It can be used for heating during cold weather. The products of incineration include flue gases, slag, ash, and other residues. The by-products are not associated with foul smells like other solid wastes. It is also important to note that the waste that is managed through incineration is renewable since it assists in the conservation of fossil fuel, which is a non-renewable resource.
Incineration is, however, more expensive compared to alternative forms of waste management, such as landfill (Visvanathan & Norbu 2006). The cost associated with this method continues to rise, especially as a result of skyrocketing prices of fuel. A lot of energy is required to completely burn the waste products. The energy is mainly sourced from petroleum products or electricity. People living in poor regions, such as Sandikhola, cannot afford to put up with the high cost of fuel. Measures put in place to reduce pollution are expensive. Such measures include cleaning the gases released after the incineration of the waste. Expensive technology in terms of sieves and chemical reactants are used. The gas must be checked for harmful elements before it is released into the environment. It is argued that measures put in place to avert pollution contribute to over half the total cost of the incineration process.
The success of incineration as the most suitable waste management alternative for the people of Sandikhola is limited. To begin with, the approach requires expensive technology when compared to other alternatives (Visvanathan & Norbu 2006). To this end, it is not easy for the people of Sandikhola to purchase and maintain these technologies. Most of the incinerators used in Nepal are imported and require a lot of capital to install and maintain.
The machines also need skilled personnel to operate them. As a result, such a project will not be feasible and sustainable in the long term. In addition, the use of incineration as an alternative wastage management strategy in Nepal is limited. The alternative is not popular with the people of Sandikhola. As such, people will take long fully adopt and embrace the strategy. Incinerators also have a considerably small capacity. For instance, only one major installation is found in Kathmandu valley. It is situated at Patan Hospital. Other smaller incinerators in the area can only handle a daily waste capacity of 400 kilograms.
Many Nepalese have protested against the setting up of incinerators. They are not comfortable with the installations close to their households. It is not easy to convince them that the incinerators will help them deal with the problem of waste disposal (Asian Development Bank 2013). On the contrary, they continue to express fears that the facilities will expose them to a number of health issues. They particularly raise concerns with the emissions produced by the incinerators (Asian Development Bank 2013). The picture in appendix 2 is an illustration of such emissions. The realisation is an indication of some of the negative effects that incinerators have on people living near the facilities.
Nepalese citizens have in the past held protests demanding to know who is responsible for the management of medical waste. Currently, the country’s ministry of health is responsible for large healthcare institutions. The ministry of education is responsible for teaching persons working in the healthcare facilities (How can I reduce waste? n.d). The health practitioners should be taught on how to appropriately dispose medical waste. The ministry of industry on the other hand is in charge of nursing hospitals. Failure to streamline the system has lead to a crisis in terms of the disposal of medical waste. No single government department is responsible for the disposal of the waste, a situation that has created confusion in the countries public sector. As a result, medical waste in the country has always been mishandled and carelessly disposed (How can I reduce waste? n.d).
Selected Alternative 3 – Bioremediation in Nepal
Bioremediation is also one of the most commonly used waste management alternatives. The technique has been used for over three decades now since it was introduced. Vermicomposting is the mostly used bioremediation technology in Nepal (How can I reduce waste? n.d). In vermicomposting, worms are used to speed up the rate of decomposition of food and vegetable wastes. Earthworms, red wigglers and white worms are the most commonly used. The diagram in appendix 3 illustrates this clearly. It shows a picture of vendors selling compost kits containing worms that are used in vermicomposting.
However, it is noted that the country lacks large composting facilities. The technology has also not been adopted in all parts of the country. Lack of adequate resources in Sandikhola has hindered the locals from adopting the technology. It is however important to note that composting activities have been ongoing in Nepal especially in the Hetaudu, Bhaktapur and Kathmandu regions. Currently, the municipality of Bhaktapur has the largest compost plant in the country. The plant is in a position to handle atleast six tons of waste on a daily basis.
On the other hand, Hetaudu and Kathmandu municipalities encourage communal and household composting activities (Asian Development Bank 2013). Kathmandu composting plant has been operational for over two decades now. Efforts to install another composting plant in Bhaktapur municipality are underway. The new plant will have the capacity to work on at least 3 tons of waste daily. Both the private sector and the members of the community are being involved in the efforts to manage organic waste through composting. A number of NGOs working in the region are also encouraging composting activities. Such NGOs include WEPCO and NEPCEMAC.
