‘All quiet on the Western Front’ is Remarque’s recount of his experiences in World War 1. Unlike other war stories that glorify war and depict the soldiers as heroes, Remarque tells the story from a soldier’s point of view, highlighting the negativity of the war especially on the soldiers.
Through out the war, the soldiers get dehumanized and according to Paul, disconnecting themselves from their own humanity was the only way to survive the conditions in the war. He says that to the soldiers, a blast is “like a blow from the paw of a raging beast of prey” (Remarque 3). Amidst all the dehumanization that the soldiers had to go through, there were some instances during the war that the harsh conditions compelled the soldiers to revert to humanity.
The brutality of war
Erich Maria Remarque displays the effects of war on the soldiers through the characters, particularly Paul Baumer. Paul is introduced to the reader as an innocent young soldier who gradually gets dehumanized in the course of the war. Paul explains that they realized how horrible the war was. “We reach the zone where the front begins and become on the instant human animals” (Remarque 56).
Paul tries to explain how the soldiers had to disconnect from their human side just to be able to cope with the war. The effects of the war were too harsh for the soldiers to cope therefore, in an effort to preserve their humanity; they hid it behind their primal state. This shows how much the soldiers disliked the war and its effects on their psyche. The war made the soldiers aware of the importance of preservation of their human nature.
In the course of the war, the soldiers realized that their major battle was “against the war itself” rather than against their enemies (Remarque 103). This realization changed the view of war that the soldiers had and if it was up to them, disputes would be resolved using other avenues. This realization made them more human than they were when signing up for the war.
When Paul gets to go home for a short while, the fact that he is unable to interact with his family saddens him. “I stand on the steps, miserable, helpless, paralyzed, and against my will the tears run down my cheeks” (Remarque 158). His crying showed that he still had humanity left in him and his emotions got the better of him once in a while.
His mother was ailing with cancer at the time and this saddened Paul. He felt a need to connect with his mother but he is unable to communicate. The only thing he is able to say is ““Ah, Mother, Mother” (Remarque 183). This attempt shows he was touched by his mother’s illness and was willing to connect with her. He still had human feelings of sadness.
The effect of isolation
Isolation is one of the major problems that the soldiers faced during the war. First, they were isolated from their families when they joined the army and were sent off to war. Secondly, death was a common occurrence to the soldiers so they became accustomed to loosing people they had seen and lived with for a long time.
Isolation made the soldiers yearn for human friendship. One time Paul highlights an argument between Kropp and Katczinsky about how the war should be dealt with. “They lay a bottle of beer on the result of an air-fight that’s going on above” (Remarque 41). This shows that they were bored and longed for companionship. The isolation evoked the common human need for closeness.
At first when they were new to the war, the death of a friend greatly affected the soldiers. Paul is devastated when his school friend, Kemmerich dies. Paul was the last of his friends to die and he died shortly after his last friend died. Since he had been left alone, he had no reason to live. When he died, he “had an expression of calm, as though almost glad the end had come” (Remarque 296).
During the war, Paul highlights the importance of friendship. He has many friends in the war whose characters are similar to his. They are very close to each other; his friends are like family to him. Friends kept each other company and watched each others backs. They made life worth living.
When Paul gets to go home for a few days, he longs to be with his wartime friends rather than his family. He had become more accustomed to life with his friends and did not know how to live without them. He tries to read since he loved to read before the war but he is still not satisfied.
He says, “Words, Words, Words…they do not reach me” (Remarque 173). When the last of his friends, Kat, was wounded in the war, Paul risked his life trying to save his life. When he did not live, Paul’s life lost meaning as he did not have any friends left. He died shortly after. The harsh conditions of the war forced the soldiers to seek companionship so as to keep each other strong through out the war.
The friendships made during the war were very strong; they were the only thing keeping the soldiers alive through the war. The soldiers were most human when they were with their friends. Paul at one point highlights that the Russian POWs are more “human and more brotherly towards one another…” showing that friends were humanly towards their friends in the war (Remarque169). This is possible the only time a soldier got to be in contact with his human emotions.
Conclusion
It is crystal clear that the war had a lot of negative effects on the soldiers and their psyche. During the argument between Kropp and Katczinsky when they were speculating on whether a German airplane will be shot down, they bet the result on a bottle of beer. When the German airplane was shot down, “Kropp lost the bottle of beer” (Remarque 43).
To them, the airplane crash was just another occurrence and they were not saddened by the death of the pilot. They could no longer have normal relationships with their families and they did not have a chance at normal life after the war. They were accustomed to death.
Despite all these negative factors that seemed to wipe out the soldiers humanities, there were instances, though few, where the soldiers thought and acted in a humane manner. The friendships they formed were stronger than any friendships formed by lay men who have not been to the war. So strong were the friendships that Paul risked his own life in an attempt to save his friends life.
During Paul’s encounter with the three French ladies, all Paul can think of is other soldiers, his friends; “I wish I had never thought of them” (Remarque 150). The horror of the war made them reconsider their stand on conflict resolution using war. These humane moments of soldiers at war are an indication that one’s humanity can never be completely destroyed.
Works Cited
Remarque Erich Maria. All Quiet on the Western Front. Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1929. Print.
Klemperer Victor drafted his diary “I Will Bear Witness”, to show the way in which Nazi regime condemned Jewish and other groups. It was unusual experience to the Jewish community during the twelve years rule by Hitler Adolf. The diary of Victor Klemperer showed holocaust experience when the Jews community were condemned and dehumanized in Germany.
Actually, the diary explained the horrible situation which Klemperer Victor had undergone during condemnation of his Jews community. In 1933, Klemperer Victor began to write his diary and proceeded to draft it till the end of Second World War in 1945[1].
Indeed, Klemperer managed to survive simply because he was a husband to a baptized Aryan. Nevertheless, Klemperer was compelled to put on the star and was horribly mistreated by Germans. Though, Eva (Klemperer‘s wife) never put on the star, she suffered a lot of difficulties just like her husband. In addition, each day Klemperer and his family struggled to look for daily meal in order to survive. Surely, Klemperer’s family lived under great fear since they would t be captured and persecuted by the Nazi regime.
Indeed, Klemperer kept his document under severe risk since if the diary were to be discovered by the Nazi party, and then definitely Klemperer would be deported and murdered. Moreover, Klemperer aimed at two priorities.
First, he intended to record all injustices he and his family had undergone. Secondly, he wanted to deviate from monotony of normal life in his society. The diary explained that Klemperer manage to survive through determination to life, to act within his capability, in fact not to withdraw or to give up from what he wanted1
Klemperer, who was a professor, felt the importance of involvement in many occupations as a way to remain sane. In fact, he engaged in many activities such as involving in studies and providing for his family. However, Klemperer’s commitment was interfered with when he was compelled to shovel snow together with other Jews people. Indeed, the task was really horrible for him because of his advanced age. Klemperer performed the task for some time after which was freed, and thus led his usual life.
Furthermore, Klemperer’s family encountered health complications, and the matter was made worst when they could not seek medical attention since people’s movement was restricted in Germany. Indeed, the Nazi regime suppressed their movement and freedom. For example, when moving from one house to another, the Jews people were only allowed to take things that could be accommodated in a suitcase and anything that could be carried on their back1.
In 1943, Klemperer was compelled to do labor task that discouraged him greatly. However, the task was not cumbersome, but was boring and monotonous. Indeed, he suffered the punishment that he was given in a factory firm. Actually, Klemperer performed labor task for more than one year. In 1945, Jews people, who practiced mixed marriages, were forced to do labor task and later were deported out of the nation.
Moreover, unknown armed groups succeeded to bomb Dresden. Fortunately, Klemperer’s family survived. In fact, they managed to locate to another house in order to hide from the Nazi party. Among the Jews community who lived at Dresden, only Klemperer and a few people managed to survive the bombing incident. Indeed, Klemperer was one of the holocaust survivors during persecution of Jews people in Germany1.
Actually, Klemperer’s diary shows how people should appreciate determination put forth by Klemperer in order to survive in a life challenging situation. Indeed, it is a positive experience that could be learned when Klemperer never give up despite the war-situation became worst.
