Category: Warfare

Introduction

Numerous incidences of gun attacks in public places raise questions regarding the responsibility of individuals, institutions and law enforcement agencies in mitigating the impacts of gun violence. In 2007, a shooting rampage in Virginia Polytechnic and State University (Virginia Tech) caused the death of 32 people and inflicted injuries on many people after a gunman unleashed terror on unsuspecting students and faculty officials.

Law enforcement officials identified the shooter as Seung-Hui Cho who was a senior student at the institution. The massacre began with Cho shooting two students at a dormitory. Later, Cho went to the classroom building where he shot indiscriminately at students and faculty members. After killing 30 people, Cho killed himself. The Virginia Tech Massacre raised controversies concerning the factors that contributed to the shooting rampage.

The key issue entailed the lack of stringent measures on gun control, which allowed easy access to the guns used in the massacre. Another issue was the extent of the institution’s responsibility concerning the occurrence of the massacre. An analysis of various actions of Virginia Tech in response to Cho’s shooting spree illustrates that the institution contributed to the occurrence of the massacre.

Evaluation of Virginia Tech’s Responsibility in the Massacre

When the shooting started in the dormitory, the institution’s authorities did not embark on an immediate evacuation exercise based on the assumption that the shooting had occurred because of a disagreement between certain individuals. In this regard, rather than securing other areas of the institution, authorities overlooked the probable impacts of the incident.

Delays in responding to the incident at the dormitory arose due to the assumption that whoever had fired the gun must have left the institution’s compound. Thus, once Cho shot students at the dormitory, he had the time to go to the classroom building and continue with his heinous act.

If the institution’s authorities reacted immediately to the first shooting incident, they would have saved the lives of students and faculty officials killed around the classroom building. The institution’s police chief at the time of the incident, Chief Wendell, cited the lack of appropriate and timely information that would have allowed them to alleviate further attacks as the cause of the delayed response (Hagan 212).

Confirmations by the police chief that they had heard the shooting at the dormitory illustrates that the institution acted irresponsibly in its failure to notify students about the first attack. Even though the security officials considered the incident at the dormitory as not warranting an evacuation exercise, notifying students about the first attack would have led them to exercise some level of caution as they went on with their routine activities.

The fact that Cho’s victims were in different locations around the classroom building means that the attacks did not occur simultaneously, but within a time span that could have allowed the authorities to implement proactive measures. There were gunshots first at Johnston Hall and later at Norris Hall.

These were separate events and thus an immediate response to the first shooting incident could have minimized the chances of the occurrence of the other shooting considering that Cho executed all the shootings.

Accounts form witnesses of the shooting incident indicate that the gunman went from one dormitory room to another and thus invalidates the claims by security officials that the shooter had left the campus’ compound. The realization that the shooter was still within the institution’s compound should have triggered an immediate reaction to the security status of students and officials in other locations within the institution.

Rather than solely securing the building in which the first shooting occurred, the security officials would have considered the high probability of the shooter’s presence within the school compound as warranting the attention of the whole institution. Chief Wendell confirmed that although the security officials were investigating the suspected shooter, they did not know the suspect’s whereabouts.

Virgin Tech did not consider the first shooting as an emergency issue. The fact that the institution’s officials were having a meeting to discuss the first shooting when the second shooting occurred is a clear indication that the institution overlooked the need for precautionary measures in response to the first attack.

The security officials had not detained the first shooter despite their awareness that he could have still been within the institution’s compound. Furthermore, the institution’s authorities went on to have a meeting to discuss the first shooting.

The failure to exercise vigilance and deploy security officials throughout the campus’ compound largely contributed to the occurrence of the second shooting that ended before Wendell and his team could respond (Dempsey, John 124).

Responses from some of the survivors of the Virginia Tech Massacre indicate that had the students received timely notifications regarding the first shooting, they would have exercise extra caution. In this regard, any suspicious activity within the institution’s compound would have attracted immediate responses such as notifying the institution’s security officials or reporting to the police.

A committee appointed to review the Virginia Tech Massacre reiterated that the institution’s failure to take precautionary measures after the first shooting was questionable and amplified the number of causalities in the second shooting. The first attempt by Virginia Tech authorities to notify students of the presence of a gunman within the school compound occurred about two hours after the first shooting.

However, the notification was through a bulletin warning sent to students by emails. Thus, students learnt about the Cho’s shooting spree after it had already occurred. Most of the students were attending the second session of classes and thus did not have the time to check their emails and learn about the first shooting. Cho’s attack caught came unexpectedly and thus the great extent of its damage.

During the shootings, students never exercise caution or urgency since they were not aware of an impending danger. The institution’s decision to notify students about the presence of a gunman via email does not reflect a reaction to an issue of emergency. After the meeting to discuss the first shooting, the institution did not consider the importance of canceling classes and embarking on evacuations.

Policies regarding an appropriate response plan in a shooting incident recommend an evacuation once the risk analysis highlights that the process does not expose people to great risk. Between the first and second shooting, there was a period of about two hours characterized by relative calm. Effective risk analysis should have indicated that it was safe for the institution to embark on evacuations.

The failure by Virginia Tech’s authorities to cancel the second session of classes illustrates that the process of risk analysis was ineffective (Behrens 181). At the time of the Virginia Tech Massacre, the institution did not have any emergency response plan relating to a shooting incident.

However, the institution authorities cannot cite the lack of policies on the response to a shooting incident to have caused the delays in security officials’ response to the first shooting. Although the institution had to exercise caution concerning the amount of information released to students to avoid causing panic and confusion, it withheld a lot of information and thus increasingly exposed people within the institution’s compound to security risks.

The security officials’ decision to solely secure the first crime scene and withhold information about the attack until after the meeting to discuss the incident was an inappropriate approach that aggravated the vulnerability of students and faculty officials.

Conclusion

Despite the fact that the lack of stringent laws and regulations on gun possession contributed to the Virginia Tech Massacre, the institution made numerous assumptions on the first shooting incident and thus exposed student and faculty officials to the second attack.

If the institution responded to the first shooting by immediately undertaking proactive measure such as the cancelation of classes and informing students of the presence of a gunman within the institution’s compound, students and faculty officials could have realized the urgency and magnitude of the threat posed by Cho and exercise vigilance. In this regard, the impacts of the second shooting would have been minimal.

Although the institution was observing the recommendations regarding the need to sustain calmness during an emergency crisis, its decision to withhold information from students on the situation at the institution and overlook the first shooting raises questions regarding in institutions’ responsibility.

