The primary goal of the public diplomacy project is to examine and evaluate the consequences of the implementation of the United States Office of War Information in 1942, the establishment of the Bureau of Motion Pictures, and its contribution to present.
Scenario: The Context in which the activity took place/issue it sought to address
Context. At the beginning of the World War II, the nation of the United States of America consistently remained in the dark concerning the wartime facts and news. One American observer noted: “It all seemed to boil down to three bitter complaints…first, that there was too much information; second, that there wasn’t enough of it; and third, that in any event it was confusing and inconsistent” (Weinberg 77).
Furthermore, the people of the United States admitted experiencing a deficiency of comprehension regarding the origins and reasons of world war. Moreover, the American government had observed a considerable animosity of its nation against other representatives of the Allied Nations. The situation required immediate government intervention.
Issue. The United States Office of War Information, which is also called OWI, was established as an administrative bureau of America in the course of the World War II in order to centralize existent at the time political information services and distribute indoctrination not only within the country but abroad as well.
The United States Office of War Information functioned from June 1942 until September 1945 by Executive Order 9182 of Franklin D. Roosevelt. By means of radio transmissions, regular publications, posters, placards, images, movies and various other methods of spreading media, the United States Office of War Information received a role of a network between the combat zone and civilian communities.
The OWI Bureau of Motion Pictures had been founded as a continuation of the public diplomacy of the USA in the cooperation with Hollywood in order to develop motion pictures, which promoted and achieved the war intentions of the American government.
Programme Activity: Describe succinctly the PD response to this scenario
As a response to the current situation at the beginning of the War, President Roosevelt decided to implement a solution of public diplomacy. He established the United States Office of War Information, as it was said before, in order to not only satisfy the need for the wartime information and reduce the disorientation but to deal with the indifference of the American nation towards military action taking place in the world.
The people of the United States, as well as the Congress, became tired of the assorted propaganda and information that was designed to persuade them in various assumptions for a few reasons.
First of all, the mass media was feeling alarmed because of a centralized governmental organization that played the role of the only wholesaler of the wartime news and information. Secondly, the Congress was concerned that the activity of the United States Office of War Information and its propaganda could possibly mirror the movement of Joseph Goebbels in Germany.
Moreover, preceding efforts in implementing indoctrination with the help of the Committee on Public Information/Creel Committee in the course of the past war were observed as a defeat. And the last but not the least reason for declining the possible source of wartime information is the native indifference that became a major issue during the war; therefore, the American nation was indecisive towards becoming dragged into a worldwide propaganda operation and a World War afterward.
However, after the attack on Pearl Harbor occurred, the dismay of propaganda was superseded by the demand for organized, correspondent, and accurately advertised wartime news and facts from the armed force or the authorities to the people of the American nation. President Roosevelt entrusted the Office of War Information to beloved journalist and CBS newsman Elmer Davis, with the mission to take “an active part in winning the war and in laying the foundations for a better post-war world” (Winkler 1).
Moreover, he “ordered Davis to formulate and carry out, through the use of press, radio, motion picture, and other facilities, information programs designed to facilitate the development of an informed and intelligent understanding, at home and abroad, of the status and progress of the war effort and of the war policies, activities, and aims of the Government” (Winkler 34).
According to Elmer Davis, “the easiest way to inject a propaganda idea into most people’s minds is to let it go through the medium of an entertainment picture when they do not realize that they are being propagandized” (Winkler 2). The outstanding and rewarding motion pictures characterized the Allied military organizations as courageous ‘Freedom fighters’ and encouraged the involvement of the citizens, such as preserving energy and gas or giving away supplies for armed forces.
In July 1942, the authorities of the Office of War Information became aware of the fact that the adequate way to approach the American nation was to provide them with war motion pictures in combination with feature films. The existence of the Office of War Information in Hollywood expanded through World War II; moreover, in 1943 each one of the studios (excluding the Paramount) provided Bureau of Motion Pictures with the opportunity to study every movie scenarios.
The Bureau of Motion Pictures decided whether a given movie would be able to advertise the confidence and reputation of the Allies’ mission. As a result, the Bureau of Motion Pictures had determined the movies that are known to the humanity at the present day.
What does your example demonstrate?
The example of the establishing of the United States Office of War Information and the OWI Bureau of Motion Pictures demonstrates the efficiency of the public diplomacy in the historical case of the beginning of World War II and American indifference towards it. What is more interesting is the greater success of the motion pictures abroad rather than inside the country, as the public diplomacy actions were directed to either side.
The United States Office of War Information had established a Psychological Warfare Branch, also known as PWB over the ocean in order to use propaganda and wartimes films to threaten and oppress the military forces of the opponents in combat areas. This activity was held additionally to the providing information to the nonmilitary citizens in the camps of Allies.
The OWI Bureau of Motion Pictures had been eliminated in the autumn of 1945 and had preserved the close connection with the Hollywood until the very end (Cull 187). The current President Truman described the OWI Bureau of Motion Pictures Information as a significant addition towards winning the war and failed to see the reasoning for the continuation of financing the organization after the war has ended.
“The international offices of the OWI were transferred to the State Department, and the United States Information Service and the Office of Strategic Services/Central Intelligence Agency assumed many of the information gatherings, analyzing, and disseminating responsibilities” (Johnson 341).
Regardless the fact that the OWI Bureau of Motion Pictures had experienced a distressed and unsettled continuation, it is extensively generally acknowledged as a great compelling attribution to the victory of the Allied Nations and assembling the assistance and support of the American Nation for the military actions from the inside of the country.
What can others learn from this case?
