This paper aims to analyze an enemy Al Qaeda document captured in 2005 and discuss three variables of the operational environment, namely political, military and social as elucidated in FM 3-0 (Department of Army 1-3) and their impact on the Al-Qaeda and own force operations in Iraq. Analysis of the document reveals that the enemy has a far more sophisticated understanding of geo-strategy, politics, military and social conditions that govern the Iraqi theatre and the region.
An analysis from the political prism shows that the enemy has clear political aims that are not limited to just taking over Iraq but to establish an Islamic caliphate centered on the Levant and Egypt extending all over the Middle East.
For attainment of its aims, Al Qaeda has a clear operational strategy that aims first at defeating the American forces, then taking over control of Iraq followed by destabilizing the neighboring countries. The military analysis of the document shows that the enemy is aware of the overwhelming superiority of American capabilities and would try and balance that by maintaining a focus on targeting American forces and not frittering away scarce resources by targeting the Shia community.
In pursuit of their aims and military action, the document shows that the enemy is aware of the social dimension of fighting the war in Iraq, where support of the masses is crucial and that actions viewed as abhorrent to the Iraqis should be discouraged.
The paper concludes that should the advice of the enemy operative in the document be heeded by the Al Qaeda leadership, it would lead to increased attacks on US forces, loss of popular support for own forces and a possibility of fighting a losing battle in Iraq.
Introduction
The war in Iraq poses a complex set of challenges for American and coalition forces striving to restore peace and stability in the country in the face of sectarian violence, terrorism and incipient insurgency being fomented in various parts of Iraq by state and non-state actors. A document captured from the enemy in Iraq during 2005 provides a fascinating glimpse into the minds of the adversary and this paper aims to discuss three variables of the operational environment, namely political, military and social as elucidated in FM 3-0 (Department of Army 1-3) and their impact on the Al-Qaeda and own force operations in Iraq.
Overview
At the outset, it must be realized that on reading the document it is evident that own forces are faced with a sophisticated adversary, a far cry from the often misrepresented picture of ‘mad mullahs’ running amok with jihad on their minds. The writer of this document displays a remarkable comprehension of the geopolitical, social and military dimensions of the war.
Political
The writer clearly outlines the geostrategic importance of winning the war in Iraq by stating that the victory of Islam as envisioned by the Prophet would only be possible if an Islamic dispensation centered on the Levant and Egypt and spread across the Middle East and Iraq is established (C 432 2). The writer then provides a global environmental scan by stating that wars in Chechnya, Afghanistan, Kashmir and Bosnia were peripheral to the main battle for the control of the Middle East. The writer then provides a succinct political aim; “establishment of a caliphate in the manner of the Prophet (C 432 2)”. With such a clear political aim and comprehensive geostrategic vision, the impact on Al-Qaeda would be to further intensify its operations in Iraq and expand its operations to the areas and countries mentioned above. For the US, such a strategic philosophy would require a grand strategic review of options required to be put into place if the US is to maintain its primacy in the Middle East.
Military
To execute the political aims, the writer of the document suggests certain clear military actions that Al Qaeda needs to take. Firstly, the writer calls for expelling the Americans as priority number one. Then he calls for establishing an Islamic state in Iraq followed by destabilization of neighboring countries and lastly destroying Israel (C 432 3). The ‘mission statement’ as per the writer is to continue fighting even after the Americans have been defeated to defeat secularists and traitors till the Islamic Caliphate is established. The writer displays a remarkable knowledge of ‘Principles of War’ when he questions the rationality of opening a second front against the Shia in Iraq “in addition to the front against the Americans and the government” (C 432 7). The writer is therefore urging that Al Qaeda should adhere to ‘selection and maintenance of aim’ and that the aim was first to expel the Americans and that by not adhering to this aim, ‘concentration of force’ was being diluted. This advice therefore points to the growing realization by the leaders that the military actions of the insurgents and terrorists were not helping them win the war against the Americans and that they were being frittered away and thus the need to concentrate back on the main task – attacking American and coalition forces. The impact on own forces is that there could be renewed attacks on own forces of greater lethality and frequency. The writer also provides a reality check as to the ‘comparison of forces’ when he states that “however far our capabilities reach, they will never be equal to one-thousandth of the capabilities of the kingdom of Satan that is waging war on us” (C 432 8). This could lead to adoption of more asymmetric means by Al Qaeda and for own forces to counter them.
Social
In accomplishment of the political aims, the writer cautions that Al Qaeda’s military actions must take into account the social factors. The writer alludes to the fact that war in Iraq was winnable because of “popular support from the Muslim masses in Iraq, and the surrounding Muslim countries” (C 432 3) and that to succeed in a jihad there must exist some public support. The impact of this observation is that if true, then Al Qaeda could prolong the conflict indefinitely and that American forces had very little leverage in the country they are trying to stabilize. It also shows that Al Qaeda is equally engaged in a ‘hearts and minds’ campaign as the coalition is. The writer cautions against overt display of slaughter (C 432 8) as its social consequences might turn away ordinary Iraqi citizens. The writer urges postponing actions against the Shias in Iraq in recognition of the social and demographic realities of the community being the majority in Iraq. The impact on Al Qaeda operations, if heeded would be to reduce sectarian violence and focus on attacking American forces. Own forces would then be faced with growing attacks and a losing ‘battle of the minds’ in the Iraqi society.
Conclusion
It can be stated that the enemy document provides a rare insight into the sophistication of the enemy mind and their lucid comprehension of geo-strategy, political aims, military realities, and social conditions affecting the war in Iraq. The overall impact on Al Qaeda if the advice rendered in the document were to adhere would be that Al-Qaeda would have a clear war-winning strategy and that own forces could lose the battle for the ‘hearts and minds of the Iraqi people, leading to a withdrawal from Iraq without having achieved the desired end results.
Works Cited
C 432. “Enemy Document Captured in Iraq During 2005.” Lesson C432: The Enemy: An Assessment Methodology. Army Staff College, 2005.
Department of Army. Operations: Full Spectrum Operations, Post-DRAG Draft 04 (Student Review). Washington D.C.: Department of Army, n.d.
World War One had a great impact on American economy and workforce. It changed ideology, cultural values and economic situation in the country. Stinging in his constant criticism of the benefits of American community with regard to income distribution, social welfare, racial justice, political inequality, and dozens of other concerns, critics assume a coincidence between version of universal human rights and social justice on the one hand and American economy on the other. WWI had a positive impact on the American economy as it allowed growth and development of the main industries and greater participation of the population in production.
The WWI helped American economy to expand its production facilities and attract labor from other countries. During WWI, labor was not a junior partner; quite the contrary. It was the democratic socialist and labor movements that had warned of the dangers of military aggression, had led in the opposition to it, and had been its earliest victims. During this period of time, American population was combative and militant, as large waves of strike activity prove (Worth 41). The growth was marked in steel and shipyard industries. “A growing navy had other beneficial efforts on the economy. Its need to remain at the forefront of new technology made it a force for innovation” (Strachan 375). These measures succeeded in ending the economic decline and in preventing it in future. During the WWI, economic policy of the USA was based on complex principles and issues determined by national economic situation and international relations. The two principles issues of economic policy were the debate over trust and competition. The economic policy created new problems and threats for business required protection and financial support. In this case mutual trust and competition were difficult to achieve (Adams 43).
The WWI attracted millions of workers from other countries. It led to changes in structure of workforce and labor relations. Through the use of informal pressure, the workers maintained their organization in the shops as strongly as ever. In addition, the navy quietly retreated from its victimization of individual employees. Much of the leadership of the regional labor opposed the new labor policies and innovations. Fearing that grievances would lead to strikes and strikes to an antilabor movement, many labor leaders pursued the limited objectives of working. Difficult times of war demanded difficult decisions. Expanded union administrations with their stronger disciplinary rules surely contained some rank-and-file disagree during the war years (Adams 98).
Products of welfare capitalism were generally funded by employee payroll deductions and controlled by management-sponsored benefit associations. Indeed, the provision of economic benefits fit naturally within a longstanding paternalistic tradition in the steel and naval industry (Franks 61). A number of steelmakers set up sick benefit clubs to administer income-maintenance indemnities around the turn of the century. During the war, a growing number of steelmakers began to insure hospital and surgical services. By mid-1919, more than half the employees in basic steel already had employment-based hospital insurance; more than one-third had coverage for inpatient surgical procedures. The widespread prevalence of this group of insurance helps to explain some of the managerial intransigences in negotiations at this time. As they had during the war, steel makers resisted demands to bargain over health insurance. Many firms owned extensive coal-mining operations and, thus, were already suffering the intrusions into benefits management (Strachan 65).
Some immigrants facilitated chain migration by encouraging friends and relatives to join them and providing newcomers with food, shelter, and emotional support until they found their own jobs and housing. These people labored under a triple yoke of oppression, confined by racism to the lowest rungs of the employment ladder, stigmatized by their presumed lower-class status because of their residency, and further constrained because of gender bias (Franks 42). Nevertheless, the experience of migration and entry into the urban industrial workforce via the shipyards helped African-American women move away from the deferential racial and stereotypical gender roles to which they had been confined by giving them an economic alternative. African-American women not only took the initiative in migrating but also, in many cases, supplied the impetus for migration. Despite the economic shift upward that Kaiser shipyard work represented for most African-American women, some found the choice between the shipyards or “somebody’s kitchen” still too restrictive (Worth 77).
In sum, WWI with massive labor demands offered new work opportunities for both local residents and in-migrant workers in the USA. The influx of new, largely unskilled workers led to a major reorganization and deskilling of the work process and too bitter conflicts between old and new workers within shipyard unions. The study of such labor conflicts provides a window into the larger newcomer-old timer schism that soon pervaded all aspects of urban life. Thus, hundreds of multinational companies and transnational corporations enter these markets paying no attention to trustworthy relations, ethical behavior and fair competition. Multilateral trading system limits national competition and leads to decline of national business and effective performance of local organizations.
Works Cited
Adams, M. C. C. The Best War Ever: America and World War II (The American Moment). The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Franks, N., Dempsey, H. American Aces of World War I. Osprey Publishing; illustrated edition, 2001.
Strachan, H. The First World War. Viking Adult, 2004.
Worth, R. America in World War I: America in World War One (Wars That Changed American History). World Almanac Library, 2006.
War, described as an armed clash between countries or between rival groups within a nation, can have serious effects on our surroundings, public well-being, and natural resources. The influence of weapons and military strategies is considered to be under expansion without any involvement of civilian populations and any kind of their infrastructure, water, and air; besides, the military used to target jungles, forests, and other ecosystems for the purpose of taking away rival groups of shelter, cover, and food. It is necessary to underline the fact that mass refugee movements as well other commotions resulted from armed conflicts, can easily run down resources of wildlife and timber. (Webster, 1996). Even peacetime military actions and training for war can be extremely damaging to the environment.
Though wartime ecological damage is as old as war itself, it is up to date, an industrial conflict that has increased the likelihood of devastation on our ecosystem or worldwide scale. From the use of toxic gases in World War I and atomic missiles in World War II to the use of defoliants substances in Vietnam and land mines in several internal clashes, war now leaves a heritage that expands far beyond the battleground and long past the period of the original conflict (Lanier-Graham, 1993). This crisis has resulted in worldwide agreements that challenge limiting the undesirable consequences of fighting on civilian populations and the surroundings. It also guarantees that the global community will strongly observe ecological issues during the time of war, in much the same way as humanitarian or refugee concerns.
History
During the U.S. Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman’s “March to the Sea” put down waste to huge areas of the South, as well as civilian settlements and farms (Zumwalt, 1986). During World War I, the military of Great Britain managed to set in flames all Romanian oilfields; both Germany and the Soviet Union during World War II were engaged in the strategies of “scorched earth”; and the US in the Korean War deliberately bombed North Korean dams in order to cause floods. (Webster, 1996).
Since the twentieth century, a series of agreements followed the ruling of global armed clashes; thus, Hague Conventions and the Geneva Conventions, having increasingly limiting military weaponry and strategies, such as the targeting civilian lands prohibition, were considered to be centralized policies. Occasionally, this law body was leading to global ecological damage. On the other hand, the main objective of the global law of war remained humanitarian, which meant to get rid of merciless weapons and reducing civilian fatalities.
Vietnam War
The Vietnam War was the earliest clash that emphasized the overwhelming effects of present fighting on our ecosystems. U.S. military implemented tactics of defoliating jungle covering, eventually spraying “Agent Orange” and other poisonous herbicides over 10 percent of South Vietnam (Webster, 1996). In adding up to demolishing vegetation, the public health implications of these events were primarily birth defects, illness, and untimely deaths that turn out to be obvious, both in the Vietnamese people and U.S. war veterans (Levy, 1997).
The defoliation attack and other U.S. strategies in Vietnam led to a global movement for agreements that particularly defend the surroundings during the time of war. This led to the Environmental Modification Convention acceptance (1976) forbidding any maneuvering of the environment as the principal war weapon, and of Geneva Conventions Protocol Additional I (1977), containing prevention against “severe, extensive, and long-term damage to the environment.” though, plenty of detractors have identified these agreements as not practical and indistinct. (Dycus, 1996). The U.S. government managed to sign both represented agreements, though never officially approving Protocol Additional I.
Persian Gulf War
Wartime ecological damage once more came to the forefront during the 1990 to 1991 Persian Gulf War, in which Iraq attack and invaded adjacent Kuwait. Being driven from Kuwait by the military coalition of the United States, troops from Iraq used to set fire to numerous abstracted pipelines and Kuwaiti oil wells (Bloom, 1994). As a result, oil slicks and smokes trails caused huge destruction to the Kuwaiti population, as well as to marine and desert ecosystems. Smoke from the oil fires was accounted as far away as the Himalayas and was able to be seen from space (Bloom, 1994).
With the destruction description spreading around the sphere, the UN Security Council had to pass Resolution 687, having held Iraq completely responsible for all damage caused, covering ecological damage, produced by the occupation and Kuwait release. (Dycus, 1996). Such unparalleled action led to the particular commission organization, the UN Compensation Commission, for the purpose of confirming issue awards and damage declaration. Kuwait together with some other Gulf States invested about sixty billion dollars in the development of the environment and natural resources. It is necessary to stress that public health claims aimed against Iraq, were also determined (Earle, 1992). The strange nature of the Security Council’s action led to changed calls for a worldwide agreement or organization to control the environmental effects of armed disagreement. Then, exclusion next to environmental damage was included in the contract for the International Criminal Court, a new committee that will have global authority over war offenses.
Internal Conflicts
Despite the fact that the best-known cases of environmental damage ate the period of the war were observed during global disagreements, the greater part of current disagreements is connected with social wars or other types of domestic troubles, in such places as Colombia, Congo, Angola, Cambodia, Nicaragua, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, El Salvador, Ethiopia, and Liberia. (Austin, 2000). These conflicts and disagreements are frequently faced in the form of fighting low-level rebels going on for years within the same territory. Together with civilian populations’ disastrous toll, the following clashes produce substantial environmental influence: the engagement of rival armies in defoliation and deforestation, antipersonnel land mines lay, hunt wildlife for food, as well as fight aimed at precious natural resources (covering timber and diamonds) in order to fund arms purchases (Austin, 2000).
Because independent nations usually manage their own relationships, it has been very hard for the global community to deal with internal conflicts and their human and environmental costs. The vast majority of global treaties dominating wartime environmental damage used not to apply to the disagreement of internal character. (Weinberg, 1992). Armed interference or international relations missions can resolve some humanitarian and environmental problems while creating others. For instance, the NATO bombing of Kosovo in 1999 set fire to the Pancevo petrochemical plant, exposing the majority of civilians to a poisonous cloud of smoke; at the period of the Rwandan civil war, the refugee camps of United Nations noted wildlife reserves and natural resources in neighboring Congo (Austin, 2000). One more attempt to solution has been aimed at worldwide consumer boycotts of diamonds, tropical timber, and other merchandise coming from the war-torn state and giving rise to armed conflict.
The Cold War Legacy
Military arrangements and actions for war can lead to huge environmental effects without any shot being fired. The atomic bomb development in the early 1940s, appeared to be pertained to the Manhattan Project, leading to shocking consequences in Nagasaki and Hiroshima, as well as creating lethal radioactive contamination in the long-lasting legacy form in the United States (Rhodes, 1986). Nobel Prize physicist Niels Bohr, 1939, stressed the fact that though the United States was likely to construct an atom bomb, this failed to be done without “transforming the country into one enormous factory.” The consequences of the Cold War in 1991 demonstrated the degree of atom bomb factory infection produced on such sites as Oak Ridge, Tennessee; Rocky Flats, Colorado, and Hanford, Washington; where the groundwater, air, surface water, vegetation, soils, and wildlife show the radioactivity sighs. (Rhodes, 1986). The nuclear plant of the Soviet Union formed similar problems, centralizing construction in such “secret cities” as Chelyabinsk-7, being described as the most contaminated city. (Feshbach, 1992). It should be noted that the tremendously long half-life of the radioactive waste together with the extremely poisonous cleanup in nature and sites control will result in extreme problems for the majority age group.
The Cold War bequest brings into heart the “need” and “balanced” calculations that motivate the most logical choices about environmentally destructive wartime events: whether there are options to take a particular action, and whether the advantage of the armed forces gained from taking such an action overshadows the ecological and other damages that potentially may result. The majority of scholars would be in agreement that the development of the atomic bomb was acceptable as a means of defeating dictatorship and winning World War II; they likewise concur that Iraq’s actions in withdrawing from Kuwait were undefended, even on a military basis (Austin, 2000). Such cases as the defoliation operation in Vietnam of the US or civilian infrastructure bombing in Kosovo are considered to be more contentious. In any case, the historical evidence, the sustained growth of global agreements and organizations, and the growing consciousness that environmental subjects must be thinking about even during wartime, all should provide a foundation for better military plans and more environmentally responsible decision making in the future (Webster, 1996).
References
Austin, Jay E., and Bruch, Carl, eds. (2000). The Environmental Consequences of War: Legal, Economic, and Scientific Perspectives. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Bloom, Saul; Miller, John M.; Warner, James; and Winkler, Philippa, eds. (1994). Hidden Casualties: The Environmental, Health and Political Consequences of the Persian Gulf War. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books.
Dycus, Stephen. (1996). National Defense and the Environment. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England.
Earle, Sylvia A. (1992). “Persian Gulf Pollution: Assessing the Damage One Year Later.” National Geographic 181:122.
Feshbach, Murray, and Friendly, Albert. (1992). Ecocide in the U.S.S.R.: The Looming Disaster in Soviet Health & Environment. New York: Basic Books.
Lanier-Graham, Susan. (1993). The Ecology of War: Environmental Impacts of Weaponry and Warfare. New York: Walker & Co.
Levy, Barry S., and Sidel, Victor W., eds. (1997). War and Public Health. New York: Oxford University Press.
Rhodes, Richard. (1986). The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Webster, Donovan. (1996). Aftermath: The Landscape of War. New York: Pantheon.
Weinberg, William J. (1992). War on the Land: Ecology and Politics in Central America. London: Zed Press.
Zumwalt, Elmo Jr.; Zumwalt, Elmo III; and Pekkanen, John. (1986). My Father, My Son. New York: Macmillan.
Israel exists in a region where almost all of its neighbors can be considered potential enemies. Most Israeli and Palestinian citizens have to live in constant fear and remain vigilant in their daily lives. Although there are strong feelings on both sides of the issues concerning Israel, it cannot be overlooked that they have been the target of non-conventional attacks from both military forces and terrorist organizations. Due to the volatility of their place in the world, Israel has to invest significant and creative resources into their efforts of combating terror while Palestinians have to invest in securing their homes from Israeli attacks. While terrorism is condemned the world over, the Palestinians continue to resort to tactics that would destabilize the Jews while the Israelis terrorize the Palestinians regularly. It’s a case of one person’s freedom fighter is another’s terrorist. In such a situation, Israel with the backing of the United States has held a stronghold on the Palestinians provoking them at their will. Without the equal infrastructure to fight the Israelis head-on, they resort to Guerilla tactics. However, where Israeli tanks can trample hundreds and demolish the homes of thousands, Palestinians can reply with a negligible force. To save their encroached land, Israelis have taken strict measures in the name of counter-terrorism efforts that sees further plight on the Palestinians. Several laws and resolutions have been passed that make it justifiable to pick random Palestinians for questioning and interrogation based on the slightest of suspicion. And when it seems that finally, the region can see peace once again, Israel attacks the Palestinians part and takes control of it. Without complete intermediation from world authorities, peace cannot prevail in this forsaken region.
History of Israel
Israel was created in 1948 after 55 years of Zionist agitation. The name of the country derives from the name given to Jacob (Israel). In the 60 years since Israel has achieved its independence, it has been continuously warring with the Arab countries, which borders the Israeli borders. The conflict between the Palestinians and the Jewish people began in November 1947 that is before the independence of Israel.
United Nations came upon the decision to create a separate state for the Jewish people, therefore in 1948 Jewish people were given independence and Israel was created. The Arabs declared that if a separate Jewish state would be created, they would fight till death, and from the day of its independence Israel is in constant conflict with the Arab states. Before May 1948 somewhere around 250,000 had fled or were evicted by the Jewish people from Israel when the Jews slowly, gradually, and in an organized manner overpower the Arabs.
In March 1949, the Green Line was established that is a permanent ceasefire went into effect between the Arabs and the Jews. After the ceasefire, the British released 2000 Jews and then recognized the state of Israel. After the end of the war, Egypt still occupies the Gaza Strip and the West Bank, and Eastern Jerusalem which includes the Old City as well (Facts about Israel).
Terrorism
Terrorism has no specific definition; it is mostly a controversial term. Terrorism is considered to be a major form of asymmetric warfare (i.e. war or a fight between 2 or more groups who have significantly different military power). Terrorism is an act that is conducted only for the sole purpose of political gain. This act might or might not be directed at a specific government or country. If terrorism is to be defined, it can be defined as an act that is conducted only for the sole purpose of political gain. This act might or might not be directed at a specific government or country.
Terrorism is based on 3 kinds of perspectives, which are, first one is the terrorist conducting the criminal act, and the second is the victim who becomes the target for such violent kinds of activities, and lastly the general public who provides the reaction to such kinds of acts. The terrorist tries mostly to sway the public towards their way of thinking and hoping that the public will change their opinions about them. (Terrorism Research).
The terrorists are mostly motivated by two things to do such heinous kinds of crime. The first thing that motivates them is the social and the political injustice that is the terrorists believe that a social or a political injustice has been done to them. The second reason why the terrorists are motivated is the belief that due to violence a change will happen. In the end, they believe that violence is the answer to all their prayers and that it will help them to bring change in a society or within the country itself.
The terrorists believe that they have no option left other than the use of violence so that the world will take notice of them and the cause they are fighting for. One example would be when the Palestinian Liberation attacked Israel in the 1960s and 1970’s, believing that it was justifiable due to the Jews had forcefully taken their land.
Enemies of the state
Israel was created in 1948 and since then it has faced the first-ever attack on the country the Palestine Liberation Organization in 1965 and the country had to suffer from PLO Intifadas or revolutionaries in 1987 and then again in 2001, and this being the cause of hundreds of terrorist bombing within the country and along with hundreds of people dead. And then in 2003, there were more than 3500 terrorist attacks within Israel and in those attacks, 213 Israelis were killed out of which 163 were common people and the rest were militants. In the 2003 attacks, there were a great deal of international terrorist organizations were involved. (2003 Terrorism Review).
And these days the number one enemy of Israel is the foreign states which include Iran and Syria because it is being said that these two countries have weapons of mass destruction with them. The enemies of the state who come second are the Palestinians with Jews have a continuous conflict since their independence. The third enemy of the state is the Muslims who live in Israel, the reason that the Muslims now constitute 16% of the population of Israel.
Another reason why the Jews consider them as the enemy is that the minority of the Muslims who used to be docile and leaderless has now become a robust and assertive community with leaders. And now the Israelis believe that their third and final enemies will be joining the battle against them. And the war between the Muslims and the Jews has been increasing, and now after the war against Lebanon in 2006, the Muslim society has rejected the Israeli identity and has now turned against the state altogether.
The hostility between these two religions has been increasing. The turning point had come when ‘the future vision of Palestine Arabs in Israel’ had been released. This paper rejects the Jews nature of Israeli society and suggests that the country should become a bi-national country, where the culture of Palestine should also be enjoyed equally. It was given that the Jews were going to have a negative response to such kind of paper and therefore it was a turning point for Muslims in Israel who believed that the paper was suggesting the right thing that is they should be given the freedom to follow their religion and culture. (Pipes, 2006)
Israel’s response
Israel since its creation has implemented the strongest counter-terrorism measures of any country around the world. As it is known that the country has faced a lot of terrorist attacks and it has the most experience in counter-terrorist measures than any other country. Because of these measures, the Palestinians suffer the most and they cannot do anything except for freedom fighting that the media calls terrorism.
3 kinds of defensives measures are usually taken by a country like Israel and those defensives measures are as follows:
Airline security, due to the incident of 9/11 most countries have tightened their airline security so that in the future such kinds of incidents won’t happen ever again. And the airlines have made sure that they conduct an emergency drill with the passengers and in case of a highjack the passengers along with the plane crew should try and overpower the people who have hijacked the aircraft.
Tight security in the nuclear power station, as it is known that only an aircraft hitting the nuclear station can create a great deal of damage. And again in case of a hijack, the nuclear power station must be informed immediately, so that the station can instantly take some kind of precautions before there is any kind of impact with the power station. This will help reduce the causalities and enough time will be given to save important information and resources and lastly.
Stopping terrorists from getting a hold of a nuclear weapon. This is the biggest fear that all the governments have that in case if a terrorist gets ahold of a nuclear weapon what is going to happen then. The governments fear that there will be mass destruction and a lot of innocent lives will be lost. Therefore governments like the US and UK are trying their level best that such kinds of weapons do not fall into the hands of terrorists like the Al-Qaeda or Taliban (Lawson, 2001).
As it was known that Israel was facing Arab hostilities since its time of creation, therefore the government of the country decided to create an ordinance called the Prevention of Terrorism Ordinance in 1948. The ordinance stated that any kinds of violent activities or threats on an individual would be considered as an act of terrorism. The ordinance also permitted the Shin Bet (that is the country’s intelligence force) a lot of prosecutorial powers, which meant that they could stop or retain any person for information and they also have the power to shut down any kind of organization they thought was involved in any kind of terrorist activity. In a case where a Palestinian is found guilty or even suspicious of these charges, it generally means that this person would never be freed again.
The implications
A saying by David Nelmes (2007) goes “The end of war does not bring peace, it just brings about the end of the war.” This saying correctly contradicts the theory of dictators and warmongers to ‘wage is a war to bring peace. In the thousands of years of history, we can see a continuous chain of wars and conflicts that ends with the beginning of another. Wars can be described in a single word as ‘deadly’ since numerous lives are sacrificed of the soldiers as well as the civilians. It tarnishes the physical landscape of the country, disrupts trade and economic links while diminishing internal resources. Destruction to such an extent hurts the whole geographic region and creates instability for a very long time to come.
Precious loss of human life and resources
Economic and trade disaster
A once united state of Palestine was surviving with both Jews and Arabs united against a common enemy in both World Wars. However, wars and lobbying created further tensions between the opposing religious groups until an Israel was created out of western pressure (Mideast Web). Even with a named homeland (Israel), the Jews and Palestinians conflict with the Jews demanding the vanquishing of Palestinians from the Gaza area controlled by the alleged terrorist group Hamas (Chalmers, 2009). The solution lies in the returning of Israeli forces to their marked territory, while the Palestinians agree not to interfere with the Israeli territory. The prolonged violence, death, and destruction’s only solution lies in the compromise and the willingness to end the war.
Israel should not attack Palestine areas and try to capture it
Palestinians must understand that Israelites are there to stay in the area which no longer is theirs alone.
So far in the long history of conflict between the two sides, sit-downs have been rare and un-eventful. The solution is the end of the war, yet both parties continue to fight to this day. The end of the war era will bring much-awaited stability to the region thus foster economic growth and the ability to live a simple life. Talking this matter out will create goodwill between the two opponents, thus allowing friendship and unity between the two. Most importantly the motto of ‘life is sacred’ will be protected and people can once more dream of achieving success rather than just think about survival. (Anderson, 2009)
Economic stability
Return to normal life
Foster prosperity in the region
Protecting life and safeguarding human rights are the basic values of any society and this message is heard and understood by everyone. However, throughout the history of humans, all we have seen is conflict; and war is a reason to end that conflict. Not only valuable natural resources and precious lives are being destroyed, but more important things in our lives are also getting lesser attention example like countries having a higher defense budget than a health budget. The time has come and been overdue for the world to understand that selfish causes make lives harder for self and others. Conflicts must end peacefully in talks and war must finally end as a means of begetting peace (Anderson, 2009).
Important things deserve proper care like life
World must end the war once and for all as a means to achieve peace
Conclusion
War has continued and tormented people for too long. A change is required and it is needed fast. This change has to come in the form of a diplomatic talk between the opposing parties that reach a unanimous decision in favor of both sides. War has always brought misery; now is the time to bring life and joy who have suffered the most when peace and independence were their birthright.
Annotated bibliography
Anderson, T. (2009). Israel & Palestine. Great Neck Publishing. Pp 1-3. ISBN 1-4298-1346-6
This source covers the history of the Israeli and Palestine conflict in detail which is imperative to understand how the conflict started and what can be done to resolve this hatred between the two parties
BBC is a world renowned organization that covers news from all around the world thus this is a credible source for factual information
Borden, T. G (2008), Israel, Counter-Terrorism Policy.
The author discusses how Israel feels threatened to the rising fears of terrorism and how have Palestinian organizations have added to that fear. Thus Israel has taken counter steps to safeguard its interests while stomping on Palestinian interests
Chalmers, Iain. Gaza – a symptom of an insufficiently acknowledged cause. Lancet. (2009) Vol. 373 Issue 9659, p197-198
This article strictly analyzes the situation where Israel attacks the Palestinians and overturn the authority with the approval of US and EU. It describes what the civilians have to go through to survive in this condition
Chronology: Arab-Israeli Conflict. (2008). The Middle East Journal, 62(2), 304-305.
This article traces the conflict between the Arab Muslims and the Israeli Jews. It further describes the causes of the conflict and the reasons of mistrust between the two has led to the creation of Palestine and Israel
This source is the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs website from where state facts and figures are taken necessary to cover the Israeli stance on the way of things
Government Policy (2008).
This is a website of the Israeli governments’ prime minister’s office which is credible since it comes directly from the Israeli government. This source gives information about the policies about terrorism.
The American-Israeli cooperative enterprise brings this source which highlights the terrorism activities in the region and how have Palestinians contributed towards this rise in terrorism
This article written for NewYork Sun, enlightens the audience about the enemies of Israel both external and internal.
Terrorism Research- what is terrorism? (n.d.) 2009.
This website is used to get an insight and proper understanding of what terrorism is and where can it be found
Myers, Zachary (2008). Fighting Terrorism: Assessing Israel’s Use of Force in Response to Hezbollah. The San Diego Law Review, 45(1), 305.
This article from a journal source tells the might of Israeli forces and how they are dealing with threats from Palestinians authorizes and agencies who are associated for the peace of Palestine.
Darfur is one of the regions of the biggest African country, Sudan which attained its independence in 1956 from Egypt and the UK. Located in the war-torn region of Africa, and bordered by Chad, Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, and Uganda (UCDP, p. 105). These neighboring states have at least experienced one form of conflict, either interstate or intrastate in the last half of the century (106). With an estimated population of bout 37 million, a completely heterogeneous state in terms of religion, ethnicity, and language, Sudan has experienced some of the longest conflicts in African and world history (Flint, p. 142). The north that is comprised of the Darfur region is Muslim Arab dominated, while the south is predominantly Christian with both regions having multiple ethnic groups (p. 144). The Khartoum government is dominated by the Northern region elites, who have traditionally fought for power, creating a series of wars and conflicts with unstable governments which are never in control of the entire vast nation (de Waal, p. 20). The few elites at the center of the nation are extremely wealthy, in contrast to the exceedingly poor marginalized regions at the far-flung corners of the nation, comprising Darfur. Sudan has suffered numerous domestic conflicts and many one-sided conflicts that are basically supported by the government either directly or indirectly (US Department of State). In an effort to contain the rebellions, the Khartoum Governments have over the years funded the militias to fight off the rebels (Human Rights Watch 2002). The militias have been responsible for several gross violations of human rights both Darfur and the south.
Darfur, located in the Western region of Sudan, has a population estimated to be 6 million (US Department of State, 2004). The present conflict in Darfur began in the year 2003 when the Sudan Liberation Movement /Army (SLM/A) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) disagreed with the Government of Sudan (Azzain, p. 7). Even though observers concur that communal conflicts have existed in this region for decades, the communities living in Darfur also complain that the central government based in Khartoum has also stayed for so long that they need a change (Varshney, p. 309). The rebellion and the response from the government’s backed ethnic militias in 2003 have brought the defining moments for the Darfurians’ lives. The rebels have been fighting for the resources that they claim the successive central governments have been harvesting yet have decided to marginalize them at the expense of their Arab counterparts (310). The Khartoum governments have been arming Arab militias to execute atrocities, genocide, in an effort to contain the rebels. However, according to Human Rights Watch report (2002), the war in Darfur is more complex than what people see at phase value. The report elaborates the division between the ethnic groups of Darfurians, where the dominant Fur ethnic group and other African ethnic groups comprised of Zaghawa and Masalit combining forces to form groups of rebels fighting the central government dominated by the Arabs. In this region, it is an issue being an Arab or an African, with such an identity classifying one whether he or she is a pro or anti-government, or just as the dominant occupation. Azzain (3) states that the present Darfur disaster is “a result of interlinked communal conflicts, conflicts between different regional elites and periphery-center conflicts”. He further elaborates that the “differing but the entangled” conflicts and of course the insufficient understanding between the parties have complicated the solution to the problem (5). The war conflict that is mainly due to resource scramble has most of the time assumed a political dimension, with no specific Sudanese Government taking any serious initiative to protect and safeguard the livelihood for the Darfur people (8). Experts have also pointed out drought as another issue that has aggravated the whole war, pointing out the difference between the neighboring Kenya, where despite the drought in many regions, has adopted zero-grazing in response to the reducing land space for nomadic culture.