A risk analysis on the first shooting incident should have provided enough information for the institution to cancel classes and deploy security officials to areas under risk.

Works Cited

Behrens, Laurence , and Leonard J. Rosen. Writing and Reading Across the Curriculum. 11th ed. London: Longman Publishing Group, 2011. Print.

Dempsey, John S.. Introduction to private security. 2nd ed. New York: Cengage Learning, 2010. Print.

Hagan, Frank E.. Introduction to criminology: theories, methods, and criminal behavior. 7th ed. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications, 2010. Print.

One of the most interesting yet most neglected aspects of the Holocaust that few people seem to take note of is the fact that the Christian German populace acquiesced to the mass murder of the Jewish population in Germany. People seem to think that the Nazi “Final Solution” originated from Hitler and the Nazi party yet what must be understood is that evolution of the “Final Solution” started not directly from Hitler and the Nazi regime but rather from the teachings of the German church.

In the article “The Holocaust, The Church Struggle and some Christian Reflections” Alice Eckardt presents the idea of the Holocaust is the result of several distinct factors, namely: that it was the culmination of the church’s teaching of contempt and that it was the culmination of the church’s absolute theology (Eckardt, 1987).

Eckardt posits this compelling question in order to indicate church culpability in the Holocaust: “how was it the Holocaust able to come about when it was carried out by a nation that was considered to be highly civilized, with 95% of its population having been baptized and with the German population continuing to maintain its church affiliation within the heart of a predominantly Christian Europe?” (Eckardt, 1987).

She answers this question by suggesting that it was religious zealotry taught by the church to the German population that planted the initial seeds of the Holocaust. Eckardt indicates how before the start of the Nazi regime the German church had embarked on a campaign to vilify the Jewish religion which conforms to her notion of the church’s “teachings of contempt” (Eckardt, 1987).

During the 1920s to the early 1930s, the German Protestant church had released numerous church “weeklies” (newsletters) which portrayed the Jewish population as being a “wicked and corrupting force” within the German Christian nation. Religious sermons given by pastors, priests, bishops or archbishops all contained a similar message indicating that the Jews were the murders of Jesus Christ and that they had cursed themselves upon his crucifixion.

In fact, in 1936 a Protestant bishop was quoted as saying that the Jewish people were a “divinely ordained scourge for all nations which lead to hatred and persecution” (Eckardt, 1987). Based on the facts presented it can be seen that the initial stages of the “Final Solution” did not begin with Hitler and the Nazi regime but rather with German church itself. Hitler and the Nazi part merely built upon an already present growing resentment in the German population directed against the Jews.

Evolution of the Final Solution

What must be understood is that Hitler had risen to power under the platform of creating a strong Aryan nation and giving back Germany its pride (Kennedy, 2010). To further cement his platform, he focused on the already existing resentment of the German Christian population against the Jews to further build upon his popularity. As a result of these successive actions, Hitler was able to rise to become the head of state of Germany.

When the Nazi party was able to achieve power in Germany by 1933, they continued to build upon the platform of the development of a strong Aryan nation whose tenets included racial purity and the elimination of “undesirable” elements in the population (Kennedy, 2010).

This resulted in the creation of systematic state-sponsored racism against the Jewish population resulting in the creation of several anti-Jewish legislation, economic boycotts and the subsequent isolation of the Jews from mainstream society.

By the start of World War 2 Germany’s policy for the treatment of the Jewish population had escalated towards further isolation and control through the establishment of various ghettos within Generalgouvernement and Warthegau where Jews were subject to unsanitary conditions and overcrowding (USHMM, 2011).

It must be noted though that while the basis of the original command given by Hitler for the subsequent extermination of the Jewish population has been lost to history it can be assumed the connotation of the Jews as being a “problem” could be due to the fact that the resources needed to guard and maintain their various ghettos could be better used elsewhere for the war effort.

Furthermore, the Jews also presented themselves as a potential problem for the war effort itself, when the order was given in 1941 for the subsequent genocide of the Jewish population the war effort was already turning against Germany (McFee, 1999).

Due to the onset of early Russian winter and the entry of America in the war Germany in effect lost its ability to successfully pull off its blitzkrieg strategy and instead, the war became a war of attrition with the Allies steadily gaining ground.

As a result, it can be assumed that the complete genocide of the Jewish population was a way to prevent the allies from possibly gaining more troops from the detained Jews in the ghettos who would be all too eager to fight the Germans.

Carrying out the Final Solution

The “Final Solution” itself was carried out by SS (equivalent to the CIA and KGB) chief Heinrich Himmler, Himmler and his contemporaries such as German General Odilo Globocnik conceived of and implemented a plan to systematically eliminate the Jewish population through the creation of 3 killing centers namely Belzec, Sobibor and Treblinka (USHMM, 2011).

The most infamous of the killing centers after the creation of the original 3 was the Auschwitz 2 II center created in 1942 which killed approximately 1 million Jews during the time of its operation. In total, nearly 2,700,000 Jews were killed as a direct result of the actions of the Nazi regime which forever changed the face of European Judaism due to 2/3rds of the Jewish population being effectively wiped out (USHMM, 2011).

Insights into the Holocaust

There have been many interpretations over the cause of the Holocaust, Eckardt’s view is but one of many however it is unique in that it uses religious teachings as the basis for its explanations. For Eckardt, the German church and its teachings were an important aspect towards establishing the mindset needed to cause a population to accept the atrocities that were done to the Jewish community in the name of creating a master race free from the stain of Judaism.

In assessing Eckardt’s view, it seems that her description of Christian culpability in the Holocaust goes far enough in that it creates enough compelling evidence to argue that Christian teachings by the German church were in part the reason behind the atrocities committed. It is based on the facts she presented and various historical precedents as seen in the recorded history of the church where it has been religious zealotry that was taught to various populations that have been the cause of numerous bloody conflicts and acts of inhumane cruelty.

From the Crusades to the Salem witch hunts and various other historical incidences it has been religious zealotry, the Christian feeling of spiritual superiority and the claims of the church to possess the only sure means of forgiveness, grace, and salvation that such incidents happened in the first place. For me, the popular view that it was mainly Hitler that was responsible for the Holocaust has been forever changed.

I know now that the German population itself was culpable in the Holocaust since it was through the church’s teachings of contempt at the time that allowed it to happen. While the German Christian church will probably never admit it, I now know exactly how they contributed to beginning one of the worst massacres in human history.