The case of the OWI Bureau of Motion Pictures demonstrates the power of the public diplomacy as a response to the historical cases. Moreover, on the example of the Office of War Information, in general, it could be said that the result of a considerable scale could be achieved with the help of the public diplomacy.
Please identify which approach and theme best describes the project.
Approach
Theme
Listening
Facilitation
Sustainability
Exchange
Security
Cultural Diplomacy
X
Citizenship, governance and education
International Broadcasting
X
Social Justice and Diversity
Advocacy
Sources for scenario and activity
(including links to project website, online video or reference to the project in print media).
Cull, Nicholas. The Decline and Fall of the United States Information Agency. London, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan. 2012. Print.
Johnson, Matthew. “Propaganda and Sovereignty in Wartime China: Morale Operations and Psychological Warfare under the Office of War Information.” Modern Asian Studies 45.2 (2011): 303-344. Print.
Nelson, Michael. War of the Black Heavens: The Battles of Western Broadcasting in the Cold War. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. 1997. Print.
Weinberg, Sydney. “What to Tell America: The Writers’ Quarrel in the Office of War Information.” The Journal of American History 55.1 (1968): 73-89.
Winkler, Allan. The Politics of Propaganda: The Office of War Information, 1942-1945. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1978. Print.
In his constitutional book, Presidential Power War, Louis Fisher elaborates the evolutionary powers of the president in foreign policy especially concerning international conflicts. Fisher’s central idea revolves around the constitution by focusing on its role in defining the powers of the president and the congress. He calls for the American political society to establish check and balances especially in relation to the president’s authority.
In the first and second chapter, Louis Fisher highlights the solid constitution whereby the president and congress had to work in consultation. In subsequent chapters, Louis focuses on the mutilation of the constitution of the United States of America, which has slowly granted the president powers therefore, sidelining the role of congress.
Consequently, from early 20th century the United States of America has taken part in a number of international wars such as the Persian Gulf War, Korean War and the Iraq war. Consequently, creating constrained international relations with the parties involved.
Therefore, as a legal advisor, Louis Fisher enlightens the society on the impact of the presidential powers to the political and social development of the United States of America. Fisher argues that the major arms of the government the executive, legislature and the judiciary have colluded in tampering with the constitution of the United States of America especially in relation to presidential powers on wars or foreign policy.
Fisher commences his book by focusing on the constitution definition of the presidential and congress powers. According to Fisher, the framers of the constitution prevented the establishment of unilateral powers of the president (Fisher, 2004, p.10). Therefore, the congress role was to provide bilateral powers thus, cutting down presidential powers (Fisher, 2004, P.60).
The executive had no central decision especially concerning wars, with the practice of collective judgment the president was to act within the constitutional requirements. Although the earlier predecessors of the constitution acted within their mandate, Louis subsequent chapters highlight the deterioration of the bilateral powers in the United State of America.
Dating back to the mid 19th century, the presidents of the United States defied the constitution by establishing himself as the key player in decisions, which concern international conflicts (Powell, 2002, P.40). President Regan, George Bush, Roosevelt and Clinton are among the leaders who have hindered the enforcement of the constitution law, which defines presidential powers.
Consequently, the Congress power as the bilateral player especially in matters concerning international conflicts has declined. Relating to the Mexican war of 1846, Fisher cites the passive participation of the congress gave the presidential powers to not only provoke international wars but also create flimsy reason to defend their actions (2004, P.30).
Commencing from mid 19th century through to the 20th century, president and the congress have tampered with the constitution clauses regarding presidential powers. Intuitively, the United States of America is yet to fulfill the wish of the framers and predecessors of the constitution stand in relation to presidential wars.
Therefore, Fisher cites major wars, which presidents have sparked and they include, the Mexican War, World War II, Korean War, Persian Gulf War and the Iraq war among others. Eventually, Fisher descriptively, focuses on the Korea War citing the role of the president and the failure of the congress in stopping the war.
Thus, by comparing the earlier wars in which, both the president and the congress had collective judgment, Fisher relates their impact in comparison to the current wars. Accurately, Fisher points out at the failure of the president, the congress and the judiciary.
Luckily, he motivates the American people to call upon their leaders more so, the congressional representatives to take up active role in foreign policy. With evidential facts, Fisher outlines the decline of the powers of the congress since 19th century up to the current leadership.
Analytically, the first argument Fisher points out is the failure of the congress in playing its role as the checks and balances of the presidential or executive powers (Hess, 2001, P.20). Consequently, this has led to presidential outrageous decision in declaring war in various countries. Intuitively, why did the framers of the constitution call from bilateral powers and not unilateral powers?
Initially, the president did not only consult the congress when issues concerning international arose but also the congress held the powers to initiate wars. Collective decision and bilateral powers prevented the United States of America from involving itself into many international conflicts. Evidently, the failure of the congress has initiated strained relationship between the United States of America and other countries like Iraq.
Essentially, according to Fisher all the American citizens end up suffering due to the failure of the constitution. Consequently, America has created dictatorship type of presidents, who have declared wars in most corners of the world. Evidently, in the contemporary society, America has created many enemies especially from the Asian region.
However, he notes that there is room to change the status of the constitution because the failure of the two parties lies within execution. Contrarily, he also points out failure on the part of the framers of the constitution who lacked to define clearly circumstances when there are urgent wars. Although the congress decided to offer president powers to decide on international conflicts, this has led to increased wars (Adler, 1980, P.16).
This move has led to wars like the Vietnam War experienced in 1964 and the recent Iraq war of 2012. Subsequently, the same congress is not yet ready to take over its role as the checks and balances of the constitution.
Furthermore, Fisher goes ahead and points out at the president’s decision to manipulate the congress in order to buy his decision. Among the famous presidents, he notes is George W. Bush who cunningly manipulated the congress to declare war to Iraq. At this level, the United Nations security docket was unable to act much because of the failure of the congress.