The present government of the National Islamic Front (NIF) headed by Omar el-Bashir as the president came to power in 1989 through a coup. According to Human Rights Watch (2002), General Bashir’s televised speech after the coup stated that the reason for the coup was “to save the country from rotten political parties”. This has generated series of arguments and conflicts, with this government trying to survive at all costs at the expense of conflict resolution.
International relations and response
The Darfur crisis is one of its kind conflicts that have generated so much international response at different levels. Some responses have been in the form of a mass movement like the one in the United States known as the “Save Darfur Coalition” (Human Rights Watch, 2002). United Nations has been working round the clock in an effort to bring the situation in Darfur to control, with peacekeeping attempts to save the lives of the violence victims. This they have done through political approach negotiations to allow the UN peacekeepers deployed in the region. The passage of the resolution was seen as a breakthrough in that the high breed peacekeepers would be deployed to improve the humanitarian efforts in the region (de Waal, p. 20).
However, these efforts by the UN are undermined by the way major western states relationship with the government of Khartoum. United States declared the atrocities committed in Darfur to be genocide (US Department of State, 2004). This coupled with the counterterrorism campaign that the United States is fronting has complicated the overall peacekeeping efforts by the United Nations (Diplomats, 2007). Many people in the United States are traditional supporters of the more Christian south of Sudan. The Washington government believes that Sudan has very crucial information about Al-Qaeda creating a mixed interest. The most valuable export for Sudan is oil with China leading the pack of major buyers of this oil (Kamal, p. 106).China buys a third of this oil export (107). According to New York Times report, much of the revenue got from the oil is spent on the weapon market which China is the leading supplier (UCDP, p. 28). By the year 2001, the weapons headed to Sudan from China were valued at $1 million, and this number has significantly increased to $23 million by the year 2005 (29). China has also given Khartoum government technical assistance through the building of the arms factory by the use of technology transfer. This is despite the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1556 that prohibited all states from selling and supplying weapons to Darfur (31). But this did not improve any situation since it was realized that the weapons used in Darfur came from Khartoum, noting that the embargo only prohibited weapon supply to Darfur and not any other place. The countries surrounding Sudan are not left out in this complex relationship. The neighboring countries like Chad have their interests too in this conflict. The conflict in Darfur is said to have spread mainly in Chad and the Central African Republic, with Chad, believed to be siding with the Khartoum government instead of the Darfur rebels, who are said to be against the present Chad government since the anti-government groups in Chad are said to be fighting from their base at Darfur (UCDP 2008). These are just but highlights of a few notable relationships between the Darfur conflict and the international community
Peacekeeping efforts
The most pressing need in Darfur was to protect the Darfur civilians and to ensure stability. This need still stands to date despite the unwillingness of the Khartoum government and the unclear intention of the international community who have been accused of playing partisan politics in the peace effort by the Sudanese government (Kamal, p. 22)). According to the United Nations report on Darfur, the numbers killed in the war have hit more than 450,000, and those affected are about 4.2 million.
In response to the need to save lives in Darfur, the international community through United Nations passed a resolution dubbed, UN Resolution 1769 in August 2006 to provide the much-needed momentum for peacekeeping (Azzain, p. 32). The passing of the resolution saw the deployment of around 26,000 peacekeepers (33). Before this resolution, there were already 7000 African Union peacekeepers in the region (36) According to Jean-Marie, Under-Secretary-General for peacekeeping operations, the first elements of peacekeeping were going on well until the political obstacles and the complications with the hybrid force. The Khartoum government expressed reservation for some of the components of the peacekeepers, insisting that the western troops should not be part of the contingent. However, Sudan had made some efforts to meet its responsibility of deploying the United Nations-African Union Mission in Darfur (UNAMID) (Kamal, p. 109), in line with chapter 7 of the United Nation Charter that offer provision for “necessary action” to offer protection to the mission, the humanitarian groups, and civilians (110).
The efforts in bringing Darfur stability back have been enormous, but have faced numerous challenges unexpectedly. Despite the pledges by the international community to support the peacekeeping process, the peacekeeping contingent has been underfinanced and this has jeopardized their chances of successfully launching operations in this volatile region (Kamal, p. 22). Some of the inefficiencies are blamed on the inaccessibility of some of the areas with no infrastructures to facilitate operation (46). This has seen difficulties in accessing some regions when the new wave of conflicts erupts, putting evacuation and relief efforts in confusion.
Unfortunately, Resolution 1769 is limited in its mandate since it only gives the UNAMID mandate to “monitor” illegal arms movements in the Darfur region, making it difficult to take any further action in case one party fails to comply with the agreements (UCDP, 2008). The many efforts to return the more than 2.5 million displaced persons have been difficult. The land seized by the well-armed Arab militias has been the real contention, with many of them settling on this land unabated and it is not possible to do the land redistribution without the contribution of Khartoum (UCDP.2008). Furthermore, this does not fall under the mandate of UNAMID, and the fact that the traditional land rights in Darfur were organized in such a way to accommodate both the pastoralists and the farmers (Kamal, p. 111). Experts advise that no amount of attempt to bring lasting peace in Darfur will succeed unless complete disarmament and the demobilization of the militias and rebel groups is achieved (Varshney, p. 27). They say that after the disarmament, the renegotiation where the local scholars and elders are involved will be the best alternative.
The peace process in this region has grown much complicated with sometimes Government of Sudan discrediting the international community and the humanitarian organizations, accusing them of working with the rebels (Varshney, p. 29). However, observers see this from a different perspective, saying that this is a strategic way of turning the local people against the international community. For example, the alleged taking of blood from 60 women in Khor Baraanga village was leveled on by an international humanitarian organization by the government. In this region, it is a great offense to take anybody’s blood away as this is considered a taboo (Flint, p. 148). This has been seen as the real impediment to the peace process in Darfur. Such accusations are considered as a way of diverting the local people’s attention from the actual problem and that they (the government) uses such tactics to make the local community rebel against the aid workers, whom they don’t want out of the region.
When the then UN Secretary-General Dr. Kofi Annan suggested the use of hybrid peacekeeping force for Darfur, he intended to make the process of peacebuilding kick off with the main purpose of convincing the Sudan government to accept the non-African peacekeepers (Human Rights Watch, 2002). This proposal became somehow successful despite facing some challenges that were not anticipated. The Sudan government accepted the proposal and pledged support despite the fact that such a hybrid force has never been used anywhere in the peacekeeping history, and the fact that it is being tried in Sudan has raised so many questions as to its capacity to augment itself into a viable peacekeeping force (Varshney, p. 31). War analysts argue that the reason why many western countries with the technical capacity to support the peacekeeping groups are due to their lack of confidence in the hybrid approach, doubting the ability of the command and the structure of control. This lack of confidence may be justified by the fact that the forces have two different centers of power, with each group reporting to their headquarters. The other challenge relies upon the composition of the force considering the fact that the resolution agreed that it should mainly be composed of African peacekeepers. It was not well defined which countries would really send their troops to compose the UNAMID and the government of Sudan has used this loophole to restrict some troops from other countries. For example, the refusal by the government of Sudan to accept engineers from Norway and Sweden, accusing them of coming to spy over Sudan, was a big blow to the UNAMID efforts.
It became apparent that even the locals as well as the rebels were opposed to the idea of majority peacekeepers being African. The argument they presented was that it is easier to bribe African troops from poor African states than troops from the west. According to Adam Mahmoud, a member of the Fur Consultative Council, “the government is laughing at the international community when it comes to UNAMID since they (government) feel that they can decide on anything they want”. Abdallah Khamees of URF puts it vividly, “the mandate of UNAMID is not very clear and that UN is only consulting with the government and not also with the movements as it should” (Human Rights Watch, 2002). By this Abdallah is referring to such issues as where the UNAMID should be deployed, which practically should be decided by the rebels
Other than the barriers from the government and the local rebels in the successful deployment of the UNAMID troops, the parent countries of the deployed troops have also contributed considerably to the drawbacks associated with this failure (Flint, p. 149). No particular country has really contributed the indispensable helicopter, despite the bad terrain that makes road transport impossible during the conflicts (Azzain 24) This fact was emphasized by the present UN Secretary-General who clarified that UNAMID needs more helicopters, about 18 transport helicopters, and 6 light attack ones so as the force can protect their own troops, and the civilians (UCDP, 2008). Many of these countries argue that they already have their helicopters deployed in other warring countries like Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq. But many observers refute this claim saying that most of these countries are just not sure of the viability of the hybrid system of peacekeeping and thus fear that they are highly likely to lose their helicopters in the peace process. Analysts continue to observe that the problem comes in when the helicopters are used, it would involve fighting against either the government-backed militias or the rebels to retreat away from the civilians-protected regions (UCDP 2008). This means that if they are helicopters from western countries, they will be viewed as imperialists considering the history of colonialism. Still, if it is an African country helicopter, it’s the argument of Africa fighting Africa or as some people refer to it, “African shooting African” (Diplomats, 2007).
The war in Sudan’s Darfur is a very complex issue that must be seen in terms of how it is handled with care. It is apparent that currently, the whole attempt to bring peace in this region has not achieved much success due to numerous issues I have highlighted. First, it requires the whole participation of the international community, which would see a multilateral approach implemented. This is because historically, multilateralism has effectively worked in Sudan more than unilateralism. However, the more viable multilateralism is completely lacking currently, making success in the peace process a mirage. Experts also argue that when it comes to a complex situation like the Darfur one, some form of constructive enforcement by the international community has worked in the past, and therefore would be more viable when combined with serious commitments. This can be done by creating a situation where both parties are made to believe that commitment to the peace process will be less costly as compared to the continued fight
Conclusion
The Darfur conflict is complex in nature and it’s associated with communal conflicts, elite conflicts, as well as center-periphery conflict. As Varshney (310) States, the solution lies with an effort to understand all these types of conflicts and how they interconnect. It, therefore, requires more research in the future to develop a more constructive understanding of this conflict. This is because Sudan as a country has experienced conflicts in virtually all its corners, i.e. west, south, east, and north and therefore a more advance research h on how these conflicts interrelate would be a good beginning.
References
Diplomats (2007) Different diplomats, interviewed 2007, Khartoum
Kamal el-Din (2007) “Islam and Islamism in Darfur” in de Waal (ed) War in Darfur and the Search for Peace p. 105
US Department of State (2004) “Documenting Atrocities in Darfur”
Mohamed, Adam Azzain (2007) “Evaluating the Darfur Peace Agreement – A call for an Alternative Approach to Crises Management”, conference paper presented at the Peace Agreement Programme African Review Workshop 2007
de Waal (2007) “Sudan: the Turbulent State” in de Waal (ed) War in Darfur and the Search for Peace p. 20
Varshney, 2002. Communal conflicts can be defined as events where (a) there is violence, and (b) two or more communally identified groups confront each other or members of the other group at some point during the violence, 309)
Flint, Julie(2007) Darfur´s armed Movements in de Waal (ed) War in Darfur and the Search for Peace p. 142
The real meaning of terrorism is to terrify. It originates from the Latin word ‘.terrere’. In other words, terrorism refers to the people who are terrified and not connotes to the perpetrators. Usually, it is the news media and public agents who emboss the tag on operations of violence that declares it as terrorism. Thus, terrorism can be explained as public acts of annihilation, unleashed without a concise military aim that provokes sense of fear. (Juergensmeyer, 2003, p.5)
Thus, plans of Stalin, the Russian government-encouraged death squads in El Salvador, the racial extermination of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia, ethnic purifying in Kosovo and Bosnia, the government supported stimulated violence of Hutus and Tutsis in Central Africa and these were unleashed in the religious disguise had created a culture of fear and is called as state sponsored terrorism. (Juergensmeyer, 2003, p. 5).
Further, state sponsored terrorism may be more harmful as there is no guarantee that when the terrorist they train and develop turn the tables against them at a future date. Further, a state may not have full control over these terrorists which they supply and train. Without this control mechanism, states may not be in a position to vouch WMD deployed to a terrorist group that it would not be employed against them at a future date.
One of the main reasons for religious fantasist resort to terrorism is the fear of social marginality in the ensuing future. (Juergensmeyer, 2003, p.195).There are four kinds of terrorism: They are
mass-casualty terrorism
state –sponsored biological or chemical weapons terrorism
small scale biological or chemical terrorists attacks and
super terrorism.
Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) And Its Impact
Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) connote some small numbers of weapons that can destroy major life or inanimate objects on a large scale in a lightening speed. WMD is of three kinds namely nuclear, biological and chemical. Among these, chemical are easily accessible to terrorists since the techniques of manufacturing chemical-war elements are narrated in the open literature and easily accessible to any one through internet or books.
Chemical-war elements consists of five major categories namely nerve agents, blood, blister, choking and incapacitating. Nerve agents are widely used by the terrorists as G-agents which are non-persistent and cause death just after inhalation and V-agents which are persistent in nature can be sucked up through skin. Nerve gas is very dangerous as a small drop of a nerve gas can cause immediate death of large numbers of people.
It is estimated that at least 17 countries have the personnel with skills required to develop radioactive material necessary to develop a nuclear weapon or to develop a biological weapon.
Terrorists may use a variety of biological agents and the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases has listed the following biological toxins and diseases which are probably appropriate for introduction into the population by purposeful diffusion.
Infection through Bacterial agents like cholera, anthrax, tularemia, plague and “Q” fever.
Through viruses like Venezuelan equine encephalitis, viral hemorrhagic fevers and smallpox.
Through Biological toxins like staphylococcal enterotoxin B, botulinum, T-2 Mycotoxins and ricin. (Ronczkowski, 2004,p.136)
Disease-carrying substances are biological warfare agents which include viruses, bacteria, fungi and rickettsiae. Diseases like cholera, anthrax, pneumonic plague and typhoid can be spread through biological warfare. Further, viruses can cause disease like flu, AIDS, smallpox and Polio. Biological agents described above can be acquired by the terrorists either from the medical research laboratories or by way of theft. Chemical weapons have the advantage of easy acquisition and disadvantage like incubation periods ranging from a few days to a few weeks.
Immediately after 9/11 attack, terrorist succeeded in spreading the Anthrax in U.S.A. The main reason why anthrax is being preferred by the terrorist is that it is easy to produce at low costs in large volumes. Its production technology is available in the open literature. As a dry powder, it can be stored for a long period and is also stable in nature. Further, it is easy for delivery by dispersing it as an aerosol with crude sprayers.
The Aum Shinrikyo loosened a Sarin nerve gas attack on the Tokyo subway and this exposes how terrorist can use chemical weapons for their goals. Some defectors have informed how Russia was planning to employ biological horror to unleash on the West. The most important outbreak of Salmonella food poisoning in Oregon in 1984 caused by the purposeful infectivity of salad bars in restaurants by the Rajneesh cult was originally evaluated by public health officials to be of natural origin till a follower of the cult confessed the truth.
There exists always danger of terrorists acquiring nuclear weapons either by stealing it from military stock or while it is being transported. Pakistan being a rude state, there exists danger of atomic weapon being handled by terrorist group especially Taliban as Pakistan is politically in a weak position. Another concern is if Iran is able to proliferate nuclear weapon, it may use it against Israel at any time.
WMD in the hands of rogue states were more dangerous as these states are devoted to holding onto, grasping and enlarging their authority. The quest for power and authority for these rogue states is the motivating forces behind many of their actions particularly their eagerness to proliferate WMD.
In case of a dictator or military junta or power monger or autocratic person, use of WMD may be the final option in case there happen scenarios mainly to keep his authority and to have edge over his enemies. The collapse of the erstwhile Soviet Union and the management of its WMD arsenal have thus some how rather administered without any catastrophe. In future, one cannot expect such kind of success.
WMD are more likely to be employed by new nuclear states with small arsenals against noncombatants that too in terrorist mode. A nation with the limited arsenals may use WMD against its mighty foe so as to have edge over them.
According to Intelligence forecast, by 2015, U.S.A may likely to face a ballistic missile danger from Iran and North Korea. These states have invested both money and time in formulating efficient deterrents for American supremacy. These countries are seriously engaged in developing ballistic missiles armed with WMD are likely to provide this kind of deterrent. This strategy provides a strategic counter to U.S information based and conventional military superiority. States with weaker economy may seek to safeguard their sovereignty may visualize WMD terrorism as their only viable option.
Terrorist can acquire nuclear weapon by purchasing or stealing plutonium or enriched uranium and then fabricating a nuclear explosive device. The recent concern is increasing business in civil mixed-oxide (MOX) nuclear fuel. Thus, if terrorists are able to acquire MOX fuel, it is relatively easy for them to eliminate plutonium oxide from it chemically and then employ it to proliferate nuclear weapons. Thus, MOX has increased the peril of nuclear terrorism.
Cyber terrorism is being perused by the terrorist to destabilize centralized government computer networks or major telecommunication centers like NASA or Whitehouse. Terrorists prefer cyber terrorism as it can be conducted from long distance with complete anonymity that too with a little cost.
HUMINT refers to human intelligence which is offered by individuals rather than by technical means and is very frequently offered by covert agents and spies. It is to be noted that spies are significant source of information about a country’s political leader’s strategies and their political decisions. The present strategy of U.S. intelligence community is relying more on high-tech surveillance and has altogether neglected human spying which is known as HUMINT.
The present U.S. intelligence community is being criticized as out –of-date and atavistic and time has come that HUMINT has to be outsourced to private industry as private sector is a decade ahead of government in collecting intelligence. Human intelligence can foretell what the enemy is thinking and to initiate preventive steps. It is being alleged that CIA had lost its spotlight on HUMINT assignments and urged to depute more spies on the streets , to lessen the reliance on foreign intelligence agencies and should muster ways and means to penetrate into terrorists cells. Al Qaeda was able to attack U.S. as U.S. did not employ spies to infiltrate into their organization. Hence, HUMINT is required to be revamped and improved.
Dissemination of WMD
No doubt, proliferation of WMD is likely to impact the global security and stability as is demonstrated with contemporary crises with Iran and North Korea. United Nation is also playing a crucial role in preventing the dissemination of WMD technologies and urged all member states to achieve minimal norms of control and oversight over WMD associated proliferation and other activities within their borders. If UN attempts to prevent the dissemination of WMD technologies fails, it could pave way for the access of these technologies by the hard core terrorists groups.
With availability of information through internet, WMD could be easily miniaturized. One of the methods to prevent the dissemination of WMD is to interfere with maritime transport. Since IAEA (The International Atomic Energy Agency) has credible evidence of hundreds of incidents involving illicit trafficking of nuclear and other radioactive material by using maritime transport, warships should be used to inspect the cargo vessels for overseeing the illegal transport of WMD materials.
Aerodynamic dissemination technology permits non-explosive delivery from a line source. Further, this technology also offers a theoretical capability of managing the size of particle, the altitude of dissemination which is to be controlled and the direction of wind and known velocity. Accurate weather predictions can facilitate the attacker to guess the direction of wind and velocity in the target area. (Nwanna, 2004, p.20).
Dispersion
Dispersion concerns with the virtual placement of the chemical agent ammunition upon or adjoining to a target instantly before dissemination so that the material is most professionally deployed. When a chemical or biological agent is released or if a nuclear weapon detonates, each creates a primary cloud of either liquid or solid aerosols. This cloud later settled down to grounds reckoning upon the traits of aerosol and atmospheric conditions, finally landing on plants, individuals, equipments and the ground.
Finally, the contamination evaporates as dispersion minimizes the concentration in the cloud and the biological or chemical agent is destroyed by air. Nations should develop concepts to minimize their vulnerability to WMD through dispersion and mobility.
To achieve success in effective dissemination and dispersion, weather observation and estimation are essential to increase the probability of CW dissemination and it reduces the risk of harming the friendly forces. (Nwanna, 2004, p.20).
Detonation
Detonation connotes bursting of atomic bomb which produces a huge fire-ball that expands swiftly. Detonation may be either an airburst or a ground burst. A surface burst happens under water or land. Further, it may happen in the under water in harbor or port or basement of a building and this type of detonation creates a larger crater.
Burns can be caused in two ways due to thermal radiation emitted by a nuclear detonation. It can create flame burns on body. If a nuclear detonation occurs in inflammable atmosphere, indirect flame burns could surpass all other kinds of injury.
The Hiroshima explosion was estimated to have detonation in the range between 12 to 18 kilotons or 0.18 megatons. The Castle / Bravo test that was carried out in 1954 by U.S had the largest detonation which yielded about 15 megatons. In 1961, the Soviet Union reportedly detonated a hydrogen bomb which was measured about 58 megatons. (Croddy, Wirtz & Larsen, 2005, p.211)
Terrorist’s attacks on Schools
Schools are vulnerable for terrorist attacks. This is well demonstrated by the terrorist attack on a school in Beslan, Russia through a hostage –taking scenario. Terrorists may try to attack a school through its school transportation or through food sources. Russian incident stressed the concern about a direct attack by terrorists on a school. Thus, school management should introduce necessary heightened security measures and emergency preparedness.
About 32 Chechen and Arab terrorists captured an elementary school in Beslan. They claimed that they were disgusted with the war for independence from Russia. They compelled more than 1000 hostages including parents, teachers and children into the school gymnasium. Further, parents and teachers were forced to retrieve explosives from under the floor that had been implanted by the terrorists during summer holidays. About 336 hostages were killed when the terrorists detonated these explosives.
To countermand the terrorist attack on schools, Thailand and Israel permits school teachers to carry guns. Some other counter measures for terrorists attack on schools are to have armed voluntary guards, armed guards on all school trips and tight security measures to be introduced in each school. Further, both teachers and aged boys should be trained about gun safety and guard procedures. (Forest, 2006, p.125).
Future Activities of Terrorists
In future, terrorists may engage not only in acquiring fissile material and proliferating nuclear explosives but also engage in attacking nuclear power plants thereby releasing large volume of radioactivity mainly to gain publicity.
One of the arguments against nuclear power plant is that any terrorists strike or accidents to reactors could pollute outsized areas and there is a probability of nuclear fuel could be stolen and employed for making atomic weapons.
Further, there is possibility of radioactivity due to occurrence of accidents while transporting nuclear waste to a common, single depository and the transportation of spent fuels may be vulnerable to terrorist attacks.
In future, use of WMD by religious fundamentalists is more of concern especially American Christian white supremacists and fundamentalists groups and by group on the extreme right of politics. (Bamaby, 2001, p.21).
However, some critics argue that the empirical evidence for construing that there is a risk of WMD terrorism appears to be as vague as the challenge of proliferation of the same is daunting.
United States and its allies must work relentlessly to keep weapon of mass destruction (WMD) out of the hands of al-Qaeda and other terrorist groups by cracking down on the smuggling of weapons and dual –use technologies.
The Iraq war was started with the aim of ousting the regime headed by Saddam Hussein. The charge sheet against the regime was, attack on Kuwait in past, killing of Kurds, having WMD (weapon of mass destruction), activities to make atomic bomb and providing hiding space to most wanted terrorists. The reason given is that it will prevent another 9/11.Based upon the Iraq’s experience, a number of institutional reforms should be introduced to combat the spread of WMD. (Zelnick, R. 2006, p36).
Further, N.Korea, Iran may use ballistic missile fitted with WMD against U.S.A by 2015. Hence, US congress regularly allocates more funds to ballistic missile defense system. Ballistic missile defense system may deem it to be highly beneficial for prevention of harm by the deployment of WMD.
Russia is more concerned about American NMD system. Though, American NMD system has been designed to safeguard against small numbers of missiles, American NMD will obviously weaken the deterrent capability of Russian’s strategic rocket forces. It is to be recalled the confession statement of erstwhile Russian security council member namely Alexander Lebed who declared that his county had designed, deployed and later lost a chunk of nuclear “suitcase bombs.” According to him, this devise could be handled and detonated by an individual and could deliver a one-kiloton explosion capable of killing 100,000 people at a time. Russia initially denied this and later acknowledged that suitcase bombs were safely under their control.
Imagine, if Al Qaeda or Iran or North Korea is able to access or proliferate these suitcase nuclear bombs, they might use the same against their common adversary namely U.S.A.
China is also threatening U.S.A now and then for its support to Taiwan. China has cautioned that USA may not like to sacrifice Los Angeles to safeguard Taiwan. China has WMD and has capability of launching strategic counterattacks and has the potentiality to launch a long-distance strike. China has often warned USA for supporting Taiwan by threatening that U.S.A will not sacrifice 200 million Americans for 20 million Taiwanese.
Conclusion
It is the need of the hour to step up actions to deter the use of WMD by terrorists. Preventive actions include better improved intelligence and primarily human intelligence aimed against terrorist future designs. Research should be improved to augment better forensic and detection means so that root cause and place of origination can be identified immediately and instantly. (David Kay, 2001, p.12).
It should be seriously considered to establish a permanent UN inspections and monitoring body to do away the proliferation of WMD. However, it is to be noted that inspection can not be regarded as panacea. At the same time, no magic bullet will be regarded as effective against nuclear proliferation. It is the need of the hour to establish a permanent, global, nonproliferation inspection authority which should be established to supervise strict enforcement and countries like Iraq, Iran, Libya, North Korea and Pakistan should be monitored closely.
Many observers are of the opinion that combating global terrorism needs addressing its fundamental causes like economic downtrodden, restriction on political and social rights, violations of the rule of the law, undesired military occupations and radicalism.
UN should develop new, more exhaustive skirmishing WMD strategic initiatives by including all precautionary steps to combat WMD on global level.
References
Bamaby Dr Frank. (2001). Waiting for Terror: How Realistic is the Biological, Chemical and Nuclear Threat? Oxford: Oxford Research Group.
Croddy Eric, Wirtz James J & Larsen Jeffrey A. (2005). Weapons of Mass Destruction. New York: ABC-CLIO.
Juergensmeyer, Mark. (2003). Terror in the Mind of God: The Global of Religious Violence. California: University Of California Press.
Forest James J F. (2006). Homeland Security: Public spaces and social institutions. New York: Greenwood Publishing Group.
Kay David, WMD Terrorism: Hype or Reality. Boulder, CO: US Air Force Academy, 2001.
Nwanna Gladson I. (2004). Weapons of Mass Destruction. What Should You Know? New York: Frontline Publishers, Inc.
Ronczkowski Michael. Terrorism and Organized Hate Crime. CRC Press. 2004.
Zelnick, R. (2006). Iraq: Last Chance. Policy Review, (140), 3+.
The role and importance of Kristallnacht influenced historical cause of events and further anti-Semitism movements in Nazi Germany. Kristallnacht marked the wave of pogroms against Jews and started a new government against German Jews. Shortly after the Kristallnacht, Jews, as non-Aryans, were removed from the civil service, judgeships, the legal institutions, teaching positions, cultural and entertainment enterprises, and the mass media. After Kristallnacht, Jews were soon barred from educational establishments including universities and schools, and public sphere: restaurants, hospitals, theaters, museums, and other facilities1. Jewish businesses were systematically “cleaned” through confiscation by the Nazi authorities.
Main body
During Kristallnacht, Nazi soldiers burn synagogues, and ruin Jewish homes to mistreat families and steal their possessions. About 30,000 people were thrown into concentration camps. The Nazi regime exacted from the Jewish society a fine of 1 billion marks. After Kristallnacht, some people tried to leave Germany, it was usually at the cost of leaving forever all their possessions. Most of those Jews who did were the lucky ones. All methods developed to drive the Jews into ghettos and starvation, which followed in the years of the war, was but the introduction to genocidal murder of German Jews in World War II. Kristallnacht increased envy between Jews and German population and showed real power and authority of the Nazi Germany2.
After assuming the chancellorship, Hitler understood that he had to address national economic problems, particularly those caused by the Great Depression. But very important to his aims was the ability of national economy to provide the wherewithal for the development of a strong military force. The pogroms and attacks of Jews allowed Nazi Germany increased its wealth and possessed millions of marks at the expense of Jewish population3. The most striking issues of fascism and Nazi regime were their strong nationalism and their drive for territorial expansion beyond the borders of Germany. Nazis fervently opposed socialism and sought to destroy working-class Jews and Jewish organizations. They repudiated tolerance and democracy and, once in power, abolished non-fascist political parties and crippled or eliminated established institutions. The success of Fascism and anti-Jewish movement depended ultimately on the charisma, the aptitude, and the ruthlessness of outstanding leaders. The role of Kristallnacht was that it created new possibilities for Nazi Germany to fight against Jews openly. The idea of cultural revolution became a myth, even though Hitler took over the power only after Hindenburg, prompted by his archconservative advisors, appointed him, as the politician of the largest political party, to the chancellorship4.
Kristallnacht came about as the product of a combination of political and social factors: distinctive national traditions in states that had only lately achieved their nationhood, a comparatively new social system with early beginnings of liberal democracy but strong organized chauvinism5, the actions of both fascist and non-fascist leaders, a condition of perceived or actual national defeat or disgrace, distressing socioeconomic and cultural crisis, and a community in which large segments of the Jews people, especially of the lower classes, had lost self-assurance in the existing political system. It is notable that Kristallnacht did not become established as a stating point of war against Jewish population but was supported by fascist ideas and values6.
Fascism supported anti-Semitism outside the motherland of Fascism except where, propelled by its perceived task, it was planted by conquest in war and occupation, and then only momentarily. In other countries, including Germany and Italy, the huge cultural, social, and economic changes, accompanied by the changes in political institutions during the first half-century, have made the return of fascism even in a time of severe economic crisis nearly impossible. Kristallnacht professed a number of ideas that carry over from the fascist age–zealous nationalism, belief in the dominance of the power and the pureness of the people, an antipathy toward Jewish values and institutions, and rejection of hegemony and earlier domination–but they frequently favor international contacts and have a concern for the future of Nazi Germany, which they envision as a collaborative new country based on “Eurofascism.” 7
Kristallnacht is also very important as it helps researchers to distinguish neofascist intentions from moderate to radical rightist parties, many of which recognize their role within the liberal-democratic order. On the other side, some of the most extremist fascist issues have embraced anti-Semitism as a means of political action8. Without the overwhelming experience of World War I and the postwar political, social, economic, and cultural crises, Kristallnacht would have remained a fringe phenomenon or perhaps not have appeared at all. Fascinatingly enough, fascism made its first struggle in political arena and on a national scale after Kristallnacht. Anti-Semitism was important for other states which remained protected from the fascist virus during the aftermath of the war and even during the Great Depression, which brought approximately as much economic and social hardship to Britain and the United States as Germany had experienced9.
Kristallnacht changed the idea of struggle and permitted limitary confrontation between Nazi Germany and hews. The population lacked certain preconditions favoring the energetic germination of fascism. Nazis had been consolidated national state for a long time; which Anti-Semitic ideas had established quite deep roots, and their representative political institutions functioned sufficiently; they were economically developed, relatively wealthy, and socially well balanced, with a large segment of well-educated German citizens. Kristallnacht allowed German population achieved their nationhood and, in searching for a balanced idea of national identity, were given to waves of national anger and extremism. Germany lived under a liberal social order in which government performed inadequately at times and democracy had been barely planted. For Jews, Kristallnacht brought the collapse of authoritarian empire, and new social relations were established in the wake of military defeat10.
In sum, Kristallnacht changed social and personal relations between Jews and German population and opened new possibilities for Nazi Germany to fight against Jews. After Kristallnacht, not all sectors of the German economy benefited from rearmament: consumer-goods industries, so money and financial resources left by Jews were used by Nazi Germany in economic and social spheres. Kristallnacht increased national envy and racial differences between German population and Jews people, and made it impossible for many Jews to live and work in Nazi Germany. Kristallnacht was a turning point in anti-Semitism policies and strategies organized by Hitler against Jewish population. Though rearmament was Hitler’s foremost concern, Hitler proceeded somewhat watchfully toward its achievement lest he alert the Western powers to German violations of the Versailles Treaty and his views on Europe. Kristallnacht changed social order and relations between the Nazi government and Jewish community towards exclusion of Jews from all social spheres of life.
Bibliography
Bard, M. G. 48 Hours of Kristallnacht: Night of Destruction/Dawn of the Holocaust. The Lyons Press; Reprint edition, 2008.
Desbois, P. The Holocaust by Bullets: A Priest’s Journey to Uncover the Truth Behind the Murder of 1.5 Million Jews. Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
Fitzgerald, S. Kristallnacht, The Night of Broken Glass: Igniting the Nazi War Against Jews (Snapshots in History) (Library Binding). Compass Point Books, 2008.
Gilbert, M. Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction. Harper Perennial, 2007.
Niewyk, Donald. The Holocaust Wadsworth Publishing; 3rd edition, 2002.
Footnotes
Fitzgerald, S. Kristallnacht, The Night of Broken Glass: Igniting the Nazi War Against Jews (Snapshots in History) (Library Binding). (Compass Point Books, 2008), 54.
Bard, M. G. 48 Hours of Kristallnacht: Night of Destruction/Dawn of the Holocaust. (The Lyons Press; Reprint edition, 2008), 98.
Desbois, P. The Holocaust by Bullets: A Priest’s Journey to Uncover the Truth Behind the Murder of 1.5 Million Jews.( Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 65.
Ibid., 23.
Gilbert, M. Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction. (Harper Perennial, 2007), 65.
Niewyk, Donald. The Holocaust Wadsworth (Publishing; 3rd edition, 2002),.54.
Gilbert, M. Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction. (Harper Perennial, 2007), 23.
Ibid., 76.
Gilbert, M. Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction. (Harper Perennial, 2007), 55.
Bard, M. G. 48 Hours of Kristallnacht: Night of Destruction/Dawn of the Holocaust. (The Lyons Press; Reprint edition, 2008), 54.
The end of the cold war opened up the gateways for the transition of the world community’s system of international relations. It can be said that the divergence from the system of bipolar peace after World War II, did not stabilize the security on the regional level, specifically with the occurrence of the Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs). Before the events of 9/11, the countries were somewhat protected with different agreements and various sources of international laws from the attempts of using such weapons. Nevertheless, taking into consideration the current situation in the world, it can be seen that the development of WMDs is a real threat, the potential effect of which can and should be assessed. In that regard, this paper analyzes the potential of a WMD attack, in terms of its effect on the country, specifically in the field of economy.
WMD
The numerous publications in the international press on the threat of biological terrorism and the weapons of mass destruction distort the representation of the weapons, as well as the possibilities of the terrorists themselves. In that regard, some statements of authoritative figures in the world of politics and science might only add to such distortion, in terms of the scale and the level of the threat. Such is the statement of the former CIA director James Woolsey, who claimed back in 2000 that, “a B-plus high school chemistry student” could produce biological agents”, and also the statement of “Kathleen Bailey [who], after interviewing professors, graduate students, and pharmaceutical manufacturers, concluded that several biologists with only $10,000 worth of equipment could produce a significant quantity of the biological agent.” (Randall, 2002) Although biological weapons are only part of the weapons of mass destruction, a proper definition should be presented.
“Weapons of mass destruction”, according to the security and foreign policy analyses, is a term that “generally encompasses nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, with radiological weapons occasionally included.” (Fidler, 2003) Although there was no authoritative definition of the WMD, the classical representation was of intercontinental ballistic missiles, equipped with a nuclear warhead and capable of causing millions of deaths. The current, more “liberal definition”, includes battlefield artillery shells, mortars, short-range rockets, or other systems fitted with nuclear, chemical, biological, or radiological warheads. The key component that survived from the classical definition is for the weapons to have a strategic impact, which has “consequences far outweighing the size and effectiveness of the weapons themselves.” (Evans, 2004) In the context of the effect on the economy, considering the scale of the WMD threats, this effect can be divided based on several pillars, on which the economy is holding.
Infrastructure
According to Paul and John (2004), infrastructure refers to all the installations, services and other facilities that enable the society to operate efficiently. These include transportation, the communication networks, water, power, and the public institutions such as schools, hospitals, prisons and post offices (Paul & John, 2004, p. 1). Alternatively, infrastructure can be defined as a system of networks that are interdependent in their operation and are composed of people and a variety of procedures.
In terms of WMD attack, the most influence can be inflicted on critical infrastructures, i.e. “physical and cyber-based systems essential to the minimum operations of the economy and government.” (Lewis, 2006, p. 34) In that regard, not only the economy will be affected, because of the capital needed for the restoration of these critical infrastructures, but also because of the dependence of the economy and its operations on the infrastructures, where in case of an attack, these operations would be disrupted.
Transportation, Networks, and Communication
The size and the complexity of the communication networks make them hard to protect. Additionally, as with other infrastructure sectors, their structure is almost always structured around critical nodes, which contain a concentration of other assets. Thus, a negative effect on the economy can be seen through “the cascading disruption of other critical infrastructure and key resources”, when the communication network are being attacked. (Lewis, 2006) The scale of the financial and the economic operations, which are dependable on communication and transportation, cannot be overstated. For example, the destruction of ports, through which maritime trade accounts for an approximate 20% of all international trade, and which in turn accounts for about 25% of the total GDP in US, will result in a massive economic loss. (Anthony, 2006, p. 4)
An aspect that can be related both to the communication system and informational system is internet. The internet, which has been called “the information superhighway”, has been strongly related to the area of commerce, specifically in last decades, and thus the influence of its disruption, because of a terrorist attack, can be highly linked to economy. Assessing the scale of the disruptions’ impact, the example of virus attacks can be representative, where a study on the effect of a computer worm, “Blaster” was reported to inflict an average of $494,391 on each respondent. (SunGard, 2004) The scale can be multiplied in case a major disruption occurred nationwide.
The dependence of the society on the internet has been highly increasing, and at the current time, this dependence on internet can be compared to the dependence on interstate highway system. In that regard, the destruction or the disruption of the internet would have a great impact on the national economy. The importance on a national level was outlined through an advisory issued by the US department of Homeland Security on the vulnerability to heighten awareness of potential internet disruptions. (SunGard, 2004)
The Health System
The impact on the economy through the health system can be seen in two directions: one is the costs associated with the preparations and the preventive measures for terrorists attack, and the other can be seen through the direct costs associated with casualties and medical costs. The first direction was implemented through the consideration of four main aspects in relation to the effects of attacks by WMDs. These aspects include bio-surveillance, casualty care, community resilience and countermeasure distribution. Through bio-surveillance, the government is able to have early warnings of the attacks, while causality care ensures a rapid response and sustainable care to any attacks’ casualties. Additionally, a big part of the costs can be related to investments in “medical countermeasures and public health interventions that have the greatest potential to prevent, treat, and mitigate the consequences of WMD threats.” (Office of the Press Secretary, 2007)
In the case of direct costs, the estimations made by several, official reports assessing the risk posed by WMD attacks, specifically by biological agents, highlight the effects that these costs might have on the economy. For example, CDC estimated that anthrax attack would result in ”an economic impact of $477.8 million to $26.2 billion for every 100,000 persons exposed”, while OTA reported that “250 pounds of anthrax spores, spread efficiently over the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area, could cause up to 3 million deaths, more than from a 1-megaton hydrogen bomb.” (Spencer & Scardaville, 2001)
Energy
The energy infrastructure and its importance is a separate element in WMD protection, in terms of consequences. Accordingly, these consequences cannot be limited only to the economic influence, due to the fact that many energy facilities in the world constitute nuclear power plants. Thus, energy security can be considered as a great challenge for countries at the present time and the future. As with previous elements of the infrastructure, destroying the energy facilities would be a two-direction disaster, where on one hand the state would be economically affected through the expenditures of restoring the facility to operational modes, if not building them from scratch, and on the other hand, the effect will be apparent through the economic losses while the system is not working.
In that regard, the disruption of the energy distribution will have similar cascading effect, which will affect every aspect of the society, as well as other critical infrastructures, which are dependable on energy to be operational. The disruption or the destruction of energy infrastructures would have “a potentially serious, if not catastrophic impact on the health, safety, security and economic well-being of citizens. (Perl, 2008)
In order to assess the possible impact of an attack on the energy sector, an examination of The Northeast Blackout of 2003, a power outage that covered 24,086 square kilometers and affected over 50 million people in the Untied States and Canada for two days, will present a comparative picture of the consequences. (CBC News, 2003)In terms of the cascading effect, the influence on water can be seen as demonstration, where 1,500,000 people in Cleveland remained without water because of the blackout. In what concerns the economic effect, a preliminary study conducted in 2003, made estimations on the total costs of the blackout, based on direct costs (losses due to spillage, lost production and wages), and indirect costs (secondary effects of the blackout, including consumer’s willingness-to-pay (WTP)).
In that sense, the economic cost of this outage was estimated to be between “$7 and $10 billion for the national economy.” (ICF Consulting, 2003)Comparing the blackout to possible terrorists attacks using WMDs, in terms of economic impact, it should be noted that the latter “could prove significantly more costly and have potentially debilitating impacts on the affected region as well as the country” (ICF Consulting, 2003), as other factors will be added such as damage to equipment, hangover effect, and dividing the priorities of restoration between other sectors such as the military and defense.
It should be added that such effects on economy are neither limited to electricity nor to such direct consequences, in case WMDs were used. Assuming an attack occurred in one of the major oil exporting countries such as Saudi Arabia, the attacks would result into a reduction in the oil supply in the global market, culminating into an increase in oil prices. In turn, the attacks would result in the government incurring higher cost of importation, which would disrupt various economic sectors of the country that are energy intensive. (Perl, 2008)
Miscellaneous
It should be noted that there are other costs that will influence the economy and might not be associated with elements of infrastructure. The first and the apparent one is the element of fear which will influence various financial indicators and trading operations. This element will affect with various degrees of success in both cases, when the attack has occurred or there is a threat through various media resources. Other factors can be associated with the level of casualties, where a large scale attack will result in losses in human capital, which accordingly will result in disruptions in any professional and financial activities.
Conclusion
It can be concluded that the influence of WMD attack cannot be overestimated, where in addition to the instant impact, the long term consequences and costs associated with them would put an additional obstacle to overcome. In that regard, the importance given to any issue associated with security measures can be seen justified. The major elements of influence on economy outlined in this paper are based on estimated assumptions and comparisons, while it can be predicted that the real effects and costs can be sufficiently higher. The establishment of the Department of Homeland Security is definitely a step toward preventing, mitigating, or even eliminating the possible effects and threats associated with WMD attacks, and the concern raised after the events of 9/11 can be understood.
References
Anthony, H. G. (2006). Americas international ports and inter-modal transport system: ill-preparedness for biological weapons of mass destruction. Defense Technical Information Center. Web.
CBC News (2003). Blackout by the Numbers. CBS News Online. Web.
Evans, M. (2004). What makes a weapon one of mass destruction? Times Online. Web.
Fidler, D. P. (2003). Weapons of Mass Destruction and International Law. The American Society of International Law. Web.
Lewis, T. G. (2006). Critical infrastructure protection in homeland security : defending a networked nation. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley-Interscience.
Office of the Press Secretary (2007). Homeland Security Presidential Directive: Medical Countermeasures against Weapons of Mass Destruction. Biometrics.gov.
Perl, R. F. (2008). Protecting Critical Energy Infrastructures Against Terrorist Attacks: Threats, Challenges and Opportunities for International Co-operation. Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. Web.
Lenin, analyzing the connection between capitalism and conflict had noted that capitalism had five basic features; 1) the concentration of production and capital to a level where it creates monopolies,2) the merging of bank and industrial capital to create a ‘financial capital’, 3) the need for export of that capital to generate profits, 4) the formation of international monopolists organizations to make the generation of profits happen,5) and finally the division of the ‘territory’ by the capitalist monopolies to continue reaping the profits1. Thus Lenin reasoned that for a capitalist nation to continue to become prosperous, subjugation of the rest of the world to serve as their sources of raw material, which is nothing but imperialism was a natural and logical process. Imperialism as Doyle notes “was a rational strategy to enhance security, prestige, and interests (trade, population, territory, resources) when the costs of conquest were less than the gain”2. Since capitalism always persevered to maximize profits where the efforts were always to seek gains over costs, imperialism was nothing but the highest stage of capitalism. This pursuit of profits has given rise to a world system of colonial subjugation and financial strangulation of the overwhelming majority of the people by a handful of capitalist ‘advanced’ countries who even if they have alliances are predisposed to use coercion to achieve their national interests. These alliances are nothing but temporary truce which is maintained till such time the clash of interests does not become a serious loss of profit. As a result, capitalists are most likely to clash over their pursuit of profits and political advantage3.