Composting would be important in the management of waste in the Sandikhola. Quality compost obtained from Vermicomposting sites is sold to farmers and landscapers (Benefits of Recycling 2014). As a result, composting will help to improve on the quality and quantity of food produced by the people of Sandikhola. Through composting, pathogens and weeds can also be controlled. Cases of health risks associated with waste will therefore be reduced.
Compost plants maintain temperatures of over 400 centigrade for a few weeks. The temperatures are unfavourable for growth of pathogens, such as bacteria and harmful fungi. Through composting, the mass and volume of the waste is also reduced. A reduction in weight results from the loss of some of the water in the waste material. The bulkiness of the waste is also reduced thus improving its handling. Composting of organic waste also reduces the odours produced. As a result, air pollution is controlled.
There is a possibility that bioremediation can be successfully used in waste management efforts in Sandikhola is high (Benefits of Recycling 2014). Since vermicomposting was introduced in the country in 1996, it has been greatly embraced by the Nepalese people. For example, the practice of selling vermicomposting kits containing 300 worms is common in Kathmandu. The most commonly used worm species is the Eisenia foetida. The cost of these compost kits is much lower compared to other alternatives of waste management, such as incineration. The project is therefore feasible and can be afforded by most households.
The figure in appendix 4 is an illustration of a conventional compost bin. The figure is an image of a Nepalese woman standing in front of such a bin located near a household.
Members of the community in Kathmandu Metropolitan City have also participated in voluntary work involving the composting of waste (Robbins & Dustin 2011). Currently, there are over 100 youths who have volunteered to promote the popularity of vermicomposting as the means of managing waste. The volunteers act as a link between the municipality authority and the members of the community. They guide the locals on the right procedures to be followed during composting to ensure that the process is successful. It is therefore easy to conduct a follow up to ensure that the right thing is being done. As a result, sustainability will be achieved. They also help in demonstrating to the community members on how to construct compost kits without having to buy commercial ones.
However, it is important to note that the vermicomposting plants can only handle minimal amounts of waste. The largest plant in the country can only handle six tons of organic waste dairy (How can I reduce waste? n.d). The capacity of the composting plants does not however match the ever rising amount of organic waste produced by the households. Bioremediation through composting also only helps people deal with organic waste.
The alternative will not be in a position to deal with inorganic wastes, such as plastic. Composting has also been noted to be effective only on fast decomposing waste products, such as vegetables and food scraps. Vermicomposting is therefore not an effective practice in dealing with waste management since it is selective. It is important to note that the people of Sandikhola need to seek an alternative that deals with all forms of waste. Persons are also required to purchase the compost kits which contain worms. Poor households will not be in a position to purchase these kits and will continue relying on municipal services.
Selected Alternative 4 – Composting
Composting is an alternative to dealing with waste that involves its conversion to fertiliser. The alternative only helps deal with organic matter which is decomposed and recycled back into the soil. For this reason, the composting process is also commonly referred to as soil amendment. It is one of the key ingredients of organic farming (Robbins & Dustin 2011). Through composting, nature helps in the recycling of matter into humus like substances.
Examples of substances that are broken down include manure, leaves, food remains, coffee grounds, worms, grass trimmings, as well as papers. A number of microorganisms are used in the process of composting. Bacteria are the most actively involved group of microbes in facilitating the process. Fungi and actinomycetes are also involved in composting. They are able to break down waste only in presence of oxygen. During composting, the aerobic micro organisms turn the organic waste into ammonium, heat, and carbon dioxide (Cornell Waste Management Institute 2014). Ammonium is produced in form of nitrogen (NH4) which is an important nutrient for perennials, such as maize and shrubs. Failure to consume NH4 by the plants leads to further conversion of the product into nitrate (NO3) which also helps complete the nitrogen cycle. Generally, the process of composting takes place naturally. However, human interventions can be used to speed up the process of composting.