A similar move leads to the Persian gulf war, where the president deliberately takes action against other countries therefore, sidelining the roles of other parties like the United Nation security council. Other political analysts also highlight war and subsequently, their funding as a move that has increased due to the imbalanced powers between the president and the legislature (Weissman, 1996, P.32).
Similarly, Fisher eloquently outlines historical events that have taken place in the United State of America especially in relation to political wars and constitutional practices. Relying on his personal participation and observation in the constitutional changes that have taken place over the last five decades, Fisher comfortably points at the role of the president in declaring war in foreign states.
Therefore, what is the consequence of the failure of the congress? Fisher compares wars that occurred in the early 19th century in which, both the congress and the president had collective judgment and the consequences of the current wars to the United State of America is experiencing.
For instance, the wars fought with the American Indians, France and Barbary ended amicably because there was cooperation between the two parties, the congress and the executive (Wormuth & Firmage, 1989, P.60). However, the congress delegation of the constitutional clause to the president has seen a fast rise of destructive wars.
Although the aim of this move was to prevent harming of Americans in other countries, this has done more harm than good. Many wars have come after the Second World War II because the congress has silently watched as its constitutional powers disappear.
For instance, the case of President Harry Truman initiation of the Korean War without consulting the congress led to international conflicts. All these warring problems escalated immediately after the congress decided to play a passive role on presidential powers on wars.
In the contemporary society, there is an increase in the number of rebellions groups against America; most of them aim at killing their citizens or bombing embassies among other ill motives. A major example is the bombing of the American embassy in Kenya in 1998 and the September attack on the American twin towers in 1999 (Powell, 2002, P.23). How many Americans lost their lives?
Therefore, Fisher is calling upon the congress to control the presidential decision on declaring international wars because of the drastic damages the region is experiencing. Fisher’s main argument is to wake up or urge the congress members who are constantly failing the American people take up their responsibility as per the constitution requirements.
The aforementioned attacks originated from a rebellious group called Al-Qaida, led by Osama Bin Laden they led various massive destruction on American property thus, injuring its citizens (Fisher & Adler, 1989, P.40). Clinton had no option but to call for military action against them.
However, at this point the president acted in a collectively manner with support from both the Democrats and Republicans for the stability of the country as cited by Hendrickson (Fisher & Adler, 1998, p.10). President’s Bill Clinton military action in Yugoslavia, Bosnia, Afghanistan and Iraq created strained relationships between America and the involved countries.
In addition, Fisher also features the role of judiciary in relation to the executive powers, which have led to international wars. In the recent past, the federal courts have played a great role in supporting the presidential decision on wars. More often, when the congress calls upon the courts to stop the president from issuing military authority the courts have always ruled in favor of the president.
Therefore, is the judiciary ignorant of the constitutional requirements or is it a matter of negligence? For instance, the case against president Regan who had violated the presidential wars in the 1980s was rule against crockett (Javits, 1973, P.20).
According to the district judge, the president had the power to ensure or confirm that El Salvador had hostile intention thus, sending him his military advisers. Similarly, in 1984 some congress member sued president Regan for attacking Grenada in 1983. Unfortunately, the judge expunged the case and its evidence because the congress members failed to act within their constitutional mandate.
Furthermore, when two more cases against president Regan went to court, the judiciary cleverly dodged them thus, supporting the president in his move regarding presidential wars. Consequently, the judiciary has greatly failed the constitution of the United States of America. Thus, Fisher notes that the judiciary though independent, it has a role in giving a clear stand about the president’s power when it comes to wars.
Additional when, president Bush solely decided to use countries like Saudi Arabia in attacking Iraq, the congress ,members approached the courts for legal action. Unluckily, the courts urged the congress to use both the house and the senate to condemn the president’s move before it can take any legal action against him.
However, the congress of the United States of America is always reluctant to confront the president in relation to his decision on wars. Consequently, currently, the president of the United State of America has powers to declare war on any country, when the need arises without consultation of the congress.
Hence the predecessors and framers of the constitution whose aim was to control presidential powers on wars while at the same time preventing any form of encroachment of either the congress or the executive on the statue has failed. On the other hand, the predecessors of the constitution like Roosevelt argued that the president had powers to provide military action in other countries especially concerning to foreign policy.
The current involvement of the American foreign policy is continually hindering the requirements of the constitution. According to most American presidents both current and their predecessors, the president has supreme powers in matters concerning foreign policy.
Subsequently, in attempt to cut the powers of the president on wars, the congress established a clause on War Powers Act of 1973 (Fisher, 2004, P.45), which clearly define circumstances under, which the president can solely declare war. On the other hand, the president can declare war if he thinks that it is an emergency especially when the country or its people are in danger.
More over, according to the constitution of the United States of America, the president has the power to sent troops and declares war as the commander in chief of the army. Essentially, this raises a contradiction in the role of both the congress and the president in matters concerning declaration of war especially on other countries. The power to withdraw troops from wars is among the roles the legislature should take up.
Unfortunately, although this Act is under the constitution, the presidents of the United States of America have sidelined its content. Critically observation also shows that the Act has continually created conflicts between both the house and the senate.
Evidently, the statute does not clearly demarcate the role of the president and the congress incases of wars. Fisher is therefore, calling upon the legislature to get involved in the use of American military troops and the funding of international conflicts.
As a renowned political scientist, Fisher enlightens the reader on the power or role of war and its eventual culmination into lasting peace. Besides the judiciary, the media and other public forums have a role in reinstating the role of the congress in determination or execution of the foreign policy.
When the congress constructed the Act of 1973, which limited the powers of the president, in relation to foreign policy the element of collective judgment was one of the aspects they intended to fulfill.
On the other hand, the centralization of the budget granted the executive more powers in matters concerning the use of military action in foreign countries. Therefore, what steps should the legislature take to relinquish its powers? This is the most challenging question Fisher expects the legislature to take up because the decline of their powers started more than 50 years ago.
Finally, Fisher asserts that the presidents of the United States of America are at the centre of making or creating wars. Although foreign conflicts are hard to come by, the choice solely lies within the president. In comparison with other nations like England, the United State of America is outstanding in initiating foreign wars.
Unfortunately, this military initiative predicts many wars that United States of America is yet to face with other foreign countries. Therefore, the strengthening of the legislature is the only way that would create peace in America. The president of America should be urged to act in a collective manner in issues concerning foreign policies especially wars.
Notably, the constitution is already at hand therefore, it is the role of the legislature to fight for its rightful position. Eventually, this move will save Americans from many conflicts and destruction they are facing. Therefore, the success of American lies within not only the legislature, judiciary and the executive but also the citizens.
Citizens have the right to ensure that their leaders implement the constitution. Other political analysts like Hendrickson concur with Fisher by pointing out the impact of the wars that presidents have declared on the United States of America especially from the terrorist groups (Fisher, 2004, P.29). Therefore, besides the legislature, the executive should also swallow its pride and fulfill the constitution requirement.
Fisher is singing this silent song to the leaders of America before their country faces resistance from all faces of the world. In addition, Fisher is also urging the civil society to wake up and urge the three arms of government to follow the constitution in exercising their powers.
In conclusion, armed with facts and historical records, in his book presidential power war, Fisher elaborately outlines circumstances that have led to constrained relationship between America and other countries especially in the Asian region. The laxative nature of the congress to work in hand with the president in matters concerning foreign policy has majorly contributed to the failure of the constitution.
By outlining various wars different presidents of the United States of America have declared, Fisher notes that unless the legislature takes up its role as the checks and balances of the constitution, USA will face resistance from many other nations.
He also sadly, points at the failure of the judiciary in reinstating the constitution of United States of America especially in matters concerning the powers of the presided. Finally, Fisher creatively enlightens the society on the impact of mutilating a constitution especially in matters relating to foreign policy.
References
Adler, D. G. (1988). The Constitution and Presidential Warmaking: The Enduring Debate. Political Science Quarterly, 103(1),16.
Fisher, L. (2004). Presidential War Power. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas.
Fisher, L. & Adler, D.G (1998). The War Powers Resolution: Time to Say Goodbye. Political Science Quarterly 113(10), 1
Hess, G. R. (2001). Presidential Decisions for War: Korea, Vietnam, and the Persian Gulf. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press.
.Javits, J. K. (1973). Who Makes War: The President Versus Congress. New York: Morrow.
Powell, H. J. (2002). The President’s Authority Over Foreign Affairs: An Essay in Constitutional Interpretation. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Weissman, S. R. (1996). A Culture of Deference: Congress’s Failure of Leadership in Foreign Policy. New York: Basic Books, 1996.
Wormuth, F. D.& Firmage E.B (1989). To Chain the Dog of War: The War Power of Congress in History and Law, Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
Post-war period can be regarded as the time when theorists of public administration rejected scientific methods and strategies to enhance effectiveness of the US government. This period is marked by such concepts as democratic values, positivism, behavioral theory and business management. Noteworthy, this period is also characterized by criticism of scientific method in public administration. Some of the most influential theorists of this period are Paul Appleby, Herbert Simon and Dwight Waldo.
The Theorists and Their Contribution
Paul Appleby is one of the most influential theorists of post-war period. He heavily criticized scientific method as the theorist asserted that public administration cannot be separated from politics (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). Appleby advocated major democratic principles in public administration. Remarkably, his ability to make people work together can largely be explained by his adherence to democratic values in his work.
He tended to compare public administration to a private enterprise. The theorist noted that business management can be used in public administration. More so, he stressed that methods used in business management could help public administrators perform more effectively.
Appleby was also an advocate of democratic leadership in public administration (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). He stressed that leadership plays essential role in the development of any organization and contributes to effective functioning of public administrators.
Another influential post-war theorist of public administration was Herbert Simon who shaped the theory to some extent. Simon claimed that structuring is crucial for effective functioning of public administration (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). The theorist also added that it was essential to concentrate on people’s behavior within an organization as well as public administration (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012).
Simon pointed out that the government agencies as well as public administration as a discipline would benefit, if public administrators understood the aims and goals and were committed to achieve them. Notably, the theorist drew numerous lines between business management and public administration. He claimed that the work in public administration as well as in any business enterprise was based on decision-making.
Simon stressed that it was vital to understand the mechanism of people’s decision-making to be able to develop effective organizations (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). Therefore, the theorist focused on people’s behavior and factors affecting their decision-making.
Dwight Waldo is another influential theorist of public administration. He agreed with major concepts mentioned by Simon and Appleby, but he also noted that some principles were out-dated (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). Thus, Waldo stressed that there is apparent tension between bureaucracy and democratic values, so public administrators had to pay special attention to democratic principles.
Waldo also agreed that it was impossible to separate public administration from politics (Cox et al., 2010). The theorist believed that policies could not be created objectively.
Therefore, scientific management could not be applicable for the US government. Waldo also paid a lot of attention to behaviorism and peculiarities of decision-making. Noteworthy, Waldo argued that business management could not be applied to public administration (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). Thus, the theorist tried to promote the principles of democratic leadership.
Conclusion
To sum up, Appleby, Simon and Waldo are post-war public administration theorists who focused on positivism, behaviorism and democratic values. Importantly, these theorists criticized scientific method and tried to promote democratic principles in public administration. They believed that strong leadership could encourage public administrators perform effectively and contribute to the development of the US government.
Reference List
Cox, R.W., Buck, S.J., & Morgan, B.N. (2010). Public administration in theory and practice. New York, NY: Longman Publishing Group.
Shafritz, J.M., & Hyde, A.C. (2012). Classics of public administration. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
Very recently, Kosovo got independence last month in February, after a civil war that killed thousands and thousands of people about ten years back, and then suffered the absolute gloomy state of oblivion under the United Nations reign. Their effort to be acclaimed as a country introduced under Europe was the latest chapter in the splitting off of the former Yugoslavia, after 17 years since the process of its formal closing had begun.
The paper starts with describing the recent events that took place in Kosovo after independence, the celebrations as well as little events of violence, which were done by the opposition parties, and also reactions from various countries across the world for the recognition of Kosovo as an independent nation.
Then a general analysis of civil wars is presented; what is a civil war and what are its various aspects. It covers different civil wars that have taken place so far in the history of this world. Certain specific reasons for civil war from different researches done by sociologists have also been integrated thereafter.
Then begins the core of the paper, which takes back to the historical background of the war in Kosovo, from the disintegration of Yugoslavia to the situations in Serbia and Kosovo during the civil war and the aftermath, and also Kosovo’s condition under the rule of the United Nations along with the role of NATO.
The last part of the paper shows the analysis of Kosovo’s independence, as being an exceptional case in history, and therefore deserving an exceptional solution for such independence, which has indeed kept reasonable peace within the region so far. It is expected to stay likewise for times to come.
Kosovo – right after Independence
After a long history of civil war and violence, finally, Kosovo declared independence from Serbia on Sunday, the 17th of February, 2008. The independence has indeed brought about both jubilations and protests.
The celebrations included hundreds and thousands of ethnic Albanians pouring out across from the streets, cheering and celebrating what they were looking forward to, after such a stretched struggle involving bloodshed in the course for national self-determination. Ethnic Albanians arrived at Pristina at the weekend from faraway places, even from the United States. Dancing frantically in wild excitement, they did not worry about facing the onslaught of bitter cold temperatures nor heavy snow. ‘Beating drums, waving Albanian flags, and throwing firecrackers, they chanted: “Independence! Independence! We are free at last!” ’ (Bilefsky, n.p.)
They ensconced a 100-foot-long birthday cake on the main boulevard in Pristina. Celebrations were held in Times Square with hundreds of people waving Albanian flags. Celebrators drove their cars in circles around the celebration area, passing the crowds and steering chants.
The government of Serbia and the Serbian communities in northern Kosovo were filled with anguish, fury, and incredulity. A large number of angry Serbs came together at the United States Embassy in Belgrade, the capital of Serbia, and attempted to fling stones and smashed windows. At another place in Kosovo, a grenade was cast at a building owned by the United Nations. (Bilefsky, n.p.)
The reaction worldwide is of two minds. A showdown between the West and the Serbian government and its allies comes to a climax, where the West argues that Serbia’s ruthless and cruel act of forcing Kosovo’s ethnic Albanian majority into submission caused it to lose the right to reign over the territory. They are opposed by the Serbian government and its allies who view Kosovo’s independence as a reckless violation of international law that will encourage other likely secession territories to form pressure groups within and carry out movements against their respective governments. They also implied sharply that the conflict between the principles of autonomy and independence was far from being settled.
Countries like Britain, France, and Germany were among the first ones to acknowledge the newly formed nation, the United States and other European Union partner states were also likely to acknowledge Kosovo as an independent country, while at the same time there were other countries which refused to recognize Kosovo, swallowing apprehensions for separatist movements amid their borders. Russia called for an emergency meeting of the United Nations Security Council to declare that the pronouncement of Kosovo as an independent nation is ‘null and void’. However, the meeting did not generate any outcome.
Civil wars in general
A civil war is fought for gaining control over political power within parties of the same culture, society, or nationality. Civil war, as defined by Merriam Webster’s dictionary is “a war between opposing groups of the same country”. The organized groups that are involved in fighting civil wars have their sights on changing government policies or taking over the power over a certain region by breaking out a violent conflict.
NATO, in its Glossary of Terms and Definitions, even though does not instantly define civil war, but still provides a reference through its manual which states that ‘civil disturbance’ is expressed as “group acts of violence and disorder prejudicial to public law and order”.
Throughout history, civil wars have been fought over religious conflicts, over matters of ideology, or because of nationalism. Out of these, religion is said to be a reason which is relevant in a very loose and light way, as it was unusual for people to feel weighed down by it. There have been very occasional violent acts that could be traced back to religious issues. Among these, several rebellions have been witnessed with the rise of Islam.
Most of the civil conflicts through Islamic history originated from the Sunni-Shiite divide. Similarly, the Protestant Reformation was also a civil war of religion that happened in Europe. Under the same religious ring, civil wars have been fought between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism in France, Netherlands, and Germany. The civil war that produced the most bloodshed took place in China, known as the Taiping Rebellion, which was indeed an attempt at religious revolution.
The issue regarding a system of social beliefs, specifically that of ideology has also been a reason behind certain civil wars and has been viewed as a revolution. A classic example is that of the French Revolution which is also claimed to be the first revolution. More or less it is the members of the middle class, who are educated but quite dissatisfied, and therefore take the lead in bringing about a revolution by assembling and rallying the large bulk of the population to their cause. While ideology is also viewed as simply using religion as a replacement as a rationalization and motivation for violence that is affected by socioeconomic factors. To bring about successful revolutions, and sometimes even intensify it to a civil war, nearly always, the use of armed forces is essential. The Chinese Civil War is an example of this.
Separatist violence has been one of the most widespread causes of civil war. Just like in the case of religion and ideology, nationalism has also been seen as an explanation for the war to take place instead of being a core cause of conflict. All contemporary states endeavor towards sustaining a monopoly on internal military force. For separatist civil wars to explode, a modern separatist conflict usually assumes the structure of asymmetrical warfare with separatists not heavily armed and usually disorganized.
The advantage that they carry is the support and assistance from the local population, which makes it hard to beat such groups. Many liberation groups in colonies have used this course, in addition to forces for example in Sri Lanka and Eritrea. Different economies in the same country that bring about regional differences are also responsible, as happened in the American Civil War. The breaking, done by the national army, along ethnic, religious, or national boundaries, in the same way as it happened in Yugoslavia, also provides grounds for the eruption of separatist civil wars.
Reasons for civil war
Not all nations, which have minority factions, differences in religious beliefs and practices, and divisions under ideological principles, throw themselves into war. Many logics have been brought to light through long researches done by Sociologists, which tell what sparks civil wars. In this very contemporary world, those nations which are poor, dictatorial, and regionally divided undergo civil war. In the American Civil War, however, the United States was an exception for not being poor.
Some paradigms to justify the happening of civil wars emphasized the significance of change and transition. Consistent with one such approach towards reasoning, the increasing economic dominance of the North as compared with the South was the reason behind the American Civil War; the increasing strengths and authority of the middle class and merchants to the detriment of the upper crust of aristocracy was responsible for the English Civil War; the disturbance of the fragile demographic balance by the intensification in the Shiite population was to blame behind the Lebanese Civil War; and the deepened long-term social, economic and demographic disparities which indeed provided a fertile ground for hatred and worsening of rivalry, along with all the factors concerning the bloc and sub-bloc arguments over geo-politics policies were the reason behind the Yugoslavian Civil War, in fact specifically, the Kosovo Civil War.
Furthermore, struggle for natural and other resources and wealth as well as financial stability, and making this entire struggle in an attempt to beat others within a society are all the common causes for civil wars. Economic gain, although, has hardly been the reason accepted by certain participants. The factors relating to economic and class struggles are most highlighted by historians, who argue that civil wars occur due to the imperialist rulers who strive against each other to attain greater power. Historians say that these rulers use nationalism and religion as important tools to lead people in such false beliefs that they join them. Inauthentic and bogus reasons may also cause violence in civil wars.
The persistence of civil wars is seen to be quite a major issue, besides studying and debating just over its causes. Many civil wars have proven to be quite difficult to get comprehended, loitering and dragging for years. One influential factor that promotes violence is that at times civil wars turn into proxy wars for external powers, the international allies that fund their biased supporters, and thus encourage unrest.
If civil wars are studied under the light of democracy, it is anticipated to be noticed that those states which are the most democratic have lesser civil wars and the most intermediate form of governments. The prospect for a civil war is also amplified by political variations, irrespective of whether it is towards greater democracy or greater monocracy. Irrespective of the time meanwhile the political alteration, the factor most disposed to civil war is that of intermediate regimes. Therefore, in contrast to both intermediate regimes and monocracies, democracy is the most likely completion in the course of democratization (Hironaka, pp. 3)
Historical Background of Kosovo Civil War
Under the six republics of Yugoslavia, which were integrated until 1991, namely Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia – Kosovo, which, under the 1947 constitution of Yugoslavia, was specified as a two autonomous province within Serbia, was one of the poorest provinces indeed. (Ruga, Mertus, n.p.) Its status of being autonomous was however changed by 1990. Frequent events of violence and civil conflict had resulted in the state’s condition in a complete wreck. Due to the deteriorating political scenario of the country and the rolling civil conflict, the GDP trimmed down to almost 50%.
According to a few statistics available, Muslims are said to cover 93% of Kosovo’s population, out of which about 88% are said to be Albanian Muslims (out of the 90% Albanian population). The rest are minorities. During the time of war, much of the local population had to depart from Kosovo. Those who did not leave themselves were forced out and shifted to neighboring countries. Thousands of Serbs, which represented Kosovo’s minority, also left the country. Many of these shifted people returned at the time when United Nations came to power in Kosovo.
There are two types of conflict: internal conflict and external conflict. An internal conflict typically opens out and becomes an external conflict. The same was the case in Kosovo which got initiated as an internal conflict. This is traced to the fact that for quite a long time Serbs were aggressive and impertinent towards Albanians. The Albanians would feel maltreated and insulted, and as a result, an internal ethnic conflict fired up. This was during the twentieth century that this conflict started erupting into mass killing and brutal massacre of both Serbs and Albanians. It was after the Second World War when Kosovo was announced as a part of Serbia, that Albanians started to face severe torments and cruel killings. Although Tito worked a lot in favor of the Albanians but still the tough and bitter treatment that they had to experience was way too much.
It was after 1960, that the new generation started giving a lot of attention towards creating a ‘Kosovo Republic’. Some demonstrations came to pass, the majority of which were under the charge of the government. The state of Albanians was becoming quite better to some extent. The year 1974 was the one when Kosovo was granted autonomy while being a part of Serbia. Even though it wasn’t a republic with its nation, it still had a government of its own. (Stein, n.p.) After a few years, the youth started another demonstration, now for the demand of an identity, a republic status. The Albanians especially, who did not want to be second-rate or mediocre citizens of any country, proposed Kosovo join with Albania to form another state.
Mere suppressions and the conditions carrying not much violence slowly and gradually turned into an armed conflict, as to stop such demonstrations from progressing, the power from the police and military forces was used. They were asked to utilize whatever possible weapons they could, against people running these demonstrations. Even, military forces and weapons had started getting assembled from the entire Yugoslavian territory to deal with this regard. Thousands and thousands were slain. A lot more were seized.
The country’s economy was slumping down sharply, as the unemployment rate kept on increasing. The Albanians believed the fact that because they did not have any power at all over their country that is why the country’s economy was getting worse. They considered the circumstance that if they acquired a republic status, only then they could enjoy economic affluence. With time, Albanians started growing in the majority, while Serbs shrinking in minority, due to the greater number of average children for Albanians, and Serb’s migration to other countries. Serbs felt and hence asserted that they were treated unfairly due to prejudice in almost every occupation or social class. Slobodan Milosevic, who was a Serb leader and an extreme Serbian, came to Kosovo in 1987, and conducted an address, and asserted Serbs rights. Quite a famous party leader, Milosevic had become a symbol of inspiration for the Serbs.
Now the conditions of the majority of Albanians versus the minority of Serbs were turning all opposite. Albanians were now degraded and suppressed and a lot of discrimination was done. Albanian employees, for example, teachers were fired, schools and universities were closed, the mass media and almost every Albanian label thing was rejected and humiliated. Serbs, on the other hand, were given all the preferences and privileges. They were given employments, especially to those who were coming back to Kosovo, and also all those facilities which the Albanians were deprived of. Ethnic cleansing had risen in Kosovo.
Poisoning of school children as well as general killings of Albanian public was going on. It was after Croatia declared independence in 19991, that Kosovo also diverted its consideration from being an autonomous state to getting independence. The elections of 1992 in Kosovo gave rise to several steps towards the betterment of Albanians. Teachers and other employers were hired. Albanians who were finding it hard to get work could start their businesses.
The Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) which was a resistance group had practically no foundation in Kosovo and was provided with the looted goods that were robbed from the interior ministry storehouses. Everywhere, Albanians were blamed for the security system of Kosovo going down the dumps and for other organized crimes. Police officers were performing acts of brutality by looting, harassing, and slaying people. Prisoners, along with the normal harassing and beating, were also made to suffer from electric shocks. (Humanitarian Law Center, pp. 61)
The prisoners would confess anything after such a severe agony and would thus be called criminals. They wouldn’t even be allowed detailed talks and discussions with lawyers if they could get any. Everything was done under a thorough observation and important information was generally concealed. (Guy, pp.4) These were all the brutal events from the Serbs towards the Albanians that sparked this conflict and turned it into a war. An ethnic conflict, a war full of aggression indeed, constituted a chapter totally against the war rules, as well as the humanitarian laws.
The civil war in Kosovo had ultimately come to an end after so many years. It had indeed gone on for ages, for generations, with both the Serbs and Albanians asserting that it was their native country and they were the real and true descendants of that land. (Judah, n.p.)
Kosovo, which had its governance until 1989, lost its autonomy after Milosevic took over, and brought Kosovo under the direct rule of Belgrade, which is the capital of Serbia. This change that Albanians truly disliked gave rise to an open conflict. The Serbian military and Albanians had fallen into a severe conflict. Again the same situation was there, thousands of people dying while others were being expelled from the country. Milosevic, who had ignited the war by letting the military take full control, backed off from the whole situation. The conflict slowly spread within and then towards its boundaries and finally turned into an international conflict.
It was then that the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) came forward and announced the requirement of a peaceful solution for the betterment of Kosovo and Serbia, and other nearby nations. When Milosevic did not remove his forces at any cost, NATO decided to airstrike with the purpose to enforce a peaceful resolution. (Clines, pp. A 1)
The United Nations, on the other hand, censured the use of the military by both parties. Under the United Nations Security Council Resolution (UNSCR) of 1998, strictly condemned both the Yugoslavian forces and the Kosovo Albanians to cut their excessive use of these forces. Specific scope and extent were defined for the usage of such forces. Many missions followed negotiations. Peace talks continued to take place, while peace agreements were getting signed. Frequent airstrikes were still used by NATO, whenever Serbs and Albanians would be seen indulging in conflicts time and again.
A significant agreement was the UNSCR 1244 that was passed in June as Yugoslavia had accepted to remove its forces from Kosovo. The United Nations then deployed International security to enhance peace in the region. Kosovo was now under its rule. The United Nations did a lot to bring peace and stability to the country. With the help of NATO and the European Union, it established strategies and implemented them wisely.
After a long series of brutal events and killings and bombings, finally, Kosovo got its independence on the 17th of February, 2008 under unanimous approval from the parliament. Even the protests from the Serbs, which resulted from this, were not very violent and did not include any mass killings.
Analysis
Independence in other countries around the world has not always resulted in peace. Sometimes it ended in partition; other times either in the capitulation of rebel forces or in extreme cases, an overthrow. However, this has not been the case with Kosovo, as much peace has been maintained. This is majorly due to the outstanding support from the United Nations and backing for assistance by the superpower state, and also for the fact that Kosovo has been considered as an exceptional case. It has been proposed that neither events from history nor for future, regarding countries having nearly the same condition of separatist movements and other such conflicts, be compared with those of Kosovo, as it is called to be a unique, indeed an exceptional case.
The international communities that have recognized Kosovo as independent state acclaim that the way Kosovo’s case has been solved is because it is an exceptional case and thus other separatist movements of the current time cannot be resolved in this way. The reasons behind Kosovo’s being a unique case contribute to the ethnic discrimination of Albanians, the brutal harassment they had to go through and all the torture they had to suffer at the time of Milosevic’s regime, the provisional independence under UN reign, and very importantly the approval of the 1244 resolution of the UNSCR. (Stavileci, Reka, Bajrami, n.p.)
From the paper, it has been seen how much discrimination Albanians had to face. Just because of their ethnicity, they were brutally killed. The UN resolution of 1244 was thus evolved and thus adapted. In addition to this factor serving as a point in Kosovo’s uniqueness, it may be noticed that the governance, in the end, in fact nowhere in the whole course, was thought to be granted to the Serbians, even though they had been living in Kosovo for ages.
This was major because Serbs targeted Albanians to a serious episode of discrimination and harassment. Kosovo’s case has also been incomparable to other nations holding separatist movements because, from history, it was the only state that did not attain independence after the disintegration of former Yugoslavia. It should be ascertained from these factors that Kosovo holds a unique position in front of other nations of the world, and after suffering that much it did have the right to acquire its identity. Even the constitutional privileges were accomplished through unconstitutional means. (Grgic, n.p.) Another very important factor is Kosovo’s temporary foreign administration, i.e. it was under the United Nations rule from the year 1999 onwards.
Kosovo did deserve such a fate and only and only this independence can give it the space to prosper as a separate nation. This way the Kosovo citizens might be able to remove the past brutalities and they may live in peace.
References
Bilefsky, Dan (2008), Kosovo Declares Its Independence From Serbia, They New York Times, World News.
Clines, Francis X (1999), NATO Hunting for Serb Forces; U.S. Reports Signs of ‘Genocide’, The New York Times, pp. A1.
Grgic, Borut (2006) The peculiar case of Kosovo, Moscow Times. Web.
Guy, Dinore (1997) “Uneasy Peace in Kosovo May be Coming to an End”, Financial Times, Nov. 4, pp. 4.
Hironaka, Anna (2005) Never Ending Wars: The International Community, Weak States, and the Perpetuation of Civil War, Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Mass., pp. 3.
Humanitarian Law Center (1997), Human Rights: 1991-1995, pp. 61.
The National Command Authority, in its pursuit of victory in the “Long War,” faces numerous challenges arising from the key strategies that may be adopted in the war. These are counterinsurgency, counterterrorism, and support to insurgency or antiterrorism. The United States Department of Defense should adopt a strategy that is cost-effective, acceptable, and does not create the impression that the country is overreacting (Wilden, 1987).
The main challenge is the choice of strategy that should ensure that the United States acts within its authority, while at the same time, it does not overact. Overreaction makes terrorist organizations like Al-Qaeda seem to have legitimate claims. If this happens, the United States is more likely to lose domestic support, hence making it difficult for the country to conduct military operations in Afghanistan.
Overreaction also leads to loss of international support, which eventually makes the whole undertaking an expensive venture while, on the other hand, incompetence leads to a waste of resources. Counterinsurgency, though not the best strategy when dealing with terrorist groups, maybe adopted since counterterrorism may seem like an overreaction, while anti-terrorism is rather an expensive strategy. Alternatively, employment a hybrid version of these strategies is the best choice to win the war (Fulk, 2011)
Historically, antiterrorism activities that successfully surpassed earlier stages have been taking place for decades. To the American authority, the war started on 9/11/2011, while to the Al-Qaeda, the war began years back. Michael Howard states that that war would take decades, perhaps, as the Cold War, and thus he refers to it as a war of generations. This calls for real and in-depth budgeting and cost evaluation for the expenses to be incurred in the war. The United States faced a lot of criticism regarding the way it had spent in the Second World War. As a result, the application of caution is mandatory to avoid spending more, which is also being regarded as a threat to the security and stability of a nation. (Matloff, 1996).
The National Command Authority faces a challenge of fighting hard to reduce the harm of Al-Qaeda to the United States. While military personnel may be deployed in Afghanistan, other potential enemies to the United States may seize the opportunity to attack the states given that much attention is concentrated on Al-Qaeda. The threat posed by China and Russia cannot also be ignored. Thus, there may be a need to rely majorly on counterinsurgency, and in the process, try to change the general perception that western ideologies are unsuitable.
There is also the challenge of identifying probable future leaders and changing their general perception of the United States (Thompson, 1991). Counterinsurgency may weaken the funding enterprises within Afghanistan, but it can do little about the sources outside. Security information regarding Al-Qaeda points to scattered funding sources both inside and outside Afghanistan. This makes it hard to identify the main source, which makes it difficult for counterinsurgency to succeed unless the international community is involved. This poses a challenge since some countries can be against the United States and, thus, unable to assist (Dupuy, 1986).
References
Dupuy, T., N. (1986). Understanding War: Military History and the Theory of Combat. New York: Leo Cooper.
Fulk, B. (2011). An evaluation of counterinsurgency as a strategy for fighting a long war.Carlisle: Strategic Studies Institute Press
Matloff, M. (1996). American Military History. New York: Combined Books.
Thompson, J. (1991). Lifeblood of war: logistics in armed conflict. London: Brassey’s Classics.
Wilden, A. (1987). Man and Woman, War and Peace: The Strategist’s Companion, New Jersey: Routledge.
The recent political events that took place in the Middle East Region have raised a lot of questions concerning whether the attributes of governance that are embraced by autocratic regimes can be sustainable. The most discussed case in the political events that took place in the Arab region is the Egyptian revolution, where the citizenry was persistent enough to oust the regime that had been in political power for approximately thirty years. With the establishment of a new government in the country under the leadership of President Mohammed Morsi, a substantial number of questions are still raised on the tactics that will be applied by the government to ensure that it sustains power devoid of resistance from the citizenry. In the book titled: “Wars, Guns, and Votes: Democracy in Dangerous Places,” Paul Collier explores some of the tactics that can be used by autocracy minded leaders to retain attributes of autocratic governance in a state that seeks to embrