Category: Warfare

Introduction

For decades, Terrorism has been a major issue in Peru and of significant concern to the rest of South America. The country has a history of not only having one of the worst terrorism rates but also suffering from some regional instability. The Shining Path is the Maoist terrorist organization that emerged from the Peruvian communist party, the Union Comunista Peruana (Mauceri, 2018). The violent acts committed by this terrorist organization took place primarily between 1980 and 1992 when its founder, Abimael Guzman Reynoso was jailed (Mauceri, 2018). He was sentenced to life in prison in a military court in February 2003 and represented one of the world’s most feared terrorists (Albertus, 2020). The organization used violent means to conduct its campaign against the Peruvian state, using bombings, assassinations of high-profile figures, and other tactics (Mauceri, 2018). This research paper will focus on the issues of Terrorism that have plagued Peru, their impact on national policies, and the government’s attempts to eliminate the Shining Path.

Impacts of The Shining Path on National Policies

The group’s goal was to overthrow the Peruvian government and establish a communist dictatorship. It has been responsible for numerous terrorist attacks, assassinations, kidnappings, and bombings. The Shining Path’s violent tactics have resulted in more than 70,000 deaths in Peru since 1980. (Albertus, 2020) The group believed that Peru’s rural population was being exploited by urban elites and sought to create a Maoist revolution in which power would be handed over to peasants. The impact of The Shining Path on national policies in Peru can be seen through how it has affected economic, social, and security (Albertus, 2020). The Shining Path has impacted monetary policy because the group has used its violent tactics to attack private businesses that it believes are exploitative to workers or against the interests of the proletariat. In addition, economic policy has been affected because many Peruvians have fled their homes for fear of being targeted by Shining Path militants.

The group’s activities forced the Peruvian government to develop a more aggressive approach to Terrorism than they would have otherwise taken. The government also increased its spending on security forces, which helped to reduce the amount of violence perpetrated by the Shining Path (Albertus, 2020). It made it harder for police officers to do their jobs safely because many members of this group were trained fighters skilled at using weapons like hand grenades and automatic rifles. These skills make it dangerous for cops who want to arrest them without getting injured themselves first before calling backup from other agencies. The Shining Path also impacted national policies by causing some people to lose confidence in their government’s ability to protect them from terrorists and criminals (Mauceri, 2018). This made many people afraid of traveling outside their own neighborhoods or even leaving their homes at night.

The Government’s Attempts to Eliminate the Shining Path

In their efforts to eliminate the Shining Path, the Peruvian government has used several strategies that have proven effective in other countries but have not worked in Peru. They have also tried new tactics that may be more successful than previous efforts. The first approach was military intervention (Mauceri, 2018). In 1984, the Peruvian government sent troops into the area where Shining Path was based, with little success (Mauceri, 2018). The rebels could easily evade capture or kill those who were captured. They also gained control of many surrounding villages by promising them freedom from taxation and other benefits if they joined their cause. This made it difficult for soldiers to distinguish between civilians and rebels when they entered an area controlled by the Shining Path; many innocent people were killed by mistake.

A second approach was police action against suspected members of the Shining Path. However, this did not work either because most suspected members were killed before being arrested and questioned about their involvement with the group (Mauceri, 2018). It also resulted in many innocent civilians being caught up in these actions because many police officers had little training or experience handling such situations. The government also implemented policies aimed at eliminating its influence within society. One such approach was creating a national police force made up entirely of indigenous people who would be less susceptible to corruption than more traditional members of law enforcement (Albertus, 2020). Another policy was offering amnesty for those who surrendered their weapons without any questions asked (Mauceri, 2018). Despite these efforts, however, none of these methods successfully eliminated the group or significantly weakened its influence within the country.

Conclusion

Terrorism has become the scourge of society, randomly bringing destruction and death to its citizens. Discovered in the wake of liberation movements throughout the Americas – Nicaragua and El Salvador in particular – was a bloody insurgent movement that took place in Peru. The Shining Path, under the leadership of Abimael Guzmán, attempted to overthrow the Peruvian government and liberate the people from the invisible chains of imperialism. Guzmán and the Shining Path were never able to better their lives and lead the people out of their misery. Instead, their campaign for people’s power resulted in imprisonment for many innocent Peruvians in addition to killing thousands more. Ultimately, even with international support, the Shining Path could not succeed in its goals as it soon fell apart amidst internal struggles before Peruvian forces could defeat them. The Terrorism in Peru can be seen as a direct result of this insurgent movement gone awry.

References

Albertus, M. (2020). Land reform and civil conflict: Theory and evidence from Peru. American Journal of Political Science, 64(2), 256-274. Web.

Mauceri, P. (2018). State under siege: Development and policy making in Peru. Routledge. Web.

Research indicates that specific socioeconomic and political factors, such as poverty, oppression, and corruption, can explain the rise of terrorism. For example, Okafor and Piesse (2018) found that the fragility of government, youth unemployment, and the number of refugees are significant determinants of terrorism. In other words, the risk of terrorist activity is greater in countries unable to meet the residents’ basic needs and expectations. Wealthy and internally stable states usually face a lower risk of the terrorist threat. However, the impact of terrorism can differ between countries with equally unfavorable political and socioeconomic situations. The most plausible explanation lies in the cultural and religious influence which acts as a local driver of terrorism.