The process of composting only takes place under favourable conditions. Five conditions that promote composting have been identified. To begin with, worms and micro organisms must be introduced into the waste for the process to kick off. The organisms, which act as catalysts to the process, are referred to as compost activators. Bacteria, fungi, or both may be used. The right nutrients in their right quantities must also be present for the process of composting to take place. Waste to be used for the preparation of compost should be composed of both brown and green organic waste. Brown organic waste is rich in carbon. It consists of materials, such as manure and dead leaves. Green organic waste on the other hand is rich in nitrogen and is composed of materials, such as grass and food waste (Cornell Waste Management Institute 2014). While comparing compost, the two should be mixed in a ratio of 1 green part to 20 parts of brown material.
Oxygen is also essential for the process of composting to occur. Microbes require oxygen for them to survive and for their respiration. As a result, it is important to ensure that the waste is properly aerated to ensure that there is swift breakdown of the waste (Turner & Geraldine 2010). Water is also an important requirement for the process of composting. Water is a medium for most microbes, such as bacteria. Water also helps hydrolyse the organic matter making it easier for the microbes to break it down. Moisture is also important for the growth of fungi. Enough time must also be allowed for the compost to be ready. The process of composting takes several weeks and can at times take even months. What this means is that it is a long term waste management strategy.
Compost designs are simple and inexpensive (Cornell Waste Management Institute 2014). They can be built at any location. Site selection is however very important when designing a compost site. It is important to ensure that the designs are built away from dwelling places in order to avoid air pollution. The direction of the wind should also be considered to avoid carrying the odour from compost to the homes. While preparing a compost pit, the waste should be arranged into two layers.
The first layer should be made up of the green organic material, such as grass and leaves. The materials are rich in nitrogen. The reason behind using these materials on the lower layer is to improve on aeration. Since large air spaces are left between the materials, the rate of airflow will be increased in the compost. The activity of the bacteria is therefore promoted in the process (Turner & Geraldine 2010). The upper layer is made up of the carbon based materials. Here, more dense materials such as manure and soils rich in nutrients can be used. Carbon rich materials act as a source of nutrition for the microbes. Food scraps are also added in this layer to improve on the quality of the compost.
In order for the compost to be more efficient, it is important to build several rows. Having several rows ensures that the new waste is not mixed with older waste. As such, fresh waste added will have enough time to decompose. The waste should also be turned regularly to ensure that it is evenly broken down (Turner & Geraldine 2010). Turning the compost regularly also ensures that it is properly aerated and prevents the rotting of the materials used. Rotting would lead to the release of unpleasant odours that would pollute the air. Once the compost is ready, it can be transferred to the backyards where it can be used to grow vegetables and other crops.
A number of advantages are associated with composting as one of the alternatives designs to waste management. Should the people of Sandikhola adopt composting, they will enjoy flexibility in waste management (Turner & Geraldine 2010). Decomposing is a natural process and does not require much human intervention. Man can only help increase the process of decomposing the waste. Since composting does not require any specialised technology, it is a cheap method of managing waste. The procedures to be followed when preparing compost are also simple and can be followed by all members of the society, both the literate and the illiterate. Sustainability can also be achieved since the people of Sandikhola will not require constant training and follow up for them to be in a position to prepare quality compost. Compost is also beneficial to the people since it promotes farming activities.
Composting can also save the people of Sandikhola a lot of cost in terms of the transportation of waste. Composting in most cases is done at household basis unlike other alternatives, such as landfill (Robbins & Dustin 2011). Composting will also help promote recycling activities. In order to compost, households are required to separate organic wastes from that which is inorganic. During the sorting process, the villagers will also be in a position to separate recyclable waste from other materials. In the process, tons of glass, paper, and metal can be gathered from waste generated for them to be recycled. Composting is also important in that it reduces the need for synthetic fertiliser. The people of Sandikhola will be in a position to practice farming that is environmental friendly (Turner & Geraldine 2010).
Compost manure does not have as great pollution effects compared to synthetic fertiliser, such as the green house effect. The cost of purchasing synthetic fertilisers is also high and lowers the profitability of farming. Composting is also important in that it helps in the recycling of nitrogen. Through the nitrogen cycle, nitrogen contained in the organic wastes is returned back into the soil and can be used in the production of new foods and vegetative materials. The cycle is continuous and ensures that nitrogen is not exhausted.