Reference List

Eckardt, A. (1987). “The Holocaust, the Church struggle, and some Christian reflections”. Faith and Freedom.Great Britain, Perigamon Press. Pp. 31 – 44.

Kennedy, P. (2010). History from the Middle: The Case of the Second World War. Journal of Military History, 74(1), 35-51. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

McFee, Gord. (1999). When did hitler decide on the final solution? Web.

USHMM. (2011). “final solution”: overview. Web.

World War II changed the lives of so many people in various ways. However, the effects varied from one country to another. In the United States, World War II created new opportunities. The war also came with new experiences for the American people and created employment opportunities for both women and minority groups in the United States. Americans, for example, got an opportunity to travel to neighbouring countries.

Effects of the War on Racial Minorities

As earlier explained, the war created new employment opportunities for minority groups living in the United States at the time. However, minority groups in the United States were also affected differently by the war. To some extent, the war clearly revealed America’s prejudice against minority groups. Some Americans strongly believed that the war belonged to the white man and were completely opposed to the idea of involving minority groups in the fight against their opponents.

Besides the negative aspects of the war, it also played an important role in boosting the economic status of the minority groups in the United States. Lucrative jobs became available for individuals the minority groups. In addition, minority workers also got an opportunity to meet and interact with whites as well as minorities from other areas. Minority groups started experiencing new things and their level of confidence.

Effects of the War on Women

Women’s lives in the United States changed drastically during World War II. Just as in the case of the minority groups, employment opportunities became available for women. To a certain extent, the prospects realized for women formed a strong foundation for the establishment of women’s movement thereafter.

During the war, most men left their homes to take part in military operations. Consequently, women were compelled to take up jobs initially undertaken by their husbands. The reduced number of men in society pushed women to accept responsibilities originally reserved for men.

Considering that women in the military did not take part in warfare, they had to be called upon to take up some tasks dine by men so as to free them for battle. Unfortunately, some of the new roles assumed by women forced them to move into battle zones, and this led to the death of some of them.

During the war, the number of women in the United States who had to work outside their homes increased tremendously. The majority of the women got employed than had been the case before the war. As already mentioned, women had no choice but to start doing work that was meant for men, with some people thinking that it was patriotic for women to take up such tasks.

Without a doubt, the number of women in professions where they had been excluded shot up like never before. Ostensibly, some women had to move to places where they could get employed in government offices.

Clearly, the reduced number of men in society at the time created room for women to develop new strategies for survival. In some cases, women even took up key leadership positions apart from offer support to government offices.

Conclusion

Without a doubt, World War II greatly changed the way of life in the United States. As discussed in this paper, their specific gains and losses for both women and minority groups. While some of the effects of these two groups were permanent, some were only temporary. In the present world United States, for example, women and minority groups are still being overlooked in various areas.

Introduction

Nations and groups of people may experience conflicts due to political, ideological, cultural, and religious differences. When such conflicts go unchecked or unresolved, they may translate into wars. In the context of this paper, the term war means any conflict that involves the use of arms against an adversary, which may be a nation, group of people, or parties that reside within a nation. Warfare means the act of engaging in war through air, soil, and ocean.

During the times of war, nations or groups of people are in a state of hostility that often involves military operations. The art of war keeps on changing as technology changes. Consequently, warfare techniques and approaches may be subdivided in terms of generations. Hammes considers historical experiences in warfare as fitting into four groups (24).

The categories include the first, second, third, and fourth generation combat. The paper focuses on the fourth generation warfare. It discusses the proofs for its existence, tactics, impacts, and ways of raising awareness for fighting the phenomenon.

Defining the Fourth Generation Warfare

The fourth generation warfare implies conflicts, which involve civilians, political affairs, and opponents. This generation of war suggests a total loss of different nations’ monopoly of combat forces. The loss prompts the re-emergence of pre-modern time modes of aggravating conflicts. In the most fundamental sense, the fourth generation warfare means any warfare where one of its key participants does not comprise a state. Rather, the player is a non-state actor, which is characterized by intense violence.

Various aspects distinguish the fourth generation warfare from the 1^st, 2^nd, and 3^rd generation combats. For instance, the 1^st generation deploys the column and line strategies.

Hammes reveals that the first generation warfare began soon after the of Peace of Westphalia treaty of 1648 (262). In any war, solders are highly ordered in such a way that they ensure top-down high levels of discipline. The multitude wrestles while moving forward gradually, but maintaining a close order. However, the innovation of machine guns and rifles has significantly altered battlefields.

The column and line tactics became suicidal to the level of ushering in the second-generation warfare. This generation depends on indirect firing while advancing towards the enemy (Tzu 31).This type of warfare was evident in WWI in its initial stages. The 3^rd generation warfare focuses on infiltration with the objective of bypassing the adversary. Here, the warring parties focus on collapsing the combat forces of the opponent, as opposed to moving closely to destroy.

The tactics were deployed by Germans in WWI, especially against French and the British enemies (Hammes 277). The strategies of the 3^rd generation warfare find application in the 4^th generation warfare since the latter entails the use of speedy attacking initiatives. However, the 4^th generation warfare targets both domestic populations and the military as witnessed in the case of war in Afghanistan, and now in Syria.

Proofs that the Fourth Generation Warfare Exists

The fourth generation warfare is commonplace in failed states together with nations that have civil wars. Since this generation of war occurs in nations where non-state actors take part in the war, the Iraqi war, the conflicts in Afghanistan, and other nation that have rebels and insurgency groups such as the Al-Qaida and Taliban among others are a clear proof of the existence of the fourth generation warfare. In the case of Afghanistan, the war began in 2001 and has persisted to the present. It began following the attacks of September 2001 in the World Trade Center’s twin towers.

The war involved the US, NATO forces, and the allied armies that aimed at liberating Afghanistan by toppling the Taliban government. The Taliban government was allied to the Al-Qaida. This group was held responsible for the September 2001 attacks.

The then American leader, George Bush, had made a command for the Taliban to surrender Bin Laden to the United States forces while also driving out the Al-Qaida networks, which helped the Taliban government in the war that involved Afghanistan Northern Alliance. However, instead of extraditing Bin Laden, Taliban recommended Laden to depart from Afghanistan due to lack of evidence that he was the main architect behind the September 11 attacks.

The move by Taliban prompted America to initiate operations in Afghanistan without necessarily having to engage in negotiations. The United Kingdom together with Germany joined in the war later with the aim of toppling the Taliban government and raising heavy attacks on the Northern Alliance (Keppel, Jean-Pierre, and Ghazaleh 32). The US and the allied troops drove the Taliban government out of power and established military camps within major cities of Afghanistan. However, this move did not end the operations of Taliban and al-Qaeda.

The groups retreated to the rural mountainous regions and in Pakistan. While operating from these bases, Mullar Omar reorganized the Taliban in 2003. The group initiated insurgency attacks against the ISAF and the Afghanistan government.

In this context, Keppel, Jean-Pierre, and Ghazaleh assert, “Haqqani network and Hez-e-Islami Gulbuddin have waged asymmetric warfare with revolutionary raids and ambushes in the countryside, suicide attacks against urban targets, and turncoat killings against coalition forces” (45). The government felt the impacts of Taliban in the war. The groups subjugated the flaws of the administration such as bribery to gain control of some regions in Afghanistan.

Although deaths and casualties that were encountered in the Afghanistan war from 2001 to date are due to the operations of both Taliban, the US, and NATO forces, the international reactions point the largest finger of blame to the Taliban and Al-Qaida uprising. For instance, the United Nations attributes 76% of all civilian casualties in the Afghanistan war from 2001 to 2009 to the Taliban (Keppel, Jean-Pierre, and Ghazaleh 124).

The Afghanistan sovereign human rights agency referred the acts of terrorism by Taliban against their fellow citizens as war crimes. Amnesty International builds on this line of argument by claiming that the Taliban actions involve assaulting civilians, murdering of trainers, employee seizure, and setting of learning institutions ablaze.

The Syrian conflict constitutes another proof of the existence of the fourth generation warfare. In February this year, John Kerry was reported saying that Syrian rebels were the legitimate voices of the Syrian citizens (CBS News par.1). For this reason, Kerry said that the US was willing and ready to supply the rebels with non-lethal support. To Kerry, non-lethal backup included medical supplies, food, and monetary services that were required by the rebels to enhance peace in the areas that had been liberated from President Assad’s forces in Syria.

Through John Kerry’s speech in February while in Rome, Italy, President Obama, promised to give additional funding amounting to $60 million to the rebels in Syria. Many nations, including Britain, also supported the move to give aid to the rebels in Syria in the effort to topple President Assad’s forces in the quest to usher in a democratic regime.

The question that emerges is whether the rebels would soon after gaining power become enemies of the US and its affiliated nations as it was witnessed in the case of Taliban in Afghanistan. Whether this case happens or not, the war tactics of rebels in Syria together with the fact that they are non-state actors are a clear proof of the existence of the fourth generation warfare.

The Tactics of the 4th Generation Warfare

The conflicts in the fourth generation warfare are incepted by weaker parties that accuse the stronger parties of engaging in actions that are considered offensive. For instance, the Syrian rebels’ actions were offensive. The rebels considered the state offensive to the Syrian people. However, traditional forms of conflicts differ from the fourth generation warfare in terms of warfare tactics.

The 4^th generation warfare is shaped by religious fundamentalism, media, technology, and various shifts in the moral norms that help to legitimize the war. Hammes supports this assertion by claiming that the amalgamations and metamorphosis of the fourth generation warfare developed novel mechanisms for facilitating the war by the defensive and offensive sides (293).

Non-state actors in the fourth generation warfare use tactics such as insurgency, terrorism, and guerilla tactics to wage war against a state actor’s infrastructure among other installations. They deploy technology and media. Cyber attacks that are launched by non-state actors against a state are an example of the use of media and technology as tactics of the fourth generation warfare.

The basic operation of cyber war technology is dependent on the potentiality of people to have backdoor access or illegal access to computer systems that hold sensitive data or computer systems that are deployed to control sensitive operations (Rid 337).

An advanced cyber warrior can interrupt a country’s electrical grid system, mess up with information that martial movements require, and even conduct an attack on government departments’ computer systems.

This goal is accomplished through surveillance and disruption. The motivation for surveillance is taking financial, martial, and political advantage via the internet where illegal exploitation of computers, software, and networks takes place. Through sabotage, military operations that depend on satellites and computers to transmitting information are placed at the risk of disruption.

The Impact of the 4th Generation Warfare

The fourth generation warfare has the implications of contributing to the death of civilian population. For example, the war emerged between the US and the allied troops in Afghanistan. After the Taliban government was toppled, the conflicts extended to the Afghanistan government. During this time, tens of thousands of ordinary civilians lost their lives.

The warfare leads to the destruction of military operations. The 4^th generation warfare also reduces economic growth. Poor economic development increases poverty in a country. The warfare leads to the disruption of key infrastructural installations within a nation.

In Afghanistan, the impacts of the fourth generation warfare have been felt by both civilians and military personnel. Keppel, Jean-Pierre, and Ghazaleh assert, “over 4,000 ISAF soldiers and civilian, as well as over 10,000 Afghan National Security Forces also died” (63).

Many of the people who have perished in the war are Taliban insurgents and the ordinary civilians. The statistical findings on the number of deaths of security forces from both the Afghanistan government and ISAF indicate that the Afghanistan war had negative impacts on both civilians and the security forces.

How to Raise Awareness to Fight the Fourth Generation Warfare

The fourth generation warfare emerges from the perceptions of offensive actions by a state. The combat leads to the emergence of armed groups of people who seek to play a defensive role against the offensive acts. People may support these groups due the inadequacy of information on the appropriate channels to challenge the state on the alleged actions.

Raising awareness to fight the fourth generation warfare calls for public education on mechanisms for exercising democratic rights of self-rule through suffrage rights, as opposed to fighting a state. However, based on the case of Iraq, this approach may not apply due to the authoritarian system of governance. Saddam Hussein’s government was undemocratic. Therefore, people could not freely exercise their suffrage rights by voting him out.

Therefore, the fourth generation warfare could not have been avoided in Iraq. Therefore, to raise awareness to fight the fourth war generation, it is important to look for ways of reconstructing nations that have just graduated from war. An example of this approach is the case of Afghanistan. The UNDP, the World Bank, and the Asian Development Bank opened a conference with the theme of reconstructing Afghanistan in Islamabad (The UN News Center 5).

During the conference, the role of women in reconstructing the society, the significance of education for all Afghans, and the development of comprehensive and all-inclusive health care systems were discussed. All nations should adopt such strategy to raise awareness to fight the fourth-generation warfare phenomenon.

Works Cited

CBS News. Syria rebels to get direct non-lethal support from U.S. for the first time, Secretary Kerry announces, 2013. Web.

Hammes, Colonel. Four Generations of Warfare in the Sling and the Stone: On War in the 21st Century, St. Paul, MN: St. Paul Publishers, 2006. Print.