In particular, religious fundamentalist groups commonly associated with terrorism demonstrate exceptional resilience to crackdown attempts. According to Gaibulloev and Sandler (2019), Islamic extremist groups have mastered the use of kinship, long-term friendship, and worship to organize effective resistance against state-sponsored counter-terrorist activities. In this regard, countries with large, oppressed, and poorly integrated Muslim communities are more susceptible to the rise of terrorism. The extremists use the sense of religious solidarity to find and mobilize potential supporters within the community. In the end, terrorists create a well-developed recruitment network, exploiting Islam to their advantage.

However, one cannot consider Muslim communities and believers the root cause of terrorism. The actual root cause lies in the concept of jihad, an idea of the struggle against injustice and sin. According to Cherney and Murphy (2019), Islamic extremists portray jihad as an exclusively violent fight for a noble cause, slowly imprinting this idea into the minds of potential recruits. The perception of jihad as a violent struggle against injustice was common among passive supporters of terrorism (Cherney & Murphy, 2019). With time and potential exposure to extremist influence, these passive supporters may realistically join the terrorist ranks. Therefore, counter-terrorism in the shape of Islamophobic policies benefits the extremists by giving them actual examples of injustice. Governments of countries with large Muslim communities should understand that causal relationship and disrupt terrorist recruitment campaigns by collaborating with Muslim religious authorities and integrating Muslim communities into society. In countries with a predominantly Muslim population, governments should cooperate with religious institutions to prevent terrorists from exploiting the idea of jihad. Neglect of religious and cultural aspects or Islamophobic response would only contribute to the rise of the terrorism.

References

Cherney, A., & Murphy, K. (2019). Support for terrorism: The role of beliefs in jihad and institutional responses to terrorism. Terrorism and Political Violence, 31(5), 1049-1069. Web.

Gaibulloev, K., & Sandler, T. (2019). What we have learned about terrorism since 9/11. Journal of Economic Literature, 57(2), 275-328. Web.

Okafor, G., & Piesse, J. (2018). Empirical investigation into the determinants of terrorism: Evidence from fragile states. Defence and Peace Economics, 29(6), 697-711. Web.

Columbia, for decades, has had a long and complicated history with terrorism. The country has been home to terrorist groups for many years, and the violence has profoundly impacted the Colombian people. However, it was not until the late 1970s that terrorist groups began to form and carry out attacks regularly (Brett, 2021). The most active of these groups was the M-19, which emerged in the early 1970s. The M-19 initially focused on kidnappings and other extortion forms, but it later began attacking military and government targets (Brett, 2021). In addition, the M-19 was responsible for the bombing of the Colombian presidential palace in 1985 (Brett, 2021). In recent years, however, the government has made significant strides in combating terrorism, and the country is now safer than it has been in many years (Brett, 2021). Despite these efforts, however, the threat of terrorism continues to loom large over Colombia, and the country remains on high alert. While there have been many terrorist groups in the country, this discussion will examine the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Columbia (FARC).

The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) is a terrorist group that emerged from the country’s civil war in the 1960s. The group aims to overthrow the government and establish a Marxist state (Miller, 2022). FARC has been involved in numerous terrorist activities, including kidnapping, hostage-taking, bombings, and assassinations (Miller, 2022). According to Miller (2022), the group is also responsible for the production and trafficking of illegal drugs, particularly cocaine. In recent years, FARC has been involved in peace talks with the Colombian government to end the conflict (Miller, 2022). However, these talks have thus far been unsuccessful. The Colombian government has put in place various measures to try and combat the activities of FARC, including military operations, crop substitution programs, and negotiations. Unfortunately, these efforts have not yet successfully eliminated the threat of FARC.

For peace and stability in Colombia to be achieved, an agreement between the government and FARC must be reached to ensure the group’s disarmament. Only then can Colombia begin to move forward with its development agenda. In December 2016, after four years of peace talks mediated by Cuba, a historic agreement was announced between the Colombian government and FARC (Miller, 2022). The agreement promised a ceasefire between both sides and a negotiated demobilization of the rebel fighters. Although the deal has been welcomed by many, it still needs to be approved in a popular referendum before it can be implemented. This agreement could finally bring peace and stability to Colombia after decades of violence and conflict (Miller, 2022). Therefore, all Colombians must ensure that they are informed about the details of the deal and vote in favor of its ratification. Only then will there be a chance for lasting peace in Colombia?

Colombia has experienced firsthand the devastating effects of terrorism. For many years, the country was embroiled in a civil conflict that left thousands dead and displaced. In recent years, Colombia has made significant progress in combating terrorism and reestablishing peace (Miller, 2022). As a result, the country has a great deal of experience to offer other nations grappling with terrorism. One of Colombia’s most important lessons is the importance of dialogue and negotiation. After years of war, the government of Colombia sat down with rebel groups to discuss a way forward (Miller, 2022). The resulting peace agreement has been credited with helping to end the conflict and rebuild the country. This shows that even in the most challenging circumstances, it is possible to find a peaceful resolution through negotiation and dialogue.

Moreover, Colombia also offers a lesson in resilience and determination in fighting terrorism. Despite years of violence and instability, the country has slowly recovered. The economy is growing, tourism is increasing, and Colombians enjoy relative peace and security (Miller, 2022). This demonstrates that governments can rebound and thrive even after enduring great tragedy. Finally, Colombia’s experience highlights the importance of security forces in combating terrorism. Throughout the conflict, government troops worked tirelessly to protect civilians and target terrorist groups. This ultimately helped to tip the balance in the fight against terrorism and paved the way for peace negotiations.

Overall, Colombia has been dealing with terrorism for many years, as numerous terrorist organizations have formed and conducted attacks in the country. The most prominent of these is the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC). Despite significant progress made by the government to tackle terrorism in recent years, it is clear that this remains a considerable concern for the Colombian people. It will likely take time and continued effort from the government and citizens alike to make Colombia a safe place for everyone. In any case, Colombia will remain vigilant against acts of terror to protect its citizens from harm. In addition, the experience of Colombia provides a valuable lesson for other countries facing terrorism. Engaging in dialogue and negotiations, utilizing security forces effectively, and demonstrating resilience make it possible to move toward peace even after enduring great tragedy. Therefore, governments worldwide must learn from Colombia’s experience as they grapple with the challenges posed by terrorism and strive to find lasting solutions. Ultimately, only through collective effort will true peace be achieved.

References

Brett, R. (2021). Political violence and terrorism in Colombia. In R. English (Ed.), The Cambridge History of Terrorism (1st ed., pp. 387–419). Cambridge University Press. Web.

Cubides Cárdenas, J. A., Sierra Zamora, P. A., Calixto Ortiz, D. A., & Pabón Caballero, N. (2019). Terrorism by the FARC-EP and public policies oriented towards national security in Colombia during 1990-2000. Revista Científica General José María Córdova, 17(26), 309–325. Web.

Miller, M. (2022). House of Representatives staff analysis: United States Department of State’s List of Foreign Terrorist Organizations. Web.

The history of terrorism is usually presented by individuals who have conducted actions that caused massive protests or attacks. According to Hoffman (2017), terrorism has a long history, which started in Ancient Greece and was raised by many philosophers. One of the most remarkable terroristic acts was related to the genocide of Jewish people during such crises as the World Wars. Even though the world has changed by the 21st century, terrorism is taking a significant part of modern history.

People have become more tolerant of others, and the number of discriminations regarding belief or race has decreased. However, with the COVID-19 problem and financial crisis, people started protesting and organizing massive terroristic acts. Additionally, with the change in the type of terrorism, the number of death or injury cases stays approximately the same. According to Moller-Leimkuhler (2017), since the beginning of terrorism in the world, more men have preferred to start illegal actions compared to women. Even though more females are participating in massive protests, they rarely become the figures who start terroristic acts like shootings.

In the 20th century, the world experienced terrorism from Hitler, who started the World War II. Some post-soviet countries are reconstructing their infrastructure these days, and the losses caused by the tragedy cannot be compared to other world problems. In the 21st century, the United States has faced terrorism from the country’s leader, Donald Trump, who has changed the immigration policies and discriminated against all people who moved to the country (Helbling & Meierrieks, 2022). Muslim and Mexican majority started protesting, causing an aggressive response from the authorities related to deportation.

Even though leaders of terroristic acts had different motives and goals before acting against the laws, the process of execution of strategies stayed similar in the 20th and the 21st centuries. Nations learn from mistakes, but with the changing environment, the planet meets more challenges in different sectors. Some men are taking advantage of problems to make their lives more comfortable.

References

Helbling, M., & Meierrieks, D. (2022). Terrorism and migration: An overview. British Journal of Political Science, 52, 977-996. Web.

Hoffman, B. (2017). Inside terrorism. Columbia University Press.

Moller-Leimkuhler (2017). Why is terrorism a man’s business? CNS Spectrums, 23(2). Web.

Introduction

Domestic terrorism occurs mainly within the territorial jurisdiction of the United States. It includes actions aimed at intimidating or coercing the civilian population, influencing government policy through intimidation or pressure, or controlling government behavior through mass destruction. The Federal Government does not form an official and public list of internal terrorist organizations or individuals since such a list may interfere with freedom of expression related to the ideologies underlying the activities of certain groups (Department of Homeland Security, 2022). Naturally, the main focus of the anti-terrorist strategy is to protect the residents and interests of the United States, both on American territory and abroad, by strengthening the country’s defense capability, as well as recognizing and neutralizing the terrorist threat at the earliest possible stage.

Discussion

The entire spectrum of American power becomes the instruments of ensuring this strategy: economic, diplomatic, informational, and military. However, special emphasis is placed on three main directions designed to ensure the success of the “four D” strategy: permanent legal instruments that vigilantly monitor compliance with the law; effective activities of intelligence services; military – the last resort to avert the impending threat (National Security Council, 2021). In the United States, there is no comprehensive federal law directly dealing with terrorism (Department of Homeland Security, 2022). A terrorist act may be recognized as the commission or attempt to organize an explosion, armed robbery, arson, murder, attack, missile strike, seizure of vehicles, buildings, hostage-taking, or embassy buildings. All these actions are punishable by federal or State laws and may be considered terrorist, depending on the motives.

Effective, responsible, and sustainable counteraction to domestic terrorism requires joint efforts of the Government while protecting the rule of law and the special prerogatives of law enforcement agencies. This includes policies protecting the independence and integrity of the Department of Justice, including the Federal Bureau of Investigation, intensifying the Federal Government’s efforts to combat domestic terrorism and renewing partnerships with state, local, community, and territorial governments, as well as with civil society and the private sector.