For example, Klemperer’s family managed to persevere when basic commodities could not be found in their surrounding. In fact, it was time when the Nazi party rationed commodities to Jewish community and other opposition groups. In addition, non- Jewish communities also suffered because impacts of the war affected them too. For example, food rationing led to escalation of commodities prices.
In his diary, Klemperer accepted to lead a positive life toward whatever agony that he and Jewish people had undergone. Klemperer was responsible person who looked for several survival ways. Moreover, non-Jewish persons who lived at Dresden were empathetic to Jewish community. However, such non-Jewish people (Germans) did not offer direct support to Jews people because they feared Nazi party to condemn them.
Indeed, the fact was that, not all Germans were bad people, and such attitude really encouraged Klemperer to search for good. Actually, Klemperer realized that if people, regardless of their background, could lead a compassionate and rational life, then they would be humane, indeed, to support life. Such situation indicated that several Germans were wiling to abandon Nazi’s attitude of conflict, and surely intended to end violence in Germany.
Conclusion
Klemperer’s diary is actually important in order to understand the holocaust experience in Germany, and how such violence should be avoided not to happen again. In fact, the diary explained what really occurred and thus could not be replicated. Therefore, as a survivor of the holocaust experience, Klemperer acted wisely to account for what he actually experienced in life. Indeed, Klemperer was wise enough to keep the document under great risk, knowing how it would be important in the community later.
Bibliography
Rosen, Philip., & Apfelbaum, Nina. Bearing Witness: A Resource Guide to Literature, Poetry, Art, Music, and Video by Holocaust Victims and Survivors (Westport: Greenwood Press, 2002), 5-10.
Footnotes
Rosen, Philip., & Apfelbaum, Nina. Bearing Witness: A Resource Guide to Literature, Poetry, Art, Music, and Video by Holocaust Victims and Survivors (Westport: Greenwood Press, 2002), 5.
The state sponsored, bureaucratic and systematic murder and brutal persecution of over six million Jews in the holocaust by Nazi regime has been a major distressing issue in the history of the world.
The sacrifice of individuals by fire as the Greek word Holocaust suggests was an act by the Nazi under the leadership of Adolf Hitler who in 1933 had risen to power and who believed that compared to the Jews, Germans were racially superior and that the latter were a threat to the racial German community. This paper analyses local relations between Jewish and non-Jewish populations in Germany from the perspective of Helmut Walser Smith’s The Butcher’s Tale and how it contributed to the Holocaust.
A brief overview of the origin of Holocaust from the Butchers tale
Different studies have revealed the causes of holocaust to have been attributed by many factors some of which include demonization of the Jewish community, the rise of the Nazi and the fact that Hitler hated the Jewish society. However, Smith in his book the Butcher’s Tale indicates that it begun from the murder of a youth called Ernst Winter in a German town, Konitz in 1900.[1]
He posits that while strolling in Konitz, West Prussia, two residents of the area discovered the dismembered dead body of Ernst Winter carefully tucked in a package and dumped besides a lake. The discovery of the body drew national attention and sparked off a series of events and suspicions on the involvement of the Jews. Rumors began spreading that perhaps some visiting Jews might have had a hand in the killing of the youth and that it was a Jewish ritual murder.
The police force in Berlin became convinced that the Jews were involved in the murder, a consideration that was witnessed by the accusations leveled by a Berlin police inspector along with his allies against a Jewish Butcher called Hoffman. The accusations among other tense issues led to the rise of mobs in Konitz who began to violently attack Jews in the area.
The violent chaos in Konitz drew the presence of the army which came to quell the violence. Smith creates an understanding from the series of events that were happening that it was the beginning of a process that led to the Holocaust. A town which had earlier on been peaceful turned violent with neighbors turning against one another.[2]
It is imperative to note that from the outset, anti-Semites were bent on turning the murder suspicion against the community of the Jews. It was evident that there was no connection of the murder with any Israelite. The police who as earlier indicated had become so engrossed in the issue were accused of plans to shield the Jews.
That same year in June, agitations and other excesses from the anti-Semitic groups were witnessed in different places like Komarczyn, Tuchel, Butow, stolp, Czersk and Konitz where Jewish homes and synagogues were set on fire. Many Jews who sought help from the courts did not receive justice as their sentiments were met with hostility. Those who tried to fight back were apprehended and given heavy sentences.
The Holocaust
The events that culminated the Holocaust in Germany saw the country perceived as a genocide state since the killing processes that occurred were directed by the sophisticated bureaucracy of the country.
During that era, many institutions in Germany collaborated key among them being the interior ministry and parish churches and the finance ministry which played important roles of supplying records of birth to Nazis showing which individuals were Jewish, confiscated their property and delivered denaturalization and deportation orders.
Many Jewish stockholders, academics and workers were disenfranchised and fired while students were denied admission in colleges. Individuals who reached the concentration camps went through untold sufferings in the hands of German authorities. Scholars reveal that while the motivation behind the genocides of the holocaust might have been surrounded by non-pragmatic, abstract and mythical ideologies, the systematic slaughter of the Jewish community was systematically carried out in Nazi occupied territories.
These areas by 1939 had a total population of over nine million Jewish citizens. Over three million Jews were killed in Poland while about five million died in Eastern and Central Europe.[3] Other hundreds of thousands were murdered in Greece, Yugoslavia, Belgium, France, Netherlands and the Soviet Union.
The fate of Jews in Germany was already drawn as their properties, arms, security, and even lives were taken away with human rights and dignity completely absent from German authorities. Though having stayed and contributed towards economic development of Germany, the Jewish community found itself under attack by their closest friends, the Germans.
Their property, shops, warehouses and even security were withdrawn and were left to live like slaves in the mercy of a ruthless and merciless German society. Besides, reports given by German authorities were falsified and failed to give to the entire world the suffering that Jews were undergoing.
The picture of the events created by Smith in the book the Butcher’s Tale generates the impression of a friend turned into an enemy and therefore making it easy for Germans to totally destroy thousands of Jews.[4] A time came when Hitler argued that the Jews were making life for Germans difficult by occupying their land, using their resources and even taking employment opportunities that were meant to be for Germans. However, as other scholars narrate, Jews had greatly supported the economic progress of Germany.
The argument by the scholars further point at the ruthless mechanism that Germany used to make Jews be viewed by local people as enemies and thereby legitimized the need to eliminate them. Smith’s clear reflection of the manner that orders to destroy Jews properties were executed, ruthless, brings out the picture of a highly polarized Germany of the greatest enemy of the time, Jews.[5]
Smith reports that the level of destruction of properties and lives the Jewish community in most towns in Germany was extreme. However, the world was made to understand that they were few and not worth getting major focus. A motion was passed to have the Jews excluded from participating in any German cultural event and that for every damage they had caused they pay one billion as fine.
This evidenced that their human rights were no longer observed. The Jews were even not expected to defend themselves because the state was correct and no opposition could be tolerated.
The publication by Smith reflects a view of totalitarian states in the classic period. For Germans, Hitler made them belief that the Jews were the greatest, worst and most dangerous enemies that required not just beating, but killing in a holocaust. The publication further reflects a continued replica of Bismarck’s view and preference of running with Iron and blood as outlined in the Bismarck Germany.
The need to protect the honor of Germany
Protection of German blood and honor was directed at Jews because the society considered them as enemies and therefore poised to destroy the sacred German orientation. From Hitler’s perspective, the German race and its purity was at the brink of getting assimilated by the Jews.[6] He forbade Germans from marrying and forming relationships with Jewish women. As such, the Jews became Isolated and could not relate for development purposes.
This was a sure way of bringing their hardworking nature and efforts into jeopardy. Imposing greater fines as the publication indicates was highly frightening and it clearly indicated that Jews were completely unwelcome in the country and an indication of more sinister actions, holocaust to come. However, Smith’s the publication only indicates measures that Hitler intended to take against the Jews, it fails to cite what Jews had done to warrant such ruthless treatment.
Besides, Hitler appeared to have lived his words as expressed in the Hitler Youth Quex where he sought to challenge existing authorities and give Germany high pride. Notably, Hitler laws carry forward emergent classical typical model of bad leadership in the name of protecting one’s own people. Former German leader in late 19th century, Bismarck had indicated the need for Germany autonomy and its self independence without external influences.
In this case, Jews were considered as outsiders and therefore only affecting negatively the progress of Germany and its people. Like in Hitler’s efforts to conquer and expand the territory of Germans as expressed in the Butcher’s Tale, Hitler is seen as a person who did not care the feelings, emotions, suffering and losses of others as far as in his perceptions, Germans would benefit.
Racial Definition of 1933
This decree created the first definition of racial discrimination which increased and culminated to ultimate decision to destroy Jews and their property in trial to protect German honor.
The decree is a strong undercurrent that drove all people in Germany to remain highly faithful to Hitler by executing his orders without questioning and making his ideas come to reality. This decree, as the first racial move by the Nazi administration to discriminate against non-Germans set the pace for latter rules such as Laws for the protection of German blood and German honor.
By seeking to redefine people in Germany on the basis of race, the decree only created animosity and made the entire Germany population to run wild against non-Germans especially of Jewish descent. The decree could also be described in analyst’s considerations of totalitarianism where a leader’s view points was absolute and always correct. The decree, as drawn, was final and all people in Germany had to classify themselves either as Germans or non-Germans, with the latter requiring approval for one to live in Germany.
Adolf Hitler and the Nuremberg laws
The creation of Nuremburg laws by Adolf Hitler reflects his intolerance with Jews and their behavior mediated by international nations and guided towards offending and taking away Germans pride. The laws were meant to incite and poison Germans against Jews who they had lived earlier on as one family.
By considering that Jews existence in Germany was a problem, Hitler, as manifested in many historical accounts caused the Jews to start suffering as their land, property and other belongings were taken away.[7] As they became entirely dependent on the Germany authorities because they could not be involved in economic production, Hitler was able to even make his created scenario appear to be real to Germans.
The notion of external influences and how the Jews were being manipulated to defy Hitler and existing authorities could be understood as part of the Hitler’s efforts to show the world that Germany was back and could not be dictated to, like it happened during the Treaty of Versatile. By indicating that the laws he presented were supported by the people, Hitler reflected the thin difference between him and the people. In him was Germany and Germans had him in their hearts, a factor which he thought was unchangeably the will of the people.
Nuremburg laws were set up with the notion that it was meant to come up with a legislative solution to the problems that the Jewish society was facing. While it was already clear that the Jews were already a problem and an urgent solution was important, Hitler used the laws to legitimize his actions against the Jews and gathers even greater support by accusing them to his people.
However, international observers opposed his move and incited the Jews against such laws, a consideration that saw Hitler react by subjecting Jews to Holocaust which saw massive numbers of Jews being killed.
The Nuremburg laws are a replica of the laws that sought to protect German blood and honor from Jews interference. Hitler in both cases moved to set out conditions that would oppress the Jews and support Germans. From Smith’s perspective, it could appear that the Jews had made gross moves to undermine the German administration.[8]
As Bismarck indicated in his speech on Bismarck Germany, there was strong move to ensure that more Germans were in control of resources to make it easy to mobilize them in the war to conquer neighbors. Jews, having acquired large quantities of wealth largely from their efforts and enterprising nature could not have evaded being the first target in the looming fight to revenge for WWII and expand Germany beyond its boarders by then.
Conclusion
To sum up, the discussions in this paper were based on the thesis statement ‘The state sponsored, bureaucratic and systematic murder and brutal persecution of over six million Jews in the holocaust by Nazi regime has been a major distressing issue in the history of the world’. It is evident form the discussion that the death of a young boy and the violent riots by Christians claiming the murder was ritual was one of the major factors that led to the Holocaust.
As indicated, the blood-libel charge that was witnessed during the holocaust has for many centuries haunted many Jews. The book the Butcher’s Tale offers lessons for leaders in the modern society to keep off vices like ethnicity and racism which impact negatively on the peaceful existence of a community.
Bibliography
Smith, Walser. The Butcher’s Tale: Murder and Anti-Semitism in a German Town. London; W. W. Norton, 2002.
Footnotes
Walser Smith, The Butcher’s Tale: Murder and Anti-Semitism in a German Town. (London; W. W. Norton, 2002), p. 5
The Second World War is rightfully regarded as the most devastating battle in modern history and it involved almost all nations of the world. The United States joined the battle at a relatively later stage and engaged in a number of significant battles against the Axis Alliance in both Europe and Asia. One of the most intense battles carried out by US troops was against Japanese forces in the island of Iwo Jima.
This battle which spanned for over a month had some significant repercussions for the US and Japanese Empire. This paper will set out to discuss the impact of the battle of Iwo Jima with an overview of the reasons why the battle took place and the major parties involved provided.
Origins of the War
The invasion of Iwo Jima by US forces was precipitated by the success of the offensive against Japanese forces in the Mariana Islands. The Mariana Islands were to serve as a major launching pad for an intense attack against mainland Japan (Brown 14).
However, for this campaign to work, Iwo Jima needed to be under US control since Iwo Jima lie halfway between Tokyo and Mariana. The Island of Iwo Jima had been developed by the Japanese as a base for intercepting US bombers on their way to Japan. Under Japanese control, the Iwo Jima Island played a crucial role in the defense of mainland Japan by serving as an early warning station.
The US forces regarded this island as of great strategic importance in carrying out attacks against mainland Japan. The operation to capture Iwo Jima was code named “Detachment” and it was based on the “island hopping” theory where American troops set out to occupy islands that were of strategic importance in the war against Japan (Brown 18). The invasion of Iwo Jima began on 19 February 1945 with the landing of American forces on the island while bombers attacked key Japanese positions and their warships.
Major Figures
A number of top American Commanders were involved in the Iwo Jima operation. The order to occupy the island of Iwo Jima was issued by the then Joint Chiefs of Staff to Chester Nimitz who was the Commander in Chief Pacific.
Nimitz’s right hand man, Admiral Raymond Spruance was the operations commander. Admiral Richmond Turner was placed as the “Joint Expeditionary Force Commander” and his great organization skills assisted in the mounting of operations (Wright 13). Lieutenant-General Holland Smith was the Fleet Commander of the marine force in the pacific.
The Japanese side also had a number of high-ranking military personnel. Lieutenant-General Tadamichi Kuribayashi who was a samurai with a record 30year of distinguished military service commanded the garrison on Iwo Jima (Wright 13). The other high-ranking officer on the island was Colonel Baron Takeichi Nishi who commanded a tank unit that acted as reinforcement for the island.
The Island Defenses
As of early 1944, the island had an archaic defense system that could not withstand a major assault. When General Kuribayashi was given command of the garrison at Iwo Jima, he set out to upgrade the defense system of the island in readiness for the impending war.
The first action was to remove the civilian population from the island to the mainland in order to conserve food and water suppliers that would be used by the troops. The general also asked for more troops to be stationed at the island and a massive program of underground defense be established.
Due to these efforts, an elaborate underground defense system what was made up of extensive tunnels, caves, and gun placements was set up within 9 months. Lieutenant General Holland Smith who commanded the Fleet Marine Force asserted that this was easily the most heavily fortified island in the world (Brown 18). Iwo Jima therefore presented unmatched tactical challenges for the invading American forces.
Impacts of the War
The war led to the greatest percentage loss of American troops in combat. Lieutenant-General Howlin Smith declared this battle “the most savage and most costly battle in the history of the Marine Corps” by (Wright 10).
Over the course of the invasion, 73,000 American troops were landed on the Island. During the 36days of heavy fighting, 6,800 marines lost their lives making it the battle with the largest percentage of casualties for the US during the Second World War. Brown observes that the terrain on the island failed to allow for clear lines of battle making it hard to launch an effective offensive (19).
The battle led to defeat of the Japanese and the subsequent occupation of the island of Iwo Jima by US forces. From the onset, the Japanese troops on the island who were approximately 21,000 were greatly outnumbered by the invading American force (Brown 19).
Japanese troops had orders to fight to the last man and during the conflict, Japanese troops were neither withdrawn nor reinforced. By the 28th day of battle, the US troops had neutralized most of the Japanese troops and the island was declared secure. Active combat ended on the 36th day and the island was officially under American occupation.
The American victory in Iwo Jima hastened the ending of the war since this volcanic island was of strategic importance to American war efforts. Hama notes that in spite of several years of war in the Pacific, the US had not been able to deter the Japanese since Japan industries in the mainland remained untouched and in full production (4).
Capturing the island made it possible for the US to reach Japan easily. Iwo Jima was ideally located halfway across the distance between Tokyo and the US bases in the Marianas (Russ 12). The Island provided a much-needed base of operation for carrying out raids on Japanese industrial locations.
In addition to this, the seizure of Iwo Jima gave the US added military advantage since the island was used for both air and sea blockade (Hama 4). By using this island as a base, US forces were able to carry out aggressive bombardments on Japanese naval vessels hence greatly reducing Japan’s naval capabilities. Arial bombardments on the air factor diminished Japan’s air capability thereby hastening the ending of the war.
Following the victory of the American forces, the US flag was hoisted on Mount Suribachi. This was a crucial moment in the war since it was the first time that a foreign flag had been raised on Japanese soil for generations (Russ 15). This takeover of the island signified the end of Japanese expansionism and the Pacific war. American victory in Iwo Jima served as a signal that the invasion of Japan was imminent
Conclusion
This paper set out to assess the impact of one of the fiercest battle of World War II, the battle of Iwo Jima. It began by highlighting the circumstances that made the battle necessary and the main actors in the war.
This paper has documented that this bloody battle, which raged for 36days, led to the death of 6,800 US marines and 21,000 Japanese soldiers who chose to die rather than surrender. However, the war was able to gain the US forces huge strategic advances and therefore accelerate the eventual victory of the Allies in the Second World War.
Works Cited
Brown, Scott. Preparing Boys for Battle. Boston: NCFIC, 2010. Print.
Hama, Larry. The Battle of Iwo Jima: Guerilla Warfare in the Pacific. NY: Rosen Classroom, 2007. Print.
Russ, John. “VII Fighter Command Operations from Iwo Jima, April-August 1945.” Air Power History 48.3 (2001): 12-17. Web.
Wright, Derrick. Iwo Jima 1945: The Marines raise the flag on Mount Suribachi. NY: Osprey Publishing, 2012. Print.
The Boston Marathon terrorist attack happened in 2013 during the Boston Marathon. Two homemade bombs were detonated in the crowd near the finishing line, where three people died, and 260 others were injured. First responders were quickly to react. Within a short time, tents meant to attend the runners were converted to medical tents for the injured persons immediately. Three people died instantly from the bomb injuries and 260 were seriously injured. One hundred people were transported to the local hospital area (Gates et al., 2017). Local area police and federal investigators secured the site as a crime scene that covered 15 square blocks.
The Unified Command Center provided regular messages that were well coordinated, and this provided accurate information to the public. On the day that the bombing happened, four press conferences were convened, and they explained more about how the attacks happened to keep the public at ease. The people were eager to know whether the situation was under control and whether their family and friends attending the event were safe. The four conferences served the purpose well. People were at ease though shocked of the incident that had not ever happened at a marathon event before.
The local and state law enforcement authorities coordinated the process together with the FBI investigators (Shi et al., 2018). They answered calls made by the public about any suspicious activity happening in their neighborhoods. They secured the crime scene and ensured that all the injured persons were taken to the hospital. Mental health services were offered to the deceased families and to the runners. Some initial investigation revealed that the attackers used household pressure cookers, ball bearing, nails, and explosive substances. Hazardous materials were nails, ball bearings, and explosive materials (Singh et al., 2016). They were packed in household pressure cookers.
Bomb disposal is a profession in bomb engineering. The investigating agencies had the mandate to collect hazardous materials and dispose of them. They took the materials from the site though further tests were to be carried out in the lab. After the tests and the desired conclusions were drawn, then the hazardous materials would be disposed of off safely. After the investigation, it was discovered that the first two bombs were detonated at 2:49 pm at 671 Boylston Street (Shi et al., 2018). The second bomb was detonated after thirteen seconds, 180 yards away. This was at 755 Boylston Street.
The Boston bombing claimed lives and caused severe injuries. Three people died, and 260 others were injured. There must have been a preplanning period for the attackers. The bombs were homemade, so the attackers took time to make them and identify the Boston marathon as their target of attack. They planned to attack a venue with a crowd of people, and so they preplanned well and made sure they were on time when the race was still in progress. There might be no evidence of pre-planning, but it is definite that the attackers were targeting the Boston Marathon. Therefore, there was proper preplanning. The two attackers did not have any concrete objectives to carry out their mission of attack, but the one who survived admits that they were motivated by the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. Maybe because of their Muslim affiliation, they were revenging against the Americans.
Their strategy was to make homemade bombs, target the Boston marathon crowd and detonate the bombs. That is the reason they targeted the finishing line because usually, the crowd is more significant there. They were to run away immediately.This was a deadly attack, and controlling an attack of such magnitude is crucial in future events (Gates et al., 2017). This narrows down to security agencies. Security intelligence should be improved during marathon activities, especially in the finishing area, because that is the only place with large crowds. Conducting thorough security checkups before marathons should be mandatory.
The medical teams were more careful about the PPEs they used. This was a caution because the explosives would have contained some poisonous substances. The PPEs would not allow radioactive transmissions. The attackers were two, and after investigations, it was found that they were brothers of Kyrgyzstan origin. After the attack, they high jacked an SUV vehicle and kidnapped the owner. Learning of the stolen vehicle incident, the police pursued and confronted them. One of the attackers was seriously injured and arrested but later died in the hospital. (Shi, Internet Research., 2018) The second attacker, Tarmelan Tsarnaev, was later shot and arrested. Upon court proceedings, Tsarnaev was sentenced to death. However, in July 2020, this sentence was revoked and is a pending hearing.
The response of the security and medical teams was swift. Security teams redirected the runners faster as a precaution against more attacks. The medical attendants who took care of the runners efficiently converted their tents and started attending to the injured persons. The response in Boston was appropriate, the teams that were deployed were well-coordinated, and the command structures were not badly off. However, there is a lot of improvement needed at the national level regarding disaster management. In the past the idea had not been given the desired attention but occurrences such as the Boston bombing served as a wakeup call.
There needs to be a well-designed incident management structure in place that we are confident with in case of such a tragedy in future. The design should be as follows; the awareness levels in the situation and expertise ought to have been on point. The decision-making should be brief and rapid. In case of an incident, customizations made should be modest to facilitate countering the attack. Skills required during the incident are to be highly developed and well-polished. Only leadership, applicable in such an incident should be well drilled, highly practiced, and selected for training and performance before. The command presence applied should be direct and authority-based. The organizational structure put in place ought to have been hierarchical, while the execution should have been direct and precise.
One important thing is Boston responded well to this attack. However, it is essential to ask ourselves what if this tragedy happened in other cities; would they react like Boston. A lot of emphasis should be on national coordination, a lot of attention to surge capacity constantly, and standard operating procedures. Emergencies should no longer be treated as an afterthought in US hospitals. Boston had most of the emergency preparedness measures in place, and that is the reason they responded very well.
The incident happened in Boston. The mandate of the security team at Boston was to alert the National disaster management team, which would be the center of instruction in the exercise. They would have the mandate of deploying teams and managing them on the ground. The national team in Boston would be responsible for communicating progress to their headquarters.
The Naked and the Dead is a novel written by Norman Mailer in 1948. The story narrates the conflict between Americans and the Japanese that took place on the fictional island named Anapopei during World War II. The real events of the island invasion are described in the book through the vision and thoughts of the main characters. It is also based on the real experience of the author during his service as a cook when the Philippines Campaign was happening. The novel is about a platoon that included fourteen people and describes their lives, identities, cultural differences, and relationships at the time of war.
Main body
The story was first published after the war ended in 1948, and narrates about real events of the Second World War (Maiter 28). The novel consists of four parts, where each of them raises the important social and historical problems of that time. The first part is called Wave, where all the characters are introduced to the reader as the naval bombardment is happening, and all the men go to the invasion shore to attack the Japanese (Maiter 68). The key figure in this chapter is Hennessey, who is a frightened young soldier terrified of killing and being hurt (Maiter 68). This part of the book reflects the reality of the event during the Philippines Campaign. The Wave ends with the death of Hennessey, which was the first death of the troop and had a crucial effect on his comrades. In this chapter, the author shows that the historical chronology of events does not reflect the spirit of the war; it also does not let people understand what soldiers experience when they are fighting against the enemy and are trying to survive (Maiter 52). Moreover, the fact that the first part of the novel ends with one of the main characters passing away reflects the situation of that time and those circumstances of the war.
Books on history do not fully express the spirit of the time and place. The author tells the readers that people who were driven to the platoon, the same as to any other place of war actions, belonged to various cultures, races, and had many differences in their opinions (Maiter 57). They were often arguing, but the common aim united them to fight against Nazism. They did not only battle against the enemy, but they were driven by the will to survive and, more importantly, live in the free world.
The second part is named Argil and Mold, and it is about the troop taking a Japanese soldier as a prisoner. The narration is developed in the manner of discussion between General Cummings and Lieutenants Hearn (Maiter 140). While talking about life and death, good and evil, soldiers try to find out vital information from the Japanese soldier. When Gallagher gives the Japanese a cigarette, Croft kills him with one shot. These characters represent society during World War II, where some people took a moment to enjoy a conversation with a friend and talk about possibilities and life. Some people, like Gallagher, showed compassion to an enemy, shared what they had, in the same way as Gallagher shared a cigarette (Maiter 140). The Japanese soldier represents that part of the society that enjoyed little moments realizing that it is not going to last, and they would probably die soon. General Cummings, Lieutenant Hearn, Gallagher, and the Japanese soldier reflect the humanity in the society during the war (Maiter 140). However, Craft represents people with coldblooded personalities, but they also were essential to the times of war since they did things that other people were not capable of, such as killing an enemy.
The third part is called Plant and Phantom, and it describes how the American troop was sent to the Mountain Anaka to find and destroy the Japanese troops. During the event, some of their comrades died; however, in the end, the battle for the island was won. This chapter represents real events of the Philippines Campaign that the author participated in (Khallaf 828). Mailer attempted not only to show the historical accuracy of the events but also to reflect the real struggle that soldiers experienced (Maiter 248). To understand the actual circumstances of World War II, it is essential to follow the chronology of the events, as well as to know how soldiers were struggling, how they reacted to the loss of their comrades, and most importantly what they felt when the victory finally came. The writer describes these episodes in such a manner that readers can experience it in the same way that the author did.
The last part of the book, called Wake, is the shortest one, and it narrates about General Cummings being disappointed that the victory was too easy. This part reflects the personalities of people like Cummings, whose priority was not to save lives and fight against the enemy, but rather to receive credit for doing it (Maiter 350). This part represents the social mood after the war was over, when many people were not satisfied with the outcome because it was not beneficial to them.
In terms of the historical accuracy of time and place, according to the author, the story narrates about the Leyte Island in the Philippines, where Mailer’s battalion was sent during the Philipines Campaign in 1944 (Bell 34). The events described in the book were a reflection of the real situation that happened to the writer and his comrades during the war. American forces successfully invaded the island that was occupied by the Japanese army, which is known as the Battle of Leyte (Bell 35). The outcome of this event helped American troops to take full control over the Philippine Archipelago and counterstrike the Japanese imperial army, and resulted in drawing them away to the Japanese islands.
Only some events, including the invasion of the island, were described in the book. However, most of the situations that happened to the characters should not be analyzed as real facts, but rather discussed from the social point of view. The author focused on the reflection of circumstances on people’s visions and reactions (Khallaf 828). He attempted to show how real identities, that were hidden and dictated by social rules, came out during critical times. The author used historical events to describe how soldiers were fighting not only for their lives at that moment but for the future of their families, and many other people who suffered from the war.
Moreover, the way Mailer wrote the book, which is the dialogs about different essential topics between characters and their discussions about the good and the bad, was also typical for the time and the situation described in the story (Khallaf 828). It was usual for people, especially for soldiers, to bring up philosophical topics that were irrelevant to the circumstances. Mailer, in his books, narrates themes that were crucial for that time. For example, he gives soldiers faces and voices, makes them real people with lives and families. During the war, society faced the crucial problem of the dehumanization of soldiers (Khallaf 828). They existed only in numbers and lists of victims. However, the author, in his book, shows that they were more than names in the military. After publishing the book, many people realized that World War II was much more severe and it had a huge impact on the lives of many people, not only civil but people in the front lines as well.
Conclusion
The writer attempts to present how loneliness, selflessness, death, fear, and brotherhood coexisted in a small society with no way out. Soldiers on that ship during the war could not leave it or run away from it; they could only wait to live or die. It influenced them to a great extent where they realized they could no longer control their lives, but rather it was dictated by destiny. Therefore, the story The Naked and the Dead clearly reflects the circumstances that soldiers experienced during those dark times and lets people see that experience.
References
Bell, Walter F. The Philippines in World War II, 1941-1945: A Chronology and Select Annotated Bibliography of Books and Articles in English. Greenwood Press, 1999.
Khallaf, Muhammad. “Norman Mailer’s The Naked and the Dead as a Novel of Manners.” Journal of English Language and Literature, vol. 9, no. 2, 2018, p. 828., doi:10.17722/jell.v9i2.327.
Maiter, Norman. The Naked and the Dead. Grafton, 1987.
This paper is aimed at discussing the book Rites of Spring by Modris Eksteins. In this work, he explores the underlying causes of World War I, its effects on people’s experiences, and the long-term effects of this political and social catastrophe.
This topic has been examined by various historians, but Modris Eksteins takes a slightly different approach to this question.
The author focuses on various aspects. In particular, he speaks about the culture of the western civilization; moreover, he mentions that war, sacrifice, and violence were inseparable parts of this culture (Eksteins 15).
He tries to demonstrate the link between modernism and the political history of the western world. Moreover, the writer discusses the nature of diplomatic alliances existing at the beginning of the twentieth century.
In this way, the scholar attempts to identify the motives that could have prompted various states to enter into this military conflict. This source is also aimed at examining people’s perception of this war. This is why he focuses on various literary sources as well as diaries.
One of the author’s intentions is to examine the way in which soldiers grappled with this war. This is why Modris Eksteins mentions the so-called Christmas Truce (Eksteins 97).
Furthermore, the writer discusses the implications of World War I. For instance, this book throws light on the rise of National Socialism in Germany and Italy (Eksteins 321). Furthermore, Modris Eksteins’s book demonstrates how this military conflict paved the way to World War II.
For instance, he refers to the Treaty of Versailles and its limitations (Eksteins 253). These are some of the main aspects that can be identified.
This book does not follow a strict chronological pattern. Moreover, Modris Eksteins can draw the connections between the events that do not seem to be related. Overall, the scholar focuses on such themes as culture, attempts to adjust the word of war, and post-war beliefs and attitudes.
They are critical for describing the history of the twentieth century. The scholar looks at various countries, but he takes the greatest interest in the cultural and political history of Germany.
One of the most important themes examined by the writer is the peculiarities of the Western culture. At the beginning of the book, Modris Eksteins discusses the famous ballet The Rite of Spring composed by Igor Stravinsky.
He attracts the readers’ attention to the idea that the idea of human sacrifice plays an important role in this artwork. In his opinion, “the celebration of life through sacrificial death” represents the spirit of the twentieth century (Eksteins 15).
Eksteins argues that the modernist art, which began to emerge during that period, “transcended reason, didacticism, and moral purpose” (Eksteins 15). Moreover, it did not portray war and suffering as something outrageous. More likely, war and violence were glorified.
This is one of the main aspects that can be singled out. Yet, it is important to remember that Modris Eksteins does not fully explain the causal relations between various artworks created during that period and the military conflict which engulfed the entire Europe.
Nevertheless, one can also argue that culture simply reflected the attitudes and values of many people. It might not be the driving force of history.This is one of the limitations that should not be overlooked.
The writer views culture as one of the factors that could have prompted some nations to enter this war. For instance, he notes for Germans, this war was a way of expanding the influence of their culture (Eksteins 77). German intellectuals emphasized the importance of a person’s inner freedom.
In their opinion, this quality distinguished Germans among other European nations. Moreover, it is vital to remember that many German artists and philosophers called for a leader who could achieve greatness for the country (Eksteins 315).
The combination of these worldviews greatly contributed to the violence committed by the German state. Nevertheless, this view on World War I completely excludes economic and geopolitical considerations.
Additionally, Modris Eksteins does not show why similar tendencies were not observed in other countries like France or England. So, some of his conclusions can be disputed because the scholar excludes the examples that contradicts his arguments. This is one of the points that can be made.
There is another important theme which should not be overlooked. In particular, one should speak about people’s attempts to reconcile the experience of war with their values, customs, or traditions.
The author shows how German, British or French soldiers attempted to make this existence more acceptable or livable. In this way, they attempted to show how senseless this war had been. This is one of the issues that Modris Eksteins focuses on.
For example, he describes a short truce during the Christmas of 1914 (Eksteins 97). This event has been described in literary and academic sources. To examine the experiences of soldiers, Modris Eksteins examines various primary sources.
Among them one can distinguish the famous novel All Quiet on the Western Front by Erich Maria Remarque. The author speaks about other sources which can show how people could adjust to war.
Overall, this approach is helpful for understanding the hardships that soldiers had to overcome. Apart from that, this perspective is useful because it enables the readers to learn more about individual narratives that are often overlooked by historians.
This part of Modris Eksteins’ book is probably the strongest one.
The post-war existence of people is the theme that Modris Eksteins examines. The author admits that the end of World War I did not resolve many tensions and potential conflicts within Europe.
He recognizes the limitations of the Versailles Treaty which placed the burden of responsibility for this war only on Germany (Eksteins 253). One can even say that it was a truce which only postponed war. This opinion is shared by other historians.
Modris Eksteins is quite right in identifying the drawback of this treaty. Much attention is also paid to the culture which began to develop during that period. To a great extent, it reflected people’s need for peace and stability. Yet, there are some important trends that should be taken into account.
The author speaks about the idealization of technology and will. This argument is particularly important if one speaks about Charles Lindbergh who became extremely famous for his non-stop flight from Long Island to France (Eksteins 243).
The main problem is that such attitudes contributed to the idealization of people who claimed to posses the strength of will. Among them, one can certainly distinguish Adolf Hitler and Mussolini.
To some degree, they wanted to be viewed as ideal human beings who had a right to govern or even subdue other people.
These examples can be very convincing, but this line of reasoning is not applicable to such countries as England or the United States in which there were no autocratic leaders. This is one of the drawbacks that should not be overlooked.
It is possible to say that the author wants to draw connections between the culture of modernism and political history of western civilization. One of the main points is that that modernism turned the political history of the twentieth century into a nightmare.
Nevertheless, he does not want to admit the idea that modernism was just a response to the horrors of wars that broke out very often. This is one of the details that should be identified.
Moreover, the scholar does not want to consider the conflicts between and within various countries which could have led to many military confrontations.
As it has been said before, one cannot overlook economic and political history of western states. The cultural history of this period is certainly important, but it cannot be separated from areas of human activity.
On the whole, this book can be of great interest to people, who are interested in the origins of World War I. This book is important for illustrating the attitudes and beliefs of people who lived at the beginning of the twentieth century.
Moreover, this source may be helpful for examining the attitudes of people during the period between the two wars.
Nevertheless, the author makes very broad generalizations that are not fully substantiated. Still, these limitations do not undermine the potential value of this book for a great number of readers.
Works Cited
Eksteins, Modris. Rites of Spring: The Great War and the Birth of the Modern Age, New York: Mariner Books, 2000. Print.
Operation Geronimo refers to the assassination of the leader of Al Qaeda, Osama bin Laden in 2011. The execution of the most influential terrorist of that time, accused of planning the terrorist act on 9/11, was authorized by Barack Obama, the President of the United States (Pašagić, 2020). The successful operation completion made further advancement of the American military and intelligence in eliminating the terrorist menace easier. Osama bin Laden was a renowned criminal in international search, and the CIA made significant efforts to find and arrest him (Sinai, 2021). At the same time, his execution caused public debates due to the military’s ban on the assassination of unarmed people. It shows that the operation caused ethical controversies that the American President had to solve. In this case, executing terrorist number one who endangered the domestic security of the United States was more important than following ethical principles. Therefore, President Obama had the legal authority to order Operation Geronimo and to execute the plan.
Discussion and Analysis
Obama had the legal right to authorize the search of Osama bin Laden and his execution because this criminal endangered the United States national security. First, bin Laden was the head of al-Qaeda when they elaborated on the plan to attack Twin Towers on September 11 and executed it (Pašagić, 2020). The analysts agree that bin Laden had a significant role in motivating terrorists and ideologists of the radical Islamic movement (Pašagić, 2020). After the terrorist attack on September 11, the CIA prevented several more possible attacks on American citizens and their mass assassination (Sinai, 2021). These facts show that the decision of Barack Obama to justify Operation Geronimo and execute Osama bin Laden in his house was adequate in that situation.
The way Operation Geronimo was conducted corresponded to its ultimate goal. Operation Geronimo aimed to capture or kill the terrorist, but the participants kept in mind that they should not kill unarmed individuals when they wanted to surrender. As the representatives of the White House stated, it was evident from the beginning that neither Osama bin Laden nor other men in the house did not plan to surrender (Pašagić, 2020). As a result, all adult men, including the sons of bin Laden, the leader of al Qaeda, and the courier, were killed during the mission. It is critical to mention that women, who were in the same house with bin Laden, and their children, were not killed by American soldiers (Pašagić, 2020). Therefore, it is impossible to accuse the participants of the operation of Geronimo of excessive cruelty or abuse of power.
The planning of the operation of Geronimo was long-term and detailed, which shows that President Obama was completely aware of the options concerning the outcomes. According to the official information, President Obama met with the members of the National Security Council before the operation and was present in the office during it. The process lasted 38 minutes instead of 30, as planned (Pašagić, 2020). Though its outcomes were successful, President Obama authorized all actions during the execution of the plan. It allows us to state that the President and the White House justified all activities during Operation Geronimo.
It is vital to mention that the CIA chose the best option for capturing or executing Osama bin Laden. According to the preliminary research, the leader of Al-Qaeda had an underground bunker to hide in. Its destruction required the use of 910 kg bombs, which would affect dozens of civilians who lived in the nearby area (Pašagić, 2020). President Obama did not authorize this plan due to the risk of killing many innocent people who were not connected with terrorism and Osama bin Laden. The plan for the capture or execution of Osama bin Laden in the house where he lived incognito was regarded as the safest (Sinai, 2021). The group of experienced officers from the Red Squadron was responsible for the operation of Geronimo. Its members had relevant experience in Afghanistan and Pakistan and the necessary knowledge of the local language (Pašagić, 2020). It allows us to assume that using military specialists with the relevant experience and skills allowed President Obama and the National Security Council to avoid unnecessary victims in the capture and execution of Osama bin Laden.
The execution of the leader of Al Qaeda was the only possible option during Operation Geronimo. It is necessary to mention that the terrorist had weapons in the room, and he lacked time to take them. According to the report, a Makarov pistol and AKS-74U carbine were in the same room. Potentially, bin Laden could reach the AKS-74U carbine if one of the SEALs did not shoot him (Pašagić, 2020). Therefore, this information shows that the execution of the terrorist was a necessary measure and was justified.
The burial of the body of Osama bin Laden is also connected with ethical controversy. The American officials stated that the body of the terrorist was buried in the ocean after the execution. He was wrapped in a weighted plastic bag, and one of the officers read the traditional Muslim religious formula for the burial (Pašagić, 2020). After that, the body was buried in the sea. From one point of view, the criminal was buried according to the Islamic tradition with the final prayers. From another point of view, it was a hasty decision, and the international community did not see sufficient evidence that the body truly belonged to Osama bin Laden.
After a while, The American National Security Council presented evidence that the body belonged to the former leader of Al Qaeda. Its representatives justified the decision to bury the body in the ocean with the idea that there were no countries that would agree to bury Osama bin Laden (Sinai, 2021). Moreover, this type of burial deprived the radicals of the opportunity to take the place of Osama bin Laden’s burial as sacred (Sinai, 2021). It allows us to hypothesize that the decisions of President Obama were wholly justified in this case.
It is possible to oppose this perspective with the claim that Osama bin Laden has become a martyr for his followers. The Iran representatives stated that Osama bin Laden’s execution was illegal and immoral because the terrorist did not try to fight (Sinai, 2021). The American military deprived him of the right to court decisions. It is critical to mention that sacrifice of own life and martyrdom are essential components of the radical Islamist ideology. It is possible to illustrate this idea with the following lines about the formation of the radical Islamic vision:
“Sacrifice, martyrdom, and jihad are Islamic concepts that have been distorted and exploited by the “Islamic State” (IS) to pursue a radical Pan-Islamic vision. This exploitation of Islam is a recruitment tactic that uses human lives as a weapon for spreading maximum terror and damage. By using Islam as its ideological basis, IS claims to have legitimacy and religious justification. Radicalized recruits are motivated to kill and die from this false legitimacy to support” violent goals” (Hutchins, 2017, p. 7).
This excerpt shows that for many Muslim people who shared the views of the radicals, the actions of the United States were the manifestation of cruelty and violence. The main question, in this case, is whether there is a need to pay attention to the voices of radical Islamic followers of Osama bin Laden. In all cases, the actions of the American military officers, the CIA agents, the National Security Council, and the decision of President Obama to authorize them corresponded to the needs of the United States. Therefore, they were justified in the critical situation of capturing and executing the leader of the terrorist organization.
Conclusion
To conclude, the decision of President Obama to start the operation of Geronimo and to execute the plan to capture or kill Osama bin Laden was justified. The facts show that the leader of Al Qaeda endangered the United States national security. The White House and the CIA made everything possible to eliminate the danger and save the civilians’ lives. In addition, the military officers who participated in Operation Geronimo did not kill women and children who lived in the same house as Osama bin Laden. They were not dangerous for them, and their lives were intact. It allows us to state that there were no unnecessary deaths during Operation Geronimo.
The paper is about border security of the United States. The major concern is whether to have a secure border or to allow free movement of people, goods or services across the border of the United States. This border had been known as the longest undefended border in the world, but after the events of September 11, 2001, things changed.
The U.S government had to review its border laws and restrictions, which led to strict rules on its border. There has been increased time for security checks of shipment, thus increasing shipment costs for Canadian exporters. In addition to this, the US deadline for secure identity cards has affected trade and tourism.
The research shall be based on information from already documented information on U.S security. This includes books, journal articles, primary sources and online sources found in the World Wide Web.
This will provide information that other people have been able to gather about border security, which includes the actual figures of cost implications of border restrictions. The predetermined data of people movement across the border before and after border restrictions together with figures of economic implications shall be very important information for making conclusions.
Objective
The main objective is to determine whether the United States should allow a secure or free border to exist with the outside world for movement of goods, people and services, based on the events that took place in September 11, 2001 that killed many people.
Hypothesis
Free border may lead to increased economic and social relationship between the United States, Canada and the rest of the hemisphere through unrestricted movement of goods, people and services across its boundaries. This will ultimately improve trade between United States and the rest of the world.
Outline
In 1990s, the Canadian- U.S border was known to be the longest secure border that existed until the terrorist attacks in September 11, 2001, due to good policies that existed between the two nations. After the terrorism attacks, the US customs and migration agencies increased security on trade and migration of people across their border.
The costs that come along with these restrictions have been known to have a great impact on both the US and the Canadian economy. This is in the form of taxes that amount to hundreds of millions of dollars that the citizens pay to put adequate security in the borders. US border scrutiny has discouraged potential investors and exports to the US due to time wastage that amounts to a loss of millions of dollars.
Another problem is the increase in shipment costs associated with the security provided during scrutiny. This is due to longer times that are taken during the process and security has to be provided. In 2004, 6.9 million trucks cross the US border from Canada with reported time delays of 32 minutes per shipment costing Canadian exporters an estimated $290 million. To avoid time wastage at borders, exporters have to be accredited in the US risk management programs which is expensive.
The other problem of the introduction of border scrutiny is imposition of passports or some other type of safe travel document. This is with the intent of identification of potential terrorists, but it has negative impacts. This passport is hard to obtain and also expensive, thus, hindering the movement of the people and trade between the US and other parts of the world.
Bibliography
Books
Tancredo, Tom. In Mortal Danger: The Battle for America’s Border and Security. Los Angeles: WND Books, 2006. Print.
The book talks about a wide range of problems facing U.S border security that arose after the September, 11 attacks. According to Warner, the large area that needs to be protected comprises “19,841 miles of land and water boundaries and 95,000 miles of shoreline and air of U.S” – Mexico border.
The number of migrants wanting to reach the U.S, a land of big opportunities, has been increasing with time and has resulted in large number of deaths. Between the years 1995-2008, the number of migrants reported to have died are 5,000 and an estimated number of 9,635 in 2009. Many Mexicans were killed in drug related violence.
This book also focuses on border security before and after September 11, attacks. The security is said to have been intensified along the U.S. border after then to date. Warner also looks at “illegal migrations, counterterrorism, drug and weapon trafficking, human smuggling, the impact of border security on movement of people and goods and the effect of war on people and goods, and the effect of war on terrorism on civil and human rights”.
Journal articles
Bigo, D. “Security and Immigration: Towards a Critique of the Governmentality of Unease.” Alternatives (2002): 27, 63–92. Print.
Huysmans, J. “Security! What Do You Mean? From Concept to Thick Signifier.” European Journal of International Relations (1998): 4(2), 226–255. Print.
Boswell, Christina. “Migration Control in Europe After 9/11: Explaining the Absence of Securitization.” Journal of Common Market Studies (2007): 45(3), 589–610. Print.
This article by Boswell argues that political debate and practices in Europe have remained unaffected by the threat of terrorism, which was particularly high after the events of 9/11. The argument is raised to contradict the belief that the events of 9/11 led to increased security of migration control via the implementation of harsh migration policies.
The article expounds on the contents of the migration policies, indicating the various methods of keeping irregular immigrants via restrictions, deportation, detention and border control. The author also compares the security of the US border to that in Europe, and the tactics used to prevent terrorism.
Primary sources
GAO. “Border Security: Enhanced DHS Oversight and Assessment of Interagency Coordination Is Needed for the Northern Border.” Highlights of GAO-11-97, a report to congressional requesters. 2010.
GAO. Border Security: Security Vulnerabilities at Unmanned and Unmonitored U.S. Border Locations. Washington, D.C.: GAO-07-884T, 2007.
GAO. Managing for Results: Barriers to Interagency Coordination. Washington, D.C.: GAO/GGD-00-106, 2000.
Works Cited
Bigo, D. “Security and Immigration: Towards a Critique of the Governmentality of Unease.” Alternatives (2002): 27, 63–92. Print.
Boswell, Christina. “Migration Control in Europe After 9/11: Explaining the Absence of Securitization.” Journal of Common Market Studies (2007): 45(3), 589–610. Print.
Crawley, Phillip. Legacy of 9/11: the world’s longest undefended border is now defended. 2011. Web.
GAO. “Border Security: Enhanced DHS Oversight and Assessment of Interagency Coordination Is Needed for the Northern Border.” Highlights of GAO-11-97, a report to congressional requesters. 2010.
GAO. Border Security: Security Vulnerabilities at Unmanned and Unmonitored U.S. Border Locations. Washington, D.C.: GAO-07-884T, 2007.
GAO. Managing for Results: Barriers to Interagency Coordination. Washington, D.C.: GAO/GGD-00-106, 2000.
Huysmans, J. “Security! What Do You Mean? From Concept to Thick Signifier.” European Journal of International Relations (1998): 4(2), 226–255. Print.
Jo Cureton, Emily. A mission on the border ten years after 9/11. 2011. Web.
The central precept behind propagation optimisms is that, the main impact of the use of atomic bombs by the U.S. was to dissuade war between their possessors. Atomic bombs are assumed to have a stabilizing effect because even a small atomic arsenal can deter potential enemies from attacking the proliferators. Deterrence is essential because the risk of vengeance by even a small number of atomic weapons overshadows any probable gain of a military attack.
Optimists also argue that new proliferators were least expected to suffer the same domination and to have power over problems as the powers used during the cold war. Atomic bombs have at all times been seen as an immense equalizer in intercontinental relations. One may dispute that Japan would not be dissuaded from using unadventurous weapons to meet a predictable American assault. This paper gives the reasons that forced President Trauma to order the use of atomic bombs on Japan during the Second World War.
Desire to Put an End to the War
The U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Japan in order to end the war that had become aggressive. It invaded Japan because of the desire to subdue it and put an end to the war. Japan was determined to turn its island into a fortress and it was not even concerned that its own citizen’s lives were at risk. The U.S. had to put to an end what Japan was planning because if it went ahead with its plans, more than one million American and British would have lost their lives. It is believed that the bomb saved the lives of allies and some Japanese.
Much discussion has taken place over the American decision to drop the atomic bomb on Japanese cities. For Harry Truman, this was not a hard decision. Losses in an attack of Japan would have been great. Following the dropping of the atomic bombs, American public opinion was extremely supportive of Truman’s decision. The Japanese were referred to as “japs”, and were depicted with unsophisticated racial stereotypes, and were seen as devious and definitely not to be trusted.
Force Japan to Surrender
Another reason why the U.S. used the atomic bombs was to force Japan to surrender the war. Japan responded to this as it surrendered immediately thereby saving the lives of over one million Japanese and more than one hundred American soldiers who would have lost their lives if America invaded Japan.
Earlier attempts to put to an end the war by use of nuclear weapons had failed to bear fruits as Japanese military were not willing to back off the fight. This forced the U.S. to use atomic bombs since it perceived that many lives would be lost if Japan if the war continued. It is believed that, President Harry Truman used atomic bombs on Japan as a way of intimidating Stalin, and to keep him out of the war. However, the general officers did not approve this move and they denounced their commander-in-chief.
Takaki, Ronald, in his book “Hurishima: Why American Dropped the Atomic Bomb” noted that by 1944, the war had noticeably turned against the Japanese. In late October, General MacArthur went back to the Philippine island of Layette. The Japanese started to use kamikaze pilots in an anxious attempt to obliterate Allied ships.
Quite a few more bloody battles waited ahead for American forces. America suffered twenty five thousand casualties at the battle of Iwo Jima and another fifty thousand at the battle of Okinawa. After these battles, though, nothing was left to stop an Allied invasion of Japan[1].
These extremely bloody battles deeply disturbed military officials who were planning for an attack of Japan. Japanese resistance to such an attack would have been fervent. Franklin Roosevelt had unexpectedly died in late 1945; the new president, Harry Truman, was updated in July 1944 about the atomic bomb.
The actual planning for this bomb was the reason of the Manhattan project, started on August 1942. Production of this bomb took place in Los Alamos, New Mexico under the direction of J. Robert Oppenheimer. The bomb was effectively tested in the New Mexico desert on July 16, 1945.
By dropping the atomic bombs, the United States only accelerated the surrender of an already conquered enemy. Long before the dropping of the bombs, Japan’s leaders were determined to surrender and were taking beginning steps to that end, the U.S. leaders knew from marine aptitude interception of Japan’s to-secret codes. As secretary of war, Henry Stimson had been intimately concerned with the discussions on the use of the bomb.
In 1947, at the urging of government officials worried about the growing number of people puzzled by the use of the bomb, Stimson wrote an article titled “The decision to use the atomic bomb” [2]. He argued that the decision to drop the atomic bomb on Hiroshima was made only after vigilant deliberation by Truman and his advisers of all the courses of action open to them to end the war at the lowest possible cost
Economic Reasons
However, the question arose as to whether there was anything like a decision to use the bombs, or whether Truman and his advisers were carried along by events. According Gaddis, Lewis, in his book “The United States and the origins of the Cold War, 1941-1947”, Truman prearranged the dropping of the atomic bombs to give good reason for the cost resources used to build them.
The bombs cost more that two billion dollars, and required the work of scores of top scientists, thousands of workers and several industrial firms. After all this time and spending, Truman had to use the atomic bombs at one time and the war proved to be the best time to use them. Upon hearing of the victorious explosion over Hiroshima, Truman appeared relived and noted that, “We have spent two billion dollars on the greatest scientific gamble in history and won”[3].
The dropping of the second bomb gave the impression of having its own momentum. Truman’s July 24 strike order authorized the use of the bomb as they were all set, and the technicians on Tinian Island worked agitatedly to drop the second bomb in response to the order. Prevalent detestation of and vengeance against the Japanese for the bombing of Pearl Harbor may have produced the impetus for dropping the atomic bombs.
To many Americans, including Truman, it warranted almost any act against it in vengeance. Expressing his feeling of revenge, Truman said in a private letter written soon after the bombing of Nagasaki, that nobody was more bothered by the use of the atomic bombs than him, but he was deeply troubled over the uncalled-for attack by the Japanese on Pearl Harbor.
Protect U.S. Dominance
Alperrovitz, Gar, in his book “Atomic Diplomacy: Hurishima and Potsdam: The use of the Atomic Bomb and the American confrontation with Soviet Power” argued that the United States dropped the atomic bombs not to overcome Japan but vigorously to protect U.S. dominance in the already brewing Soviet-American disagreement, which has, of course, prearranged the postwar worldwide order.
Their analyses of planning for the postwar world, from 1942 forward, underline official description of the Soviet Union as the primary menace to U.S. primacy in world affairs. Nonetheless, while the U.S. military had shattered Japan’s capacity to fight violent war beyond her borders, distressed major cities, and blocked access to critical materials; it had neither secured Japan’s give up nor broken the will to battle of the Japanese military[4].
There seems no motive to choose between analyses that view the bomb as a weapon to force Japan’s surrender and those that emphasize its value as a weapon to threaten the Soviet Union and establish U.S. hegemony, and both were sufficiently served by dropping the atomic bomb.
Conclusion
As discussed above, many optimists believe that, the use of atomic bombs by the U.S. was to deter or escalate the chances of nuclear war between the United States and Japan. However, pessimists hold that deterrence balances are not intrinsically constant.
The sagacity dilemmas shaped by atomic deterrence circumstances are aggravated at the local level because local powers are short of the refined technology that kept the tranquility throughout the World War II. The skepticism raised by top military commanders encouraged historians to argue that the United States dropped the atomic bombs on Japan in order to loosen the muscle at the Soviet Union, which it known as a prospective postwar rival.
According to this view, the bombing of Nagasaki, in particular, had little tactical value and was anticipated to threaten Soviet leaders. Most Americans, however, accepted Truman’s explanation that atomic bombs were used to end the war as speedily as possible and to save lives by avoiding an invasion of the Japanese homeland.
Bibliography
Alperrovitz, Gar. Atomic Diplomacy: Hurishima and Potsdam: The use of the Atomic Bomb and the American confrontation with Soviet Power. New York: Penguin, 1985.
Gaddis, John Lewis. The United States and the origins of the Cold War, 1941-1947. New York: Columbia University Press, 1972
Stimson, Henry. “The decision to use the Atomic Bomb”. Harper’, February 1947.
Takaki. Ronald. Hurishima: Why American Dropped the Atomic Bomb. Boston: Little, Brown, 1995
Footnotes
Ronald Takaki. Hurishima: Why American Dropped the Atomic Bomb. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1995), 10
Henry Stimson. “The decision to use the Atomic Bomb”. Harper’, February 1947, 2.
John Lewis Gaddis. The United States and the origins of the Cold War, 1941-1947. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972), 40
Gar Alperrovitz. Atomic Diplomacy: Hurishima and Potsdam: The use of the Atomic Bomb and the American confrontation with Soviet Power. (New York: Penguin, 1985), 395.