The possibility of composting helping the people of Sandikhola deal with the problem of waste management is however limited. To begin with, the alternative only helps in the management organic waste. It does not help the people of Sandikhola deal with synthetic waste which has continued to be one of their greatest menaces. Through composting, limited amount of waste can be managed (Robbins & Dustin 2011). Compost pits can only accommodate limited amounts of waste.
The figure in appendix 5 shows a picture of a compost pit. In the picture, it is apparent that only a limited amount of waste can be accommodated in such a pit.
The alternative is also time consuming and does not provide immediate solutions to waste management compared to other alternatives, such as incineration. Composting also increases the population of microbes in the waste. Some of the microbes may be pathogenic and pose health risks to the people of Sandikhola (Turner & Geraldine 2010). Following composting, it is important to treat the waste in order to kill harmful microbes. Treating the waste increases on the cost of composting. As a result, the alternative would not be the most appropriate for the people of Sandikhola.
Selected Alternative 5 – Onsite Burial
Onsite disposal is one of the alternatives to waste management. It involves placing waste on the ground at the same spot where it was generated. Onsite burial is important since it ensures that the earth’s surface is not littered with waste (Asian Development Bank 2013). The process involves the removal of the top soil to a given depth depending on the amount of waste that has been generated.
Through this alternative, households can be in a position to dispose their own solid waste without relying on municipal services. A number of considerations must however be taken when dealing with the waste. For example, it is important to consider the water table’s depth at the site. Sound environmental controls must be taken in order to prevent the contamination of underground water. Through burying, the contamination of surface water is also prevented. The waste should be buried deep enough to prevent it being washed away following erosion of the soil. Soil should also be properly compacted to ensure that the waste is contained within the site where it was buried.
In Nepal, onsite burial as a waste disposal alternative has been mainly applied in the region of Kathmandu. Huge trenches have been dug in the area. The trenches stretch to the length of several kilometres. Most of these trenches have been filled with plastic waste. The waste is non-degradable. For this reason, it continues to persist in the soil for many decades. Soil erosion eventually leads to the exposure of these pits on to the ground surface. In areas where the amount of waste buried was considerably huge, it forms a landmark when it is exposed following erosion (UNEP n.d). The waste can be carried to water bodies through surface erosion causing contamination.
Onsite burial of waste is however associated with a number of advantages. The alternative offers instant waste management solutions to the people. If adopted by the people of Sandikhola, onsite burial will help the people to dispose of waste as soon as it is generated. Rapid management of waste helps reduce on its pollution effect (UNEP n.d). The alternative is also cost effective. The people of Sandikhola only require digging pits that are proportionate with the amount of waste that they wish to dispose off. Since waste management is done at the household level, only human effort will be required. All forms of solid waste can also be disposed through the alternative.
Onsite burial also does not require the transportation of waste from one point to another. Since waste is buried at the same spot where it is generated, the cost of transporting it is eliminated. The harmful effects associated with the waste are also contained within a small region. The design has for example been used in many countries in the control of diseases, such as anthrax. Animals that die from the disease are buried on the same spot to prevent the spread of pathogens. For this reason, the health of the people of Sandikhola will be promoted.
However, the alternative would not be effective in addressing the problem of waste management in Sandikhola since it is associated with a number of shortcomings. To begin with, onsite burial is only an effective means of waste disposal in approved sites. Organisations and agencies involved in the conservation of the environmental put in place strict regulations concerning the burial of waste. The regulations are mainly aimed at maintaining the quality of water. Onsite burial of waste therefore requires continuous monitoring (UNEP n.d). Monitoring requires the involvement of the government in the management of waste.
However, the government may lack the resources to follow up the project a situation that would negatively impact on its sustainability. People have to take the waste to the burial sites. The alternative design also requires significant amount of space. A lot of land will therefore be wasted in the process making it undesirable among the people. Land used for the burial of waste can also not be put into future economic use. Contamination may also result from the burial of waste. The waste encourages the multiplication of pathogens in the soil. If the waste is shallowly buried, the pathogens can be easily transported from one point to another through disease vectors, such as rodents and insects.
Selected Alternative 6 – Landfill Disposal
The construction of landfill sites is also another alternative to the management of waste in Sandikhola. The sites are also commonly referred to as tips, middens, dumps, dumping grounds, as well as rubbish dumps (Dangi et al. 2013). The alternative has previously been used in Nepal for many decades and is considered to be one of the oldest strategies to deal with waste. There are a number of landfills situated across the country. The Karaute Danda dump is the major and the most well managed landfill in the country. Activities undertaken in the landfill include sorting of waste.
Through sorting, the management of the landfill is able to determine what waste will be reused, recycled, and that which will undergo composting. The site has for this reason been in a position to generate income through the sale of compost and recyclable waste. However, there have been concerns that the landfill is almost filled to capacity. The disposal of heavy metals and other chemicals have also led to the contamination of the landfill. The presence of contaminants has posed persons working in the landfill to a number of health conditions, such as cancer and bacterial diseases (Dangi et al. 2013). The citizens are also not willing to purchase contaminated compost. Other landfills include the Sisdole and Pokhara dumps. The two landfills are however of a smaller capacity and do not engage in the sorting of waste.
Landfills are suitable for the disposal of solid and semisolid waste. The waste to be disposed should also have low concentration of salts and hydrocarbons to avoid the contamination of surface and underground water. In most cases, the wastes are treated prior to its disposal in the landfill (Gurung & Oh 2012). Landfills are similar to the onsite burials in that on both alternative designs, the top soil is dug out before the pits are filled with waste.
The soil that had been dug out is then used to cover the waste. The two are also only practiced in restricted areas and require constant monitoring to prevent them from impacting negatively on the environment. Major differences however exist between the landfills and onsite burial. To begin with, landfills involve large-scale management of waste while onsite burials are often done on a small scale basis. Heavy machinery is used in landfills. Onsite burial on the other hand only requires small hand tools. While onsite burials are done at the local level, landfills are often run by large municipalities that generate a huge amount of waste within a short duration of time.
A number of considerations must be made while implementing landfill projects. The depth of the pit is one of the most important considerations. The site selected for the construction of the landfill should not have ground water that is close to the earth surface (Neupane & Neupane 2013).
The waste should be dumped more than five feet above the level of the ground water. The type of soil in the site is also an important consideration. Landfills should be constructed in areas where the soils have low permeability. Clay soils are the most preferred. Sandy soils would not be suitable for the construction of the landfills. Appropriate measures should also be put in place in order to prevent leaching and surface runoff (Asian Development Bank 2013). Physical barriers are used to separate the waste and the ground water in order to prevent leaching. Vegetation can be used to protect against surface runoff. Grass can be planted on top of the already filled areas to prevent erosion. Despites all these measures having been taken, it is important to closely monitor the sites to ensure that they are still in a good condition.
If the project if adopted in Sandikhola, people living in the village would enjoy a number of advantages are associated with the use of the landfills in the management of waste. To begin with, landfills are simple to construct. No complex technology is required compared to other alternative designs, such as incineration. Equipments required for the construction of landfills, such as excavators are also readily available. Many municipal services own these equipments which can be easily provided to the people to help them deal with waste (Asian Development Bank 2013). Landfills therefore meet the feasibility criteria. People of Sandikhola would also not be required to purchase expensive equipments, such as earth movers since they can be rent out or borrowed at low charges. A landfill also requires limited space compared to the amount of waste that it would help the people of Sandikhola dispose.
Landfills are also associated with a number of disadvantages. By adopting the alternative, the people of Sandikhola will have to contend with the cost of transporting waste from the spot where it is generated to the landfill sites where it is finally discarded (Waste Online 2006).
The cost of transportation would make the alternative to overburden the people of Sandikhola making it undesirable. The transportation of waste from one point to another would also lead to the spread of pathogens. Disease causing organisms, such as bacteria are carried from one area to another and can lead to pandemics. Landfills also lead to the contamination of water. Through landfills, both surface and ground water can be contaminated. Ground water is contaminated through the leaching of waste. Surface water on the other hand is contaminated through erosion. If protective vegetation is not used, surface runoff may occur (WaterAid 2008). Waste may be carried to rivers where it causes the contamination of water. Should the alternative be used in Sandikhola, residents may be faced with the risk of suffering from water borne disease. The construction and running of landfills would also require the community to adhere to strict regulations put in place by environmental agencies.
Final Design
Proposed Design
After a series of evaluations and discussions, the final design narrows down to solid waste. The final design is arrived at following the ranking of the alternatives that are available. With solid waste, we can be in a position to the ‘4Rs’ system that would better assist us deal with the issue in Sandikhola (Thompson 2012). The ‘4Rs’ design ensures that waste is adequately managed through reduction, reusing, recycling, and responding. It is important to note that the solid waste is the only alternative that can apply the system.
This section aims at studying the final design that has been selected. The feasibility of the design has also been discussed in this section. It is also important to consider the scale in which the design can be used. The scale determines the how effective the design will be in dealing with the waste. Through the ‘4Rs’ system, solid waste management can be done on a small-scale and on a large-scale basis (Waste Online 2006). The system can for example be applied by a household efficiently without relying on external help. The same system can also be applied in the entire village effectively where the people come together to reduce on the amount of waste that they generate.
The success of the design is dependent on the education program that was rolled out in the area during the launching and the implementation process. Educating the people is important since it provides them with skills that can be passed on from one generation to another. Sustainability is therefore achieved in the process (WaterAid 2008). Educating the people is also cheap and requires few resources compared to rolling out expensive projects.
Little infrastructure will also be required in the handling of solid waste. Through activities, such as recycling and reusing, the amount of waste generated will be considerably reduced. However, transportation of the waste that cannot be reused or recycled will be needed. The waste can be moved to the nearest Landfill. The only cost to be incurred by the villagers is associated with the transportation of waste that is of no value to the villagers. Since the villagers have already earned from the recycled waste, the cost of transportation will be negligible.
Resources are also conserved through the adoption of the design. The design ensures that the people of Sandikhola use minimal resources since little is wasted (How can I reduce waste? n.d). Products are reused instead of throwing away after they have been utilised. Persons are also encouraged to avoid buying items that they are not to use often to avoid piling up unnecessary items in stores. Recycling also allows the people of Sandikhola to generate revenue from waste. Generation of income has a number of advantages as far as the management of waste is concerned. First, people are encouraged to participate in the management activities due to the associated benefits. Second, the quality of life in the community is improved as a result of an alternative source of income.
Sustainability of the Final Design
For the final design to be effective in addressing the waste problem affecting the people of Sandikhola, it must have an element of sustainability. The designs sustainability is assessed through the ‘4S’ method. Four factors are normally assessed in the ‘4S’ method. The factors are sustainability in general, environmental, social as well as economic factors. The solid waste design allows us to use a 4 step system in order to achieve sustainability (Thompson 2012).
The four steps involve a comprehensive strategy of handling waste. They include reducing, reusing, recycling, and responding with regards to waste. The system is systematic and strategic in the management of waste. Rather than relying on projects, the design only depends on the education of the community members. Reusing of materials also ensures that there is little wastage and also helps in the reduction of the amount of waste generated. Recycling on the other hand is important since it generates revenue for the people living in the village of Sandikhola. Through response, information is passed amongst the people hence allowing all the members of the community to change together. The various factors associated with the 4S method are discussed below.
General aspects of sustainability
It is clear that all solid waste can be reduced, reused and recycled. As a result, the design would be able to deal with all aspects of waste management in the area. For this reason, it is the most appropriate design for the people of Sandikhola. The element of reduction ensures that little waste will be generated in future. Little efforts will therefore be required to ensure that the environment is kept clean. Reusing also ensures that waste that had been generated in the past, as well as the newly generated waste is put into use instead of being disposed (Thompson 2012). Recycling is also important in ensuring that the solid waste management efforts in Sandikhola are sustainable. Recycling makes the design important to the people since they will manage their own waste in order to earn income from it.
Environmental factors
The ‘4Rs’ system of dealing with solid waste is viable for the environment. The amount of waste released into the surrounding will be reduced through cutting on the amount generated, reusing after it has been produced, as well as recycling it (Thompson 2012). Through the ‘4S’ method, accumulation in landfills and dumping sites in Nepal will be reduced as the people begin utilising their own waste. Individuals will also go ahead to utilise the waste that had already been released in the environment. Pollution effects of the waste in the environment will therefore be reduced. Natural resources such as rivers and forestlands will also not be littered with waste.
Economical factors
The implementation of the ‘4Rs’ and the ‘4S’ systems require no financial aid. The Members of the society are only taught on how to manage waste (Asian Development Bank 2013). The success of the education offered to the people will be assessed on the basis of the people’s ability to deal with the waste. Since no financial aid is required to enable the people manage waste, there society will be in a position to continue managing their waste even after the withdrawal of NGO. Reusing waste also enables the people to conserve their resources. Since the people benefit from adequately managing the waste, they will carry on with these activities and pass on the trend to future generations.
Recycling also helps the people generate income. The people of Sandikhola will therefore find value in waste that they generate. Through the purchases of locally produced products, the economy of the area will also be improved. The only cost that the people of Sandikhola will have to incur is the transportation of waste that is of no socio-economic value to them to the landfills. The gains obtained from the waste however surpass the cost of transportation
Social factors
The ‘4S’ method will also not burden the members of the society. Instead, the method will improve on their welfare. Through reduced waste, the health of the people will be ensured (How can I reduce waste? n.d). Managing waste will translate to a reduction of the pathogen population. Income saved and generated from the utilisation of waste will help improve the people’s standards of living. Since waste management acts as their source of income, they will continue to engage in these activities. In the process, waste will be reduced. Management of solid waste also does not impact negatively on the culture of the community.
General Discussion on Sustainability
The 4S method is used to assess sustainability. Sustainability in the management of solid waste will ensure that the people continue to enjoy the design applied. As stated earlier, no financial aid will be required in the implementation of the design, the people of Sandikhola will only be required to apply the skills that they have been taught through the education provided to them (How can I reduce waste? n.d). As explained earlier, the design will help reduce on the waste being generated currently, utilise that which was produced in the past, as well as help the people plan for the future.
Conclusion
Nepal is a developing nation. As a result, the country has in the past experienced rapid economic growth mostly associated with an increase in economic activities. Following these growth in the economy, the country witnessed an increase in the amount of waste being generated. The situation has been further worsened by the fact that the country is experiencing a sharp increase in the population (Waste Online 2006). Waste management has in the past been viewed as the responsibility of the municipal services. To deal with waste, a number of alternatives can be applied. The alternatives include composting, landfill disposal, incineration of waste, solid-waste, bioremediation, and onsite burial. Each of them is associated with a number of strengths and weaknesses.
A number of non-governmental organisations and private investors have in the past taken steps to help the people of Nepal in dealing with the waste problem. Engineers without Borders challenge and Nepal Water for Health are a good example of organisations that have moved in to improve on the welfare of the people by empowering them with information on how to manage waste. The two have achieved this through a number of educational programs (Asian Development Bank 2013). Currently, the two organisations are working with the people of Sandikhola.
Following a series of deliberations, it was concluded that the best design to deal with the problem was that which focused on Solid waste. The design was considered to be the most appropriate since it applied the ‘4Rs’ system in the management of waste (Thompson 2012). The design was also in a position to meet the selection criteria that focused on sustainability and feasibility. The 4S method was used to analyse the sustainability of the design.
The final design should also be implemented in other places in Nepal. Implementation of the design is associated with a number of advantages, such as feasibility and sustainability. The design is also be cheap since only educating the locals is required. No financial aid is also required in the implementation of the design. To better deal with the waste menace in Nepal, it would be important that Engineers without Borders challenge and Nepal Water for Health put in place the necessary infrastructure to ensure continuity rather than just providing education to the people. For instance, they would establish an office in the area with several staff members in order to deal with the waste menace. Several officials and staff members should also be left behind to oversee the transition. The aim of this is to ensure that members of the community learn how to deal with the various issues associated with the project when they are left alone.
Appendices
Appendix 1
Worker putting waste into an incinerator. Source: Visvanathan and Norbu (2006).
Appendix 2
Emissions. Source: Visvanathan and Norbu (2006)
Appendix 3
Vendors selling compost kits containing worms that are used in vermicomposting.
Appendix 4
Compost bin. Source: Visvanathan and Norbu (2006)
Appendix 5
Compost pit. Source: Visvanathan and Norbu (2006)
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