Special prerogatives of law enforcement agencies are granted at all levels, which belong to the Ministry of Justice, including the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Analysis of key trends and trajectories is now regularly conducted by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Department of Homeland Security with the support of the National Counterterrorism Center and other organizations, as appropriate, and then widely disseminated in the Federal Government (National Security Council, 2021). Through this expanded research and analysis related to domestic terrorism, the Federal Government will continue to improve the exchange of information on domestic terrorist threats within the Government so that all relevant states and local governments are equipped with the necessary means to take appropriate action.

Fire, police, EMS, and emergency management organizations are part of state and local governments’ terrorism response plans. State and local governments are the initial point of contact for emergency responses to domestic terrorism, including evacuation and sheltering, according to the NRP, NIMS, and SLG 101 (National Security Council, 2021). The governor urges State and local organizations to sign mutual aid agreements with other governments to share resources. The State’s National Guard forces, which can be requested to assist in response to an act of terrorism, are under the direction of the governor (Homeland Security, 2018). A governor often has the authority to enact, alter, and repeal laws in times of emergency. When the State’s resources are depleted, the governor may request a Stafford Act for federal help. State laws grant authority to the county, parish, and city government entities in a State to conduct local emergency preparedness and response for respective areas (Homeland Security, 2018). The top municipal authority who oversees emergency response actions and resources in his or her jurisdiction is the mayor of the city, county, or parish.

Large-scale evacuations are typically commanded in collaboration with State authorities at the county, parish, and municipal levels. According to the Federal Government, State and municipal governments are aware of their duties and obligations in managing domestic incidents (National Security Council, 2021). Domestic incident management is typically the first responsibility of the state and local governments. When state and local governments’ resources are exhausted or when national interests are at stake, the Federal Government will offer assistance (Homeland Security, 2018). When domestic threats of terrorism become international through communication with foreign entities or otherwise, a complete set of tools applicable to understanding threats of international terrorism, such as intelligence gathering tools, becomes potentially available.

Conclusion

Despite the fact that federal law enforcement agencies do important work to protect Americans from threats of domestic terrorism and a wide range of other problems, state, local, tribal, and territorial law enforcement agencies often serve as the first line of defense against domestic terrorism. Huge funds are being concentrated in the United States, and new methods and methods are being worked out aimed at ensuring comprehensive security against terrorist threats. The American leadership is establishing cooperation with other countries in this area. For this purpose, new international legal mechanisms for countering terrorism are being formed.

References

Department of Homeland Security. (2022). DHS could do more to address the threats of domestic terrorism.

Homeland Security. (2018). National prevention framework.

National Security Council. (2021). National strategy for countering domestic terrorism.

Countering the ideology of terrorism includes a set of organizational, socio-political, information, and propaganda measures to prevent the spread of beliefs, ideas, moods, motives, and attitudes in society aimed at radically changing the existing social and political institutions of the state. Today, counteraction to terrorism should be carried out in such areas as the prevention of terrorism, the fight against terrorism, and the minimization and elimination of the consequences of terrorist acts. Terrorism prevention is understood as an activity that includes a set of measures aimed at identifying and eliminating the causes and conditions that contribute to the implementation of terrorist activities. One of the most important components of prevention is the organization and implementation on a systematic basis of countering the ideology of terrorism and extremism to prevent the creation of terrorist groups such as The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and The Shining Path (Spanish: Sendero Luminoso) in Peru.

Countering the ideology of terrorism includes a set of organizational, socio-political, information, and propaganda measures to prevent the spread of beliefs, ideas, moods, motives, and attitudes in society aimed at radically changing the existing social and political institutions of the state. Any individuals and legal entities, places of mass stay of people, real estate, critical infrastructure, transport, and life support can be considered as potential objects of terrorist aspirations, communication, and information networks (Cotton-Barratt et al., 2020). The anti-terrorist protection of potential objects of terrorist aspirations should be understood as the complex use of physical protection forces, engineering and technical means, and regime measures aimed at ensuring their safe functioning. In this regard, a special role belongs to the effective implementation of administrative and legal regimes provided for by legislation.

Prevention of the emergence of terrorist groups such as The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and The Shining Path (Spanish: Sendero Luminoso) in Peru involves solving the following tasks. First of all, it is the development of recommendations and the implementation of measures to eliminate the causes and conditions that contribute to the emergence and spread of terrorism (Stephens et al., 2021). It is also the provision of a deterrent and positive impact on the behavior of individuals (groups of individuals) prone to extremist actions.

One of the effective methods of preventing the emergence of terrorism is the implementation of comprehensive measures to form a legal culture. In particular, this could be facilitated by a significant expansion of the legal component of upbringing and education. Knowledge of one’s own rights and freedoms will contribute to the development of a sense of respect for the rights and freedoms of others, including their life, health, and dignity. The law prohibits any form of restriction of citizens’ rights on the grounds of social, racial, national, linguistic, and religious affiliation (Cotton-Barratt et al., 2020). Therefore, the education of a tolerant worldview, and tolerant attitude towards all people, regardless of their nationality, religion, social, property status, and other circumstances, will help to counteract various types of religious, national, and social extremism.

An effective measure can also be considered an increase in the level of social and material security of citizens, assistance in the employment of young professionals, and support for housing programs. These measures will help people realize that the state cares about them, and there is no need to commit illegal actions and receive material funds from terrorists and extremists. In conclusion, it is much more profitable to prevent terrorism and extremism than to eliminate the consequences of such phenomena.

References

Cotton-Barratt, O., Daniel, M., & Sandberg, A. (2020). Defence in depth against human extinction: Prevention, response, resilience, and why they all matter. Global Policy, 11(3), 271–282.

Stephens, W., Sieckelinck, S., & Boutellier, H. (2021). Preventing violent extremism: A review of the literature, studies in conflict & terrorism. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 44(4), 346–361.

Perhaps one of the most enduring political violence of modern times is the Arab-Israeli conflict, which owns its genesis in the legality of the Israel state. Of course there exist many other forms of political violence that continues to be demonstrated today by individuals and nations, including the ever present threat of terrorism from Muslim fundamentalists.

Ellina & Moore argues that discontent or deprivation of one form or another is generally taken to be the root cause of violent political behavior (267). Aristotle was of the opinion that an infuriated sense of justice triggers most political revolutions, while Karl Marx opined that political violence generally results from continuous ‘immiseration’ of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie.

More recently, according to Ellina & Moore, some political theorists have argued that political violence originates from the frustrations of individuals who fail to attain the values they believe they are entitled to achieve. These viewpoints draw their strength from the relative deprivation theory, which largely depends on individual interpretations of reality.

The theory has received criticisms for demonstrating subjectivity in justifying political violence. This paper purposes to make an argument for the moral justification of political violence against a sitting government and the factors that should be considered before engaging in political violence.

Men are innately violent in nature (Sedernberg 3), but this form of argument should not be allowed to take precedence in justifying political violence. However, some forms of actions taken by a sitting government may morally justify political violence when other efforts aimed at finding an amicable solution to the problem have been exhausted.

Consider governments that force the population to follow alien philosophical orientations or prescribe to a particular religious order! A good example could be Fidel Castro’s socialist philosophies on the Cuban people and the former Taliban’s appetite for all people of Afghanistan to strictly follow the Sharia teachings according to the Muslim faith.

Such governments first and foremost trample the basic human rights of freedom of association and worship as may be enshrined in the constitution and, as such, there exist a moral justification for political violence aimed at driving them out of power to establish order (Sedernberg 48). It should be noted that the underlying rationale for engaging in political violence in such a scenario must never be based on the propensity for hurting or killing others, but driving the oppressive government out of power.

Political violence in a democracy may also be justified on account of forcing changes in policy on certain issues that may be affecting a large proportion of the population (Vries para. 2). However, this justification must be rigorously evaluated and tested against certain variables, such as the scale of the problem brought about by a particular policy deemed unfit, the number of people affected, if the government itself is the major cause of the problem, or when the government acts to obstruct effective solving of the problem.

Political violence in such a scenario is justified by the fact that people should always ascribe to do good over evil, and therefore have a moral duty to use undemocratic means to reverse a punishing or evil policy. Democracy must never be carried in high value or esteem than the priority of good over evil (Vries para. 5).

However, objective evaluations must be made beforehand to authenticate the fact that existence of such a policy has negatively affected a large proportion of the population, and reversing the policy is the only way to solve the problem. To pass the credibility test, such political violence should be devoid of subjective meanings or hurting personalities; on the contrary, it should be carried out to clean up the system and, again, establish order.

Corrupt governments and others which abet crimes, such as money laundering, human trafficking and drugs trade, have no moral right to be in office and to continue governing the masses (Sedernberg 52). As such, the citizens have a moral right to use all the means within their reach to force such governments out of power, including the use of political violence.

Again, political violence in this context should be viewed as a means to achieve the greater good to the greatest proportion of people, in line with the utilitarian theory of morality (Ellina & Moore 272), and must never be viewed as a strategy for enhancing personal vendetta or a concerted effort to take over power through the backdoor.

Such a framework of political violence can be used to free countries such as Columbia from the drug trade. Successive governments in the country, though democratically elected by the electorate, are bankrolled and to a large extent controlled by the mafia cartels. Respecting such administrations certainly imply that the ‘democracy of drug lords and mafia cartels’ is a higher value than the moral priority and justification of doing what is good (Vries para. 5).

Lastly, political violence may be justified when governments fail to respect the constitution as the supreme law of the land, and when the sitting administration governs as though it is administering a personal entity (Sedernberg 55). According to the relative deprivation theory, people will always feel aggravated by situations that purpose to rob them of their basic rights, resources, wealth, and jobs, among others (Ellina & Moore 274).

Some governments, especially in Africa and Asia, have total disregard of the constitution and rule through parochial interests, sidelining whole societies from enjoying the national cake due to personal vendetta or for the reason that such societies did not vote for them (Sunstein 7).

In Africa, this is the root cause of political violence, and it is morally justified in as far as the people concerned are fighting to get what is rightfully theirs according to the constitution. The task therefore is for the governments to always ensure that they govern in tandem with the wishes and aspirations of those who elected them – the electorate.

Works Cited

Ellina, M., & Moore, W.H. Discrimination and Political Violence: A Cross-National Study with Two Time Periods. The Western Political Quarterly 43.2 (1990): 267-278.

Sedernberg, PC. Fires Within: Political Violence and Revolutionary Change. London: Harper Collins College Press. 1994.

Sunstein, C.R. Legal Reasoning & Political Conflict. New York: Oxford University Press. 1996.

Vries, G.M. Justifications for Terrorism. 2005. Web.

Terrorism is an ever-growing global threat, and a critical challenge faced by virtually all contemporary terrorist groups is the ability to finance their operations. Terrorist organizations rely heavily on external sources of income to fund their activities and processes, such as money laundering, corruption, illegal trade, illicit activities, and donations from sympathizers and supporters (Ahmadzai, et al., 2019). Additionally, terrorists use these funds to purchase weapons, recruit personnel, and build support networks.

For governments, a comprehensive counterterrorism strategy should include measures to disrupt the financing of terrorist groups. This can be done by implementing laws and regulations that make it difficult for terrorists to access and use funds and by increasing cooperation and information sharing between countries to identify and track terrorist financing activities (Ahmadzai, et al., 2019). Governments should work with organizations, financial institutions, and other private entities to ensure that terrorist financing is detected and reported.

Another critical challenge faced by terrorist groups is their ability to recruit and retain personnel and spread their ideology. Terrorist organizations rely on recruitment to fill their ranks, spread their message, and gain new supporters. Governments should take a proactive approach to counter terrorist recruitment and radicalization by engaging with communities, providing education and resources, and monitoring social media (Hoffman, & Morrison-Taw, 2019). Moreover, governments should work to increase access to economic opportunities and social services to address the underlying causes of terrorism and to reduce the appeal of terrorist organizations.

Finally, terrorist organizations must be able to operate and carry out attacks to achieve their objectives. A comprehensive counterterrorism strategy should include a range of measures to disrupt the operational capabilities of terrorist groups, such as enhanced intelligence gathering, improved border security, and increased law enforcement capacity (Bachmann, et al., 2018). Additionally, governments should work to increase their understanding of terrorist tactics and strategies to anticipate better and prevent attacks.

The global jihadist movement is a complex and multifaceted threat that cannot be dealt with using military force alone. Countries must use the elements of national power available to them to fight this movement effectively (Bachmann, et al., 2018). The DIMEFIL framework, which stands for Diplomatic, Information, Military, Economic, Financial, Intelligence, and Law, provides a comprehensive approach that can be used by countries working together to defeat the global jihadist movement.

First, countries must use diplomatic efforts to build international coalitions to share information and resources, which includes engaging in joint operations and building strong relationships among members of the international community to foster trust and cooperation. Additionally, countries can cooperate in providing humanitarian aid to areas affected by the global jihadist movement, such as refugees and those living in conflict zones (Silke, 2018). Diplomatic efforts must include working together to develop international agreements and conventions to regulate the flow of funds and resources to terrorist organizations.

In addition, countries must use information operations to counter the global jihadist movement’s narrative and highlight the adverse effects of their activities. This includes using public diplomacy, media campaigns, and other communication strategies to spread information about the movement and its actions (Silke, 2018). Countries can work together to monitor terrorist activity online and disrupt their communications networks. Additionally, governments must use military power to engage in direct action against the global jihadist movement and its affiliates, which includes conducting raids, airstrikes, and other kinetic operations to disrupt their activities.

In conclusion, the global jihadist movement is a complex and evolving security threat that cannot be defeated through military force alone. To effectively combat terrorism, governments must use all the elements of national power, including diplomatic, informational, military, economic, and financial (DIMEFIL) measures. Governments must simultaneously make the challenges faced by terrorists more difficult while working together to reduce the appeal of the global jihadist movement.

References

Ahmadzai, S. J., Bolger, D., Kaltenthaler, K., Liebl, V., Pantucci, R., Rubin, B., & Whiteside, C. (2019). Negotiated Settlement in Afghanistan: Elements of a Grand Bargain. US Army Training and Doctrine Command Ft Eustis United States. Web.

Bachmann, S. D., Gunneriusson, H., Hickman, K., Weissman, M., & Nilsson, N. (2018). Hybrid Threats and Asymmetric Warfare: What to do? Conference proceeding. Web.

Hoffman, B., & Morrison-Taw, J. (2019). A strategic framework for countering terrorism. In European democracies against terrorism (pp. 3-29). Routledge. Web.

Silke, A. (2018). The study of terrorism and counterterrorism. In Routledge handbook of terrorism and counterterrorism (pp. 1-10). Routledge. Web.

Fog and Friction

Since time immemorial, when humans started waging war on each other, the ability to reduce and understand the unknowns of warfare has determined the victor in most cases. These unknowns of war, described by Karl von Clausewitz as the fog and friction of war, have ever been present in warfare. Until recently, there was little in a commander’s ability to reduce the unknowns on the battlefield.

However, with the development of the digital age and improved command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (C4ISR), and common operating picture (COP), the ability of the commander staff to have real-time visualization of every aspect of the battlefield, including the enemy, is now at large.
Clausewitz gives the following definition of friction in his book On War:

Everything in war is very simple, but the simplest thing is difficult. The difficulties accumulate and end by producing a kind of friction.

It continues to illustrate that this friction is all over with opportunity, resulting in effects whose determination may not be possible since they are caused by chance. Simply, “Friction is the force that makes the apparently easy so difficult.”

It is the unknown of war, enemies, and friends to which commanders must adapt, overcome, or alleviate. Clausewitz, who is considered an early strategist in the military and the first to offer description of warfare friction points out that it takes place when several small accidents make a combination to bring down the performance levels in such a way that ending down lower than intended is what one gets.”

There are many examples throughout history that depict warfare. For example, an historical account of air operations during Desert Storm showed that:

Aircrews had to cope with equipment malfunctions, inadequate mission-planning materials, lapses in intelligence on both targets and enemy defenses, coordination problems between strike and support aircraft, target and time-on-target (TOT) changes after takeoff, unanticipated changes in prewar tactics, adverse weather, the traditional lack of timely bomb damage assessment (BDA), and, in many wings, minimal understanding of what higher headquarters was trying to accomplish from one day to the next.

Watts asserts that “frictional impediments experienced by [Coalition Forces] were not appreciably different in scope or magnitude than they were for the Germans during their lightning conquest of France and the Low Countries in May 1940.”

Too Much Information

On the battlefield, commanders’ craving for information is always intensive. Whether it is about the enemy or friendly units, they want it badly. In the digital age, like never before in history, commanders will have near uninterrupted real-time pictures of conditions on the battlefield.

However, a new kind of friction may replace the old, where information saturation will confuse commanders and staff. A good, recent illustration is during the battle for Fallujah in late 2004 when army and Marine units found it difficult to communicate as a result of multiple communications and COP systems employed by both services in support of the battle.

Expanded Battlefield, More with Less

One of the major accomplishments of technology in warfare is its ability to reduce the vulnerability of soldiers on the battlefield. Whether it is improved body armor, intelligent munitions, or analytical operating systems, all serve to quickly destroy the enemy and protect soldiers.

Ultimately, this results in fewer soldiers and the resulting misconception is that a few can always do more. This phenomenon occurred in 2002, when, according to Major Shelly Walker, force caps in the invasion of Afghanistan caused friction. This forced unresponsive, ad-hoc forces to engage Al-Qaeda during Operation Anaconda.

Managing Technology

Information technology will increase the scope of the battlefield, causing an expansion of fog and friction on future battlefields. However, the addition of information will bring more systems for young leaders to master. This increases the responsibility to focus on automated systems. In their 2001 Military Review article, Jacob Kipp and LTC (ret) Lester Grau describe the following scenario:

The platoon leader. will soon have a portable computer to tell him what his situation really is. The platoon leader serves the technology by constantly monitoring and responding to his radio and inputting data into his computer, causing a clear struggle between controlling his platoon and serving technology’s demands. Both require his attention, but neither receives it fully.

There is so much information, where the resultant tendency will be the replacement of the gap in the amount of what a commander can absorb and what he can decide upon with artificial technology. The only limitation in this is the omission of thinking, adapting enemies, constantly trying to “deceive the commander.”

Asymmetric Warfare

In 2006, it was made clear in the National Strategy for Counteracting Terrorism that by all means, America was indeed at war with an ideologically radical movement of terrorists purely motivated by passions of killings and hatred.” This enemy seldom uses conventional tactics, largely moving within civilian populace. Based on this information per se, friction would play a role on the asymmetric battlefield.

However, the friction that Clausewitz envisaged was from his view of warfare developed on the Napoleonic battlefields of Europe. Nevertheless, Clausewitz’s theory stands the test of time, in an age where a new enemy exists in addition to a complex asymmetrical warfare packed with fog and friction.

Conclusion

For a period of 175 years, Clausewitz’s theory on the fog and friction of war has been applicable. Currently, in what can be easily interpreted as a total shift from the theory, some scholars in this digital age believe the theory is obsolete because of real-time COP and extensive C4ISR capabilities.

The theory though will find some unavoidable applications on present and future battlefields. With new technology, commanders and staff will reach a point of information saturation, where the huge amount of information produces friction due to enemy adaptability and reduction of information systems usage. Eventually, asymmetric warfare will enhance the fog and friction. Therefore in the digital age, with a view of the future battlefield, Clausewitz’s theory on the fog and friction of warfare remains relevant, not obsolete.

References

Bush, G.W.(2006) National Strategy for Combating Terrorism. Washington D.C: Government Printing Office, 2006.

Clausewitz, C. V.(1984). On War. Edited by Michael Howard and Peter Paret. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1984.

Kipp, J. W., Lsester W. G.(2001). The Fog and Friction of Technology. Military Review, September-October 2001: 88-97.

Matthews, M. M(2004). Operation Al Fajr: A Study in Arm and Marine Corps Joint Operations. Occasional Paper, Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute, 2004.

Walker, S.(2003).Fog, Friction, and Force Caps. monograph, Fort Leavenworth, KS: School of Advanced Military Studies, 2003.

Watts, B. D.(1996).Clausewitzian Friction and Future Warfare. McNair Paper 52. Washington D.C: Institute for National Strategic Studies, National Defense University, 1996.

Introduction

The battle of Tarawa refers to a war that occurred from 20^th to 23^rd November of 1943 during the Second World War in the Pacific Ocean. This is the second time the United States of America seriously provoked people and the peace in the central pacific areas. This was also the first time ever the United States was wagging a war against Japan’s opposition to a cold ending.

The initial attempt by the United States to take over Japan was fruitless as the Japanese solders were well equipped and well trained so much so that they overpowered the American marine solders and won the battle. The battle was so fierce that hundreds of American solders were injured and seriously wounded during the war and many more bodies could not be sent back to their homeland.

The images of the bodies taken when the film of this war was taken way back in 1994 were said to be distressing according to the people’s views. For this film to be availed to the public view the film maker had to obtain permission from the then president Franklin Roosevelt.

This film to this very moment is considered the only film that has been given the most horrific pictures of the dead American solders. This paper discusses the war that took place between Americans and Japanese at the island of Tarawa. It explains every undertaking of both the groups involved, the type of weapons they used and the mode of attack. The paper provides details on how the war went on for the four days as well as the events that took place during the operations of the days and nights.

Discussion

The battle of Tarawa was fought in 1943 between Americans and Japanese along the pacific area from November 20^th to November 23^rd (Baldwin 1). In order to come up with air field that could aid in the operation successfully into Japan, the United States had to operate from Marinas Island. This was not possible as it turned out that the island was heavily guarded by the Japanese solders. To deteriorate the resistance, the U.S decided that they would use bombers.

This could be done from the Marshall Island as it was the closest and the only one that could support such an operation. This attempt also failed as their communication was hindered from Hawaii. So it was concluded that to be able to attack the Marinas Island, the ballet had to be executed from Tarawa. Tarawa is a toll found in the Gilbert Island thus the name the battle of Tarawa came up.

The Japanese solders were quite well informed about the activities that were to take place at Gilbert Island and decided to take their time to strengthen their wave of attack at that point. They placed a task force of over two thousand solders under the command of Takeo Sugai. This is said to have needed a well informed group of marines.

They used technical equipment like tankers, coastal defense guns and Vickers guns. This they are said to have used during the Russo-Japanese war. These instruments were put around Gilbert Island and hidden in concrete bankers. Over five hundred pillbox made of logs and almost forty artilleries were spread around the island in readiness for usage.

They made an air field inside the bush in the island and dug channels and canals that the solders could use for moving from one place to the next during the battle. This troop was led by Commander Kaigun Shosho who proudly said that it would cost the United States one hundred years to overtake Tarawa using a task force of a million well trained men. These preparations were done early enough in readiness for the attack.

The Japanese were well prepared for the war and had all the confidence that they would painfully and massively defeat American solders (Antill 5). On the other hand, the American solders were well over thirty five thousand thus combined with the marines. They used battle ships, heavy and light cruisers, destroyers and transporters in large numbers.

They also used well built aircraft carriers. In the group of the warriors were the second marine divisions, infantry division and a few of the strong army men. Both the armies started the war on November twentieth and continued for one hour without stopping. They only ceased shortly to give time for the dive bombers to attack from opposite directions. A large number of the Japanese guns were destroyed during this time of opposite attack by the well armed American solders.

The bombing from the American bombers severely destroyed the small island and left it in rubbles. People thought that nobody would be left behind to salvage what remained of the little island. This was because the island was very much destroyed and was in bad shape so to say. The Japanese took cover and attacked the American solders when they decided to cease fire and let their marines reload.

The Japanese destroyed every weapon of the Americans that they could see and even set their boats on fire. Many of the American troops were injured by the Japanese’s large guns but some managed to escape to the nearby reef. The Japanese continued their attack late into the evening of the first day.

On the second day of the war, November twenty second, the American marines attacked the Japanese soldiers and separated them into halves thus slightly weakening the power (Antill 7). They did this by attacking from both sides and thus surrounding them.

They stopped using direct attacks and instead attacked from off the shore as they moved forward during day time. They were then able to rearrange themselves within an hour with not many soldiers getting hurt. This enabled them to be able to move to the deserted defense areas of the Japanese and they were once again able to defeat them. By the end of the day the American troops were in control of all of the western part of the region.

On the other hand, a small number of the army moved to the south to launch the attack from there. On the twenty third day of the same month the Japanese attacked the American solders but the solders resisted the attacks by taking more artillery within a very close range. The Japanese attacks came very early in the morning. One hour later more than three hundred Japanese solders were attacked at close and far range.

The American solders moved further and conquered most of the Japanese’ protected areas and now had more control of the region. They used the available forces and machinery against the Japanese after taking them by surprise. They received strong resistance from the Japanese soldiers and for a moment thought that they could not continue the fight. They then gathered force and fought back fiercely.

The Japanese tried to resist with all their strength but they could not resist the continual attack from the American solders. Most of their army members were either dead or severely injured that they could not do much. They gave up the fight after a spirited attack and resistance. They used all the available tools and machinery they had within their reach. The Americans now had control over the southern, northeastern and western parts of the Tarawa Island (Baldwin 3). The remaining Japanese soldiers were either killed or forced to flee the area.

Conclusion

The battle of the Tarawa was an intense battle. Both the groups involved were well prepared for the war. They both had very heavy machinery and well qualified and highly trained solders. Both the armies had large numbers of troops working under experienced commanders. The Japanese initially had more confidence in themselves but unfortunately they were defeated and overpowered by the American solders.

Clearly they learned that the American soldiers did not need a hundred years and a million trained solders to invade and take over Tarawa within just three days. Major Adams commanded a group of American infantry soldiers into the lagoon and into the areas that were initially occupied by the Japanese to finish the war. It is reported that “by the end of the war only one Japanese officer, sixteen enlisted men and over a hundred Koreans were found alive,” (Baldwin 5). A good number of them were killed in action.

Works Cited

Antill, Peter. Operation Galvanic (1): The Battle for Tarawa November 1943. 2003. Web.

Baldwin, Hanson. “The bloody epic that was Tarawa: The iron courage of the marines who endured the red hell of that battle.” The New York Times. 1958: 1-5.