Keppel, Gilles, Milelli Jean-Pierre, and Pascale Ghazaleh. Al Qaeda in its own words, Harvard: Harvard University Press, 2008. Print.

Rid, Thomas. “Will cyber war take place?” Journal of Strategic Studies 3.1(2011): 332-355. Print.

The UN News Center. Afghanistan and United Nations, Geneva: UN News Service, 2013. Print.

Tzu, Sun. The Art of War, New York, NY: Pax Librorum, 2009. Print.

Introduction

Terrorism has seen some of the greatest countries fall. Over the years, several strategies have been employed in an attempt to reduce the impact of terrorism. For example, talks with terrorists regarding what they want and military action have been used to no avail. Many now claim that the world has to take a different approach to deal with terrorism. This essay looks at the relations between the UAE, Iraq, and Syria in terms of dealing with the Daeesh terrorist group.

Interest and goals to guide the fight against Daeesh

Terry Deibel created a model that is used to analyze national security. He argued that logic and strategy are fundamental in such a process. These strategies are to be formed from interests and goals that the country possesses. All strategies to fight the Daeesh have failed. This can be attributed to the lack of solid interests and goals that should guide the process. Niu (2013) argues that one of the main interests that should motivate the use of the UAE national power against the Daeesh in Iraq and Syria is the access to vital geographical areas, like the Mediterranean Sea, Jordan, and even Israel. These geographic areas should be of interest to the UAE, as any form of imbalance caused by the Daeesh will affect the economy of the region significantly. Securing Jordan is crucial for the UAE because the Daeesh can use it to get into the UAE.

In the same breath, the UAE should also consider the Sunni Muslims, who appear to support Daeesh (al Otaiba, 2014). The Sunni Muslims have been identified as key supporters of the Daeesh and other terror groups. Indeed, there are a good number of Sunni Muslims in different parts of the UAE. It is arguable that the Daeesh might use the relationships they have with the Sunnis to penetrate the UAE.

Even though the fight with the Daeesh is currently in Iraq and Syria, the UAE should also consider the fact that they are in the foreign soil. Thus, the UAE should work closely with the local authority in the attempt to weed out the Daeesh and their supporters. Yordan (2009) explains that the UAE should learn from the mistakes made by the US during the fight against Al Qaeda in Iraq. The US did not work with the local authorities; thus, the US was blamed for trying to exploit the country. The UAE should also consider the benefits that they get from fighting the Daeesh. Henne (2014) asserts that the economic benefits are significant; thus, the benefits can act as good motivation for war against terror.

Assumptions guiding the UAE policies against Daeesh

There are several assumptions that are guiding the UAE policies against the Daeesh. One such assumption, as Niu (2013) points out, is the idea that military force is the best approach to international warfare against terror. Alani (2008) goes further and explains that this assumption has several flaws. He explains that the military solution has been used the world over to no avail because the terrorists believe in ideologies. Ideas cannot be destroyed using military force. Using this argument, it is clear that the UAE is going about fighting the Daeesh in Syria and Iraq in the wrong way. As mentioned, the Deibel model states that logic and strategy should be used in forming a national security strategy. Using military power to force out an idea does not seem logical.

Another assumption being used by the UAE is that only the Sunni Muslims support the Daeesh. Henne (2014) argues that terrorism is all about the buying of an ideology or a premise, but not necessarily the buying into a religion. Additionally, the scholar adds that people join terrorism for different reasons. Therefore, making the assumption that only the Sunni Muslims are responsible for terrorism is a poor strategy.

Objectives the UAE should set to confront Daeesh in Iraq and Syria

The UAE needs to focus on diplomatic relations to fight the Daeesh in Iraq and Syria. These relations should also include links with the local government. It is true that some local government officials have had to seek asylum due to fear, but the UAE should still consult them on how to best deal with the terrorists.

Additionally, the UAE should push the UN to help with ending the civil war in Syria. This falls under strategy in the Deibel model. Indeed, this civil war can put Syria into the hands of terrorists, which will not be good for both Syria and the UAE. The UN can force interested parties to help stop the civil war in Syria. Many scholars have argued that the civil war has dragged, and no support is being provided because it benefits some influential world leaders.

The UAE also needs to forge coalitions and border agreements with all the countries it borders. This is more of a precaution just to make sure that the borders are not breached. According to Alani (2008), containment is the easiest, fastest, and most efficient way of dealing with terror. The scholar argues that the containment of the problem to a particular area makes it easier to handle. Also, identification of the common area will help the forces to know the push and pull factors for people who want to join such terror groups.

How elements of national power should be coordinated domestically and internationally

Niu (2013) defines national power as the resources used by a nation in the pursuit of national goals. In this case, it is the resources that are used in trying to eliminate the threat posed by Daeesh. In the case of the UAE, national power is a bit complicated because it is being used to fight in other countries. Many would argue that the UAE should preserve its national power to fight the Daeesh if they enter the country or protect the country’s borders, but not to help other countries fight the Daeesh. However, as Yordan (2009) explains, the UAE has to coordinate national power domestically and internationally to be secured from the terrorists.

The importance of helping Iraq and Syria fight the Daeesh and other terror groups cannot be overstated. The UAE has to ensure that enough resources are allocated in the fight against terrorism in Syria and Iraq in an attempt to ensure that the terrorists do not get closer to the UAE borders. At the same time, the UAE should have enough resources to fight any terrorist activities that might bloom inside the country.

It suffices to mention that the UAE can also coordinate elements of national power domestically and internationally by showing accountability amongst its people. Issues between fighting terror domestically and internationally arise when the public believes that the government is swindling money. Accountability and transparency can avoid this situation.

How my recommendation differs from current practice

My first recommendation is to forego military action and focus more on containment and prevention. It is impractical to argue that governments will kill all terrorists and make Syria and Iraq safe. The current practice is the adding of boots on the ground. This strategy aims to instill fear in the terrorists by adding more soldiers to the affected areas. There are several problems with this strategy. The first is that more soldiers will lead to more social issues. Soldiers have been known to terrorize not only the terrorists but also the public. The curfews installed make it difficult for the public to go on with their daily lives, which affects the economy.

My recommendation is more practical as it will limit the terrorists to a particular area, thereby making it difficult for them to interact with the public and recruit more people. After containment, governments and all the interested parties should focus on prevention. The containment process will allow governments to know some crucial facts about the terrorists. They will be able to understand the communities they most identify with, and why. In the same vein, during prevention, the governments and interested parties will know the push and pull factors to consider. They will then be able to equip youth that are most likely to be radicalized with the necessary information and skills to avoid such a possibility.

Indeed, there are other strategies that can be used alongside the recommended one. My recommendation does not rule out the boots on the ground concept, but they should be kept to a minimum. The soldiers should be used to ensure that security prevails.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the fight against terrorism is not an easy one. However, it can be won using diplomacy and the right strategies. Over the years, developed countries like the US have used military force to push out extremists. However, this plan has not been working, and the terrorist groups have only been getting bigger and more pronounced in their terror and agenda. Several countries, including the UAE, have come up and given a helping hand to countries that have been hit by terrorism. The UAE needs to adopt containment and prevention to fight the Daeesh and other terrorist groups that may interfere with peace and stability in the country.

Reference List

Alani, M 2008, ‘The Gulf NW and WMD free zone: A track II initiative’, International Relations, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 358-362. Web.

al Otaiba, Y 2014, ‘The moderate Middle East must act’, Wall Street Journal – Eastern Edition, vol. 264, no. 60, p. A13. Web.

Henne, PS 2014, Religion and Counterterrorism: What explains the difference in counterterrorism policies between Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates?, APSA 2014 Annual Meeting Paper. Web.

Niu, S 2013, ‘The strategic partnership between South Korea and the United Arab Emirates’, Security Strategies Journal, vol. 9, no. 17, pp. 23-48. Web.

Yordan, CL 2008, Enacting counter terrorism financing laws in the UAE and Bahrain: The fusion of global pressures, regional dynamics, and local interests, Mediterranean Programme, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, European University Institute Workshop No. 6, Florence, Montecatini Terme, March 12-15, 2008. Web.

In strategic studies, causes, impacts, and ways of ending war have always been subjects of concern to scholars (Baylis, 2007). Humans have always considered war as a disaster, a source of misery, and a threat to their existence. However, it should be noted that war has not always been viewed negatively. For instance, during the 19^th century some scholars believed that war was the only remedy for ailing nations. Equally, before the mid 20^th century people perceived war as a tool of change. However, with the inventions of nuclear weapons the above ideas have been rendered obsolete. This occurred due to the fear and destructiveness caused by the nuclear weapons. In this regard, this article focuses on how the inventions of nuclear weapons have altered our understanding of strategic studies.

Before the invention of the nuclear weapons, classical strategic theories were pertinent in warfare. However, after the invention of these weapons the techniques of war have been changing from decade to decade. With these changes, several strategic theories that had been passed on from the 19^th century became outdated. During the 1946, Brodie suggested that nuclear weapons had the capability to destroy all the major world cities in a single day (Baylis, 2007). He further asserted that there was no adequate defense system to prevent the risks caused by atomic attacks. According to him, atomic attacks had no geographical immunity.

In addition, Brodie postulated that with improvements in nuclear science the perceptions that military superiority guaranteed national security were going to be obsolete. During the mid 20^th century, scholars noted that inventions in nuclear weapons necessitated effective strategies to enhance nuclear deterrence. In addition, it was noted that in the outcome of a war the winners and the losers were both going to suffer a great deal of destructions. Based on this concept, scholars argued that under these circumstances no victory would be worth the price. The concept had an intense effect on strategic studies. Before, military organizations existed to win wars. However, from then on military organizations have existed to avert the possibilities of wars occurring.

According to some scholars, the concept of nuclear deterrence was inadequate to stop the risks of an external nuclear attack. Albert Wohlstetter argued in his essay that inventions in military inventions necessitated appropriate strategic choices (Baylis, 2007). Wohlstetter believed that apart from nuclear deterrence strategies acquisition of more nuclear weapons would reduce the risk of an external nuclear attack. Based on Wohlstetter’s concepts, nations must develop credible threat relation systems to avert nuclear attacks.

From the mid 20^th century, the existence of nuclear weapons has enhanced global peace (Baylis, 2007). After the Hiroshima attack, the effects of nuclear attacks were portrayed. It is estimated that the US government spent billions of money in the development of the two nuclear bombs that were used during the attack. Following the attack, nations realized that nuclear weapons caused horrific effects and that it was costly to engage in such wars. As a result, nations have been discouraged from starting wars that might trigger the use of nuclear weapons. During the cold war, the existence of nuclear weapons prevented the Soviets and the US from engaging in a military warfare because the two nations feared the consequences of a nuclear attack.

Reference

Baylis, J. (2007). Strategy in the contemporary world: an introduction to strategic studies (2nd Ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

In the 1990s, the people of Australia were living in fear of their lives. The beginning of the war with Japan made them afraid of a soon invasion. Citizens were evacuated from Darwin, but some of them refused to leave their native town and became randomized victims of the attack. Those who were going to the south of Australia met discontent with the government, as the Prime Minister told that he did not want any of half-caste Aboriginals (Smith 2011).

In 1942 first two air raids from Japan mounted on Darwin. This target was chosen in order to render out of commission the most important and powerful position that could have repelled Japanese aggression. It was prepared to protect not only Australia but also Indonesia and Timor (Grose 2010). All defense strategies were designed, taking into account the forces of Darwin harbor, so its destruction let to a great panic.

The demolition of the major naval base left the country without their main weapon against the invaders. People who survived and stayed in Darwin lost their homes and had no place to go. The feeling of vulnerability settled in the minds for a long time. Civil infrastructure also suffered from air raids and made life in the town even more repugnant (Knightley & Crawford 2013).

Another Pearl Harbor

All those terrible events that took place in Darwin harbor are now considered to be the strongest attack after Perl Harbor. It not only ruined the harbor itself but destroyed airfields. More than 300 citizens were not able to survive, and even more of them were injured (Knightley & Crawford 2013).

The events that happened during the period between 1901 and World War II were not only negative. Under the influence of such a dangerous situation, the sense of security formed in the conscious of Australian people. It was the thing that took its place in the foundation of not only the defense policy but also diplomatic and trade ones (Turcker 2011).

Creating the Danger

The unexpected bombing of Darwin was thought to be the beginning of the invasion of Australia by the majority of the population. However, this assumption was wrong. At that time, Japan also threatened other countries, and as it soon became known that bombing was meant to invade Timor. Still, Australian people were very influenced by the catastrophe, and since that theme, they felt vulnerable to some degree, which made them an easy target (Grose 2010).

The attack led to the destruction of a great number of crafts and weapons that were supposed to be used for defense. With the help of dive bombers, the Japanese ruined eight ships in the harbor, and almost all other gained deteriorations. Only one of ten planes that were in Darwin and protected it survived the attack. They were even not able to crash Japanese planes, as only a couple of them were lost. The Royal Australian Air Force Base was the target of the second attack, but at that time, there was nothing that could have protected it. The Hudson light bombers, 6 American P-40s, and a B-24 Liberator bomber were destroyed (Turcker 2011).

During these events, the army barracks were ruined as well as the oil store. Darwin was thought to be strategically important, and this destruction threw it off the stride, as the resources that supported the economy and industry got under the detrimental effect (Turcker 2011).

Reducing the Danger

As the citizens gave in to panic when the attack began, and the government was afraid to create a more brittle situation. Taking into account that Japan had just captured Singapore and was only growing in strength, the government tried to hide the real number of killed people to calm down the city. But as soon as almost 300 servicemen left their stations, and this news caused the panic again. A Commission of Injury led by Mr. Justice Lowe was hurriedly appointed and prepared the reports (Scates 2013). Due to the fact that for several years the population did not know that the situation was worse than they thought, the government was able to reduce disorders and prevent a split within the country.

Being aware of the possible threat, the Administrator produced an official document that issued to evacuate women and children from the town (Cooper 2013). Air Raid Precautions made sure that everything was going right. Thus, about 2000 people were evacuated from Darwin by ship, plane, road, and train before the first attack. This helped to protect the citizens and gave the opportunity to restore the town within several days. The military defenses also soon came back in order and were now ready to perform all needed actions (Grose 2010).

Mostly Darwin was defended by Royal Australian Air Force and Allied fighters, but a number of Australian Army anti-aircraft batteries were also involved in dealing with the threat of Japanese air raids (Turcker 2011). Of course, it was too late to save the dead people and destroyed machinery, but it ensured citizens that they had a chance to get through the war and rallied the representatives of the territories at threat.

Reflection

The attack from Japan was not really unexpected as their submarine was seen in the harbor before. However, this did not prepare the defense forces for immediate and organized actions. The danger was reduced to some extent, but the irreparable harm was done. Fortunately, at that time, Australia was not the main target, so it got an opportunity to reconsider their strategies and survive (Cooper 2013).

Reference List

Cooper, A 2013, Darwin spitfires, Pen and Sword, Barnsley. Web.

Grose, P 2010, An awkward truth: the bombing of Darwin, February 1942, Griffin Press, Crows Nest. Web.

Knightley, P & Crawford, R 2013, Australia, Random House, London. Web.

Scates, B 2013, Anzac journeys: returning to the battlefields of World War II, Cambridge University Press, New York. Web.

Smith, G 2011, Shadows of war on the Brisbane line, Boolarong Press, Salisbury. Web.

Turcker, A 2011, The bombing of Darwin, Scholastic Australia, Gosford. Web.

Introduction

A lot of questions were raised about the interests of the United States in initiating a blockade off the coast of Cuba in 1962 and the subsequent events that took place between two countries. Even though they called “quarantine” to make it sound polite, it was still a blockade and an act of war. According to Boothe (1962), when Castro took power in 1959, 80% of Cuba’s trading was with the United States of America. As time went by, the relationship became stormy and the Cuban president Fidel Castro started to view the Soviet Union as a better partner than the US (Bodden 2007, p. 311). Meantime, the U.S. had planted some missiles 150 miles from Russia to Turkey as a precautionary measure. The Soviet Union responded by holding talks with Fidel Castro who gave them consent to set up a Russian missile base in Cuba. When asked by the Americans about the new development, the Soviet Union and Cuba defended themselves by saying that buying missiles from the Soviet Union was for defensive purposes. When truth came out, instead of attacking either country, President Kennedy ordered a blockade.

Importance of the study

This study will examine the national interests forcing the president of the US to order the blockade. The study will also highlight the reasons that forced the president to choose a blockade instead of attacking Cuba or Russia. Cuba is within a striking distance from the United States and the U.S. had other missiles up in Turkey (Carter, 2003). The decision, therefore, raises some questions about the issues President Kennedy considered in order to reach that decision, how important the national interests were, or what other factors influenced President Kennedy to choose a military blockade over an invasion and to totally avoid any form of armed conflict (Kennedy, 2011, p. 216).

Justification of the Blockade

This study aims at answering some of the questions raised above. For instance, if President Kennedy had attacked any of the two nations, a nuclear war would have been inevitable. Both countries had armed themselves with nuclear weapons after the World War II and as such any wrong step by the Americans could have ignited a Third World War. According to Whiteclay (1999), the two parties reached an agreement over the matter, but the United States silently went further and did what was not in the agreement, namely, the withdrawal of its weapons from Turkey. This meant a myriad of reasons could have compelled them to undertake the move. The paper, therefore, will take a critical look at the effects of the cold war between the Soviet Union and the United States that still exist in modern times, though at a lower level than it was in the 1960s (Frankel, M 2004).

A Realist Analysis

Data for this paper will be collected using more qualitative methods than quantitative methods. Qualitative methods include observations, group discussions and analyzing documents and materials (Schlesinger 2005, p. 62). In this case, data will be collected through analysis of various documents that outline the events during that period. Information about these events is well highlighted in many books, newspapers and journals from different authors, therefore, implying that secondary data will be collected apart from primary data (Collins 2007, p. 305). The Cuban missile crisis is historical in nature that is why historical research will be employed since it is the best one to highlight historical matters. Some effects of this stormy relationship are still evident in the modern world (Dobbs, 2008, p. 148). The historical research best analyzes the past events in relation to the current situation. The collected data will be coded and analyzed thematically as required by the qualitative research adopted in the study (Allison & Zelikow 1999).

List of References

Allison, G & Zelikow, P 1999, Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis, Bodden, V 2007, The cold war, The Creative Company, Mankato, Minnesota.

Boothe, C 1962, ‘Cuba: Let’s Have the Whole Truth’, Life, vol. 53, pp. 53

Carter, E 2003, The Cuban Missile Crisis, Heinemann Library, London.

Collins, A 2007, Contemporary Security Studies, Oxford University Press, New York.

Dobbs, M 2008, One Minute to Midnight: Kennedy, Khrushchev and Castro on the Brink of Nuclear War, Knopf, New York.

Frankel, M 2004, High Noon in the Cold war, Ballantine Books, New York.

Kennedy, F 2011, Thirteen days : A memoir of the Cuban Missile Crisis, W.W.Norton, Longman, New York.

Schlesinger, A 2005, A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House, Black Dog and Leventhal, New York.

Whiteclay, J 1999, American Military History, Oxford University Press, New York.

Iraq is one of the places that have received global attention because of the invasion by foreigners and people rebelling against the government. The United States and several other countries have taken part in the armed conflict, but the true reasons lied much deeper. People became fed up with the regime that was placed over their lives and they took up arms.

Everything began in the year 2003, when the government was on a brink of extinction and the citizens demanded justice. A major war conflict became evident in 2006, when the Americans attacked. At this turbulent time, both people and the government have been trying to set the order and find a way to co-exist. One of the key features of the insurgency is that it is revolutionary, but the techniques of fighting and tactics are much different. There are several tribes or groups of people who are organized into a force and mobilized. The moving forces for such rebellion are both social and economic, as people have no other way to change things, except of an open violent conflict. It was evident that there were many attacks on the civilian population, and the presence of the foreign fighters only angered the local people and insurgents. The whole population was becoming unstable and the future events have proven catastrophic (Cordesman 15).

Iraqi insurgency was one that had very unique and culture specific qualities. It is important to realize how many people there and what idea they are fighting for. The more groups there are the better connected and interdependent the network of the resistance is. In Iraq, there were unifying reasons and people were able to become the “tip of the sword” that fought for their truthful ideas and beliefs. The fact that an invading force of the United States was present and active, caused the tribes to respond within the same context. The message that was dominant among the Iraqis was that the Americans were trying to dominate and overpower Iraq, and would eventually take control. This was very effective, as people began fighting for their right to exist in the land of their ancestors. Iraqi greatly value freedom in their beliefs and traditions; so many people were mobilized in the resistance (Gordon 7).

As a result of such violent outbreaks, the number of people fighting was constantly growing. Within the course of two years, since 2003, the attacks were increasing almost every day, which showed that Iraqis were much knowledgeable in the warfare and military strategizing. Eventually, there were so many attacks that the fighting turned into a full scale civil war. The critical point has been reached and something had to be done, which was the withdrawal of the United States troops. But this did not stop the insurgency, as there were still violent attacks with the tribes being widely spread and organized. The rebellion has a very intricate network of groups that can communicate and divert their actions to a specific area if needed. This makes the decision making process and movement of the forces very unpredictable (Hashim 9).

The Middle East is a place which is much different from all other nations. It has its own traditions, culture and a way to conduct uprisings. The failure to understand crucial nature of people led to bloodshed and unneeded suffering.

Works Cited

Cordesman, Anthony. Iraq’s Insurgency and the Road to Civil Conflict. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008. Print.

Gordon, Joy. Invisible War: The United States and the Iraq Sanctions. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010. Print.

Hashim, Ahmed. Insurgency and Counter-insurgency in Iraq. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005. Print.

Introduction

Insurgent groups have endlessly threatened the serenity and stability of several countries. It is notable that since the beginning of civilization, insurgencies have been taking place. It is only that their strategies have evolved over the decades. Presently, most insurgent groups operate through defined organizational structures and leadership. The insurgent organizations sometimes receive support in diverse forms from their sympathizers as well as wealthy people. It is important to recognize that some organizations and institutions have normally supported insurgent groups. The insurgent groups seeking to terrify both populations and nations normally manage insurgencies. However, some insurgent groups have inadequate supply of financial and equipment thus making them potentially weak. The weak insurgent groups normally rely on the geographic conditions to help them undertake their operations.

Important Geographic Conditions

It is notable that diverse aspects of the landscape are crucial for insurgencies. Counterinsurgency experts such as David Galula have discussed the most significant geographic conditions that aid insurgencies (Galula & Nagl, 2006). Galula identifies simple and complex geographic conditions according to their advantageousness to insurgencies. The simple geographic conditions are considered to be favoring counterinsurgent groups and are not beneficial to insurgencies (Galula & Nagl, 2006). The complex geographic conditions are normally advantageous to insurgencies.

Galula suggested that eight geographical factors are crucial to insurgencies. They include “location, size, international boundaries, terrain, climate, population, and configuration” (Galula & Nagl, 2006). The geographical areas, which lack physical barriers, are highly beneficial to insurgencies. The reliance on geographic conditions to stage insurgencies cannot be overemphasized (Kalyvas, 2008). Counterinsurgency experts have argued that most insurgencies have not been successful because the geographical conditions have diminished the effectiveness of insurgent groups.

Location

The insurgent groups cannot target a country that is separated by ordinary barriers such as dangerous mountains easily. There are insurgencies that have also failed because populations are in opposition of the insurgent groups activities. In such cases, the counterinsurgencies have proved to be easy (Spencer, 2009).

Size

The geographical size of a nation also affects insurgencies. The governments in charge of larger countries normally experience challenges in their attempt to control all regions. The governments of such countries however strong they are may find it had to respond to insurgencies particularly in areas where their presence is low (Kalyvas, 2008).

Configuration

Counterinsurgency experts have argued that countries, which are easily divided into sections hinders insurgencies.

International borders

International boundaries normally play a crucial role in insurgencies. The longer boundaries are beneficial to insurgent groups. Furthermore, insurgencies have been successful in areas where the countries in the boundaries are sympathizers of the insurgent groups.

Terrain

Insurgencies also seem to be much easier in bad terrains, which are rugged, mountainous, boggy, and densely forested among others (Galula & Nagl, 2006). This is because such terrains make it difficult for the counterinsurgents to attack. However, areas that are experiencing harsh climatic conditions are advantageous to counterinsurgents that have logistical and equipment capacity to maneuver the risky environments (Spencer, 2009).

Population

Insurgencies are likely to be successful in cases where the population of insurgents is high. The countryside where populations are scattered are also beneficial to insurgencies (Spencer, 2009). The insurgents are likely to achieve more success in the rural areas than cities. This is because people in town centers are easier to control than a similar number of people living in the rural areas.

Conclusion

In summary, there are geographical conditions, which are of importance to insurgents. It is notable that some aspects of geography may be advantageous to the insurgents while others may not. This paper has discussed the key geographic conditions as well as their relevance to insurgencies.

References

Galula, D., & Nagl, J. A. (2006). Counterinsurgency warfare: Theory and practice. Westport, CT: Praeger Security International.

Spencer, E. (2009). The difficult war: Perspectives on insurgency and special operations forces. Kingston: Canadian Defense Academy Press.

Kalyvas, S. N. (2008). The logic of violence in civil war. Cambridge [u.a.: Cambridge Univ. Press.