Since the discovery of oil in the desert wastelands of the Middle East, the region has remained at the center of geopolitical focus and strife. Oil, to a large extent, outlines the region’s importance to the United States. The National Energy Policy (2001) of the United States enunciates that US energy consumption over the next decade will outstrip its domestic production and that in 2020; US oil production would supply less than 30 percent of the US oil needs4. Oil accounts for nearly 40 percent of the US energy need and it accounts for 89 percent of net US energy imports5. Oil drives almost 100% of the transportation industry in the US and of course its means to global power – the US military. Thus, oil companies, public and private invariably get tied to a country’s national security. Iraq’s geo-strategic importance to the US lies in its oil reserves. The Economist reports that “Iraq’s proven reserves, of 115 billion barrels, are the world’s third-largest after Saudi Arabia and Iran”6. Militarily, Iraq was considered ‘doable’ as the US had previously defeated Iraq in Gulf war I. A BBC news night report claimed that the decision to invade Iraq was also based on the intent on using Iraqi oil to destroy the OPEC cartel through massive increases in production above OPEC quotas7. In the months leading up to the actual invasion, Saddam Hussein had reportedly been threatening to convert Iraq’s oil trade from trading in Dollars to Euros8, thus challenging the Dollar’s global monopoly. Hence all possible ingredients as per Marxist theories were present; The lure of oil to maximize own profits, the threat of oil being used as a weapon challenging US global hegemony and the military assessment of being able to win the war with minimum own cost were reasons enough for the US invasion of Iraq.
Bibliography
Doyle, Michael W. Ways of War and Peace: Realism, Liberalism and Socialism. NY: WW Norton and Coy, 1997.
Herod, Andrew. Geographies of Globalization. NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.
Lenin, V.I (1915). “Socialism and War.” In War, by Lawrence Freedman, 95-99. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.
Lenin, Vladimir I. Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism. Broadway, NSW, Australia: Resistance Books, 1999.
National Energy Policy Development Group. National Energy Policy. Washington: US Government Printing Office, 2001.
Amphibious operations refer to military operations which are carried out by naval and air forces on board a ship or a craft on a hostile beach. Such operations involve well coordinated approaches among the forces that are trained to carry out an action of a common objective. Amphibious operations are complex and calls for thorough training, flexibility and organization to minimize the risks that come with it. It has been in use since the 16th Century and still continues up to date.
The modern amphibious operations present themselves in form of commando insertions done by zodiacs, patrol boats and mini-submersibles. A beachhead is also another modern military move witnessed to be founded on amphibious principles and tactics. There are basically four types of amphibious operations; raids, assaults, demonstrations and withdrawals (Green, p.7). This paper will look at amphibious operations in its historical aspect and analyze how the lessons learnt from the concept have been used in the modern USMC and amphibious operations.
Amphibious Operations
Amphibious operations are carried out with a primary focus of achieving the following; impeach combat operations further, divert the enemy’s attention to create a loophole in their defense, win over rule over a given area from the enemy and finally to use the land as a base for the naval and air force. Since the concept puts the forces in high risk, there are laid down procedure, sequence and plans; though the steps sometimes overlap, what matters is that they are carried out fast and to the latter. The whole idea is to get the enemy flat footed by surprising them by a swift attack and capitalizing on their weakness.
A well planned and executed amphibious operation has its success pegged on the mobility and flexibility of the forces. And if the attacking forces succeed in making the enemies’ forces make a costly and wasteful move, the battle will definitely fall to the attackers’ advantage (Green, pp.8-9).
Historical Context
Amphibious operations dates back to the 16th Century where it was one of the most favored military move, though quiet complex. This section gives a highlight of some of the amphibious operations that have taken place in the past centuries, their successes as well as their drivers and forces behind them. These historical wars were more massive than the small time commando operations that are witnessed currently.
The Battle of Guadalcanal
This battle took place on the Guadalcanal Island. It was driven by Allied forces headed by Americans with the main intention of taking over Tulagi and Florida from the Japanese forces. The Japanese hit back using their naval forces but to no avail; they finally dropped their efforts and fled Guadalcanal. During the war, the Allied forces went down on offensive operation strategy while the Japanese who were humiliated embarked on defensive initiative (Clemens, pp.22-25).
The Battle of Saipan
It was fought in 1944 during the Second World War. The dominant significant amphibious move was the Normandy landing. And just as the Guadalcanal battle, this war was carried by the Allied forces commandeered by Lieutenant Gen. Holland Smith against the IJA (Imperial Japanese Army) under Lieutenant Gen. Yoshitsugu Saito. It involved a total of 15 battleships and 11 cruisers from the Allied forces. The surprise attacks by the U.S forces triggered response from the IJA,–a response which caused them a massive loss; hundreds of planes and aircraft carriers. Even thought the Japanese vowed to fight up to the last man. Their defense was hopeless as they were thoroughly humiliated (Harold, pp.167-175).
The Battle of Okinawa
Simply referred to as the “operation iceberg”; it took place on the Ryukyu Islands din 1945. It has gone on history as one of the largest assault during the WW II. The high number of the forces and the duration of the war earn it the title and the nickname. The defendants (Japanese) suffered a casualty running to about 100,000 troops while the Allied forces got half that. Okinawa was to serve the Allied force as stepping stone for a major attack on the Island which was only 350 miles from mainland Japan. But this was never to be, the location was quickly turned into a military base which was used to organize the Hiroshima Nagasaki bombing that ended the WW II (John, p.711).
The Battle of the Philippines
The Filipino and the United States were on the defensive side on this particular battle which saw the Japanese forces invading Philippines in 1941. The war ended in favor of the attackers (Japan). Reasons for the loss are attributed to poor training and ill equipment as well as lack of coordination. The Japanese on their part used the best of their men drawn from the first line troop. The Japanese had got three primary objectives for staging an attack on Philippines, that was; to prevent Philippines from offering the land to Americans, to get the land into their custody so that they could in turn use it as a supply base to facilitate military operations against Netherlands and finally, the Japanese wanted to secure communication lines between their homeland and the areas lying South that they had ceased (Green, p.9).
The Battle of Iwo Jima
Simply known as the Operation Detachment where America successfully fought and took over control over Iwo Jima Island in 1945. At the beginning, the war seemed to be falling to the Japanese advantage; they had amassed so much in the Island. Bunkers, Artilleries, underground tunnels and a massive defense force comprising of 22,000 men. It was the first time that America took over a homeland Island of the Japanese.
Despite what seemed like an acute preparedness from the Japanese side, more than 20,000 of them were killed in the combat with slightly more that 1,000 being taken prisoners. A total of 5,000 men drawn from American army and navy forces carried the operation with the use of thirteen artillery pieces, light and heavy machine guns totaling to two hundred and over 4,500 rifles. It was a great success that saw the U.S flag erected on the Island after only five days of the 35 day battle (Lloyd, p.26).
The Battle of Makin
It was the Pacific campaign war fought in 1943 on Gilbert Islands. Several factors acted to the advantage of the United States forces to boost their success on this war. They had abundance supply of men and materials. The Japanese had earlier occupied Pearl Harbor without any resistance and proceeded to Makin Atoll with equal ease. But when the Marines made a landing on the Island under the commandership of James Roosevelt and Evans Carlson in two submarines, the damage that they caused was so great that the Japanese had no choice but to surrender. They killed all the guard troops in combat and beheaded all the prisoners captured during the battle (Lloyd, p.27).
The Battle of Peleliu
The battle is known by the codename “Operation Stalemate II”; a clash between the United States and the Japanese during the WWI II in the Pacific Theatre. The U.S forces had planed to take over the airstrip within a period of four days but they received a great resistance from the Japanese which made the war to drag for over two months. He Battle of Peleliu presented the highest casualty of all the Pacific Wars, raising questions on its strategic value.
The Allied forces had pushed Japanese closer home and by then it was possible for the U.S bombers to hit the exact homeland of the Japanese mainland. But due to some ideological differences between the America’s joint Chiefs, this did not come to pass. The Island was ceased for varied reasons from the commanders; when the differences could not be solved, President Roosevelt intervened and a decision to use the Island as a protective base to the right flank was made. The plan flopped but it was too late to correct the loss. “It was a big lesson to the American of how wrangles can shake stable force to their very foundation (Cordesman et al. p.24).
The Battle of Tarawa
This took place in 1943 and marked the second time that the Allied forces had settled on an offensive operation after the Battle of Guadalcanal. The Japanese gave the Americans a massive resistance with their well planned and executed amphibious tactics. Their determination to fight up to the last man worked to their advantage, but to bad…it could not save them from the America’s wrath. Having secured the Guadalcanal, the U.S wanted also to take over Marshall Islands so that they would use to launch a massive offensive attack on the Japanese forces and take over control of the Marianas Islands (Wright, pp.41-52).
The Battle of Marathon
This battle took place at a time when the Greece was invaded by the Persians under the commandership of Artaphernes and Datis. The Persian naval force made a successful move in launching a surprise attack on Athens and Eretria. But the retaliation force proved too smart for the Persians at Marathon town by clipping the wings of the lightly armed Persian infantry. The war marked the end of the Persian invasion of Greece, “and from there on the Greece proceeded to make a name out of the Marathon war that also set off their development record and influence in Europe” (Lloyd, p.14).
Though the war did not bring down the Persians resources, it was a great significance to the Greece who managed to successfully defend themselves from the invasion…it was a wonderful historical victory for the Greece. It was a practical proof that the best way to counter an attack was not to subjugate, but to go on defense and surge forward by all might. The amphibious tactics that the Athens put in place made them realize that–through self confidence, self belief, good coordination and unity, a lot can be achieved (Lloyd, p.15-19).
Lessons to Modern USMC
Lessons drawn from ancient amphibious wars have been used in many wars by the United States. And the concept is still being applied even in the later days. For instance, in the Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion, Operations against Taiwan, the Arctic Operation (Jerauld Wright), invasion of Iraq, operations in the Foreign International Defense, Assaults in North Korea and other Special activities, Commando operations, Operation Starlite and operations by the 3rd Marine Division among others (Lloyd, p.16-21).
The modern times have seen the amphibious tactics being practiced by USMC in linking different types of forces, more particularly the sea and land forces. They are useful in covering evidence of footprints ashore; hence minimizing risks to the C2 facilities have to cope up with. The skills are also useful in supplying of foods, medical services and protective shelter to the forces on the ground without awakening attention of the enemies (Cordesman et al., p.23).
Usefulness to Amphibious Warfare
Amphibious operations have also been made useful in beachhead; a beachhead is a selected local on sore which is potentially hostile that has been seized a held by the attacking force. The area is then in turn used as a landing base for troops and materiel as well as a space to maneuver for amphibious operations that follow upon the seizure. Coordinating the forces in the sea, on land and on air is a must, and to affect this, the skills of an amphibious trained commander are required.
The historical battles the employed amphibious operation styles, especially during the Marathon Battle have made the current military forces realize the effectiveness of hoplites in a battle if applied appropriately. The formation of phalanx was a strategy that put the Greece cavalry in a vulnerable position but it in turn proved to be a vital weapon when it was used appropriately during the Plataea Battle (Lloyd, p.28).
Conclusion
The high risks accompanying the operation need nothing to be left to chance, and strength ashore is mandatory. It has to be built from a zero point to a level which can be coordinated well enough to accomplish the intended mission. The concept worked in the past and it is still in force now as most forces have used it to gain tactical advantage over their enemies. The fact that it worked to the advantage of the party that practices it well shows that the skills gained from it are still viable and can boost the effectiveness of a military mission.
Work Cited
Clemens, Martin. Alone on Guadalcanal: A Coastwatcher’s Story. Bluejacket Books. (2004). pp.22-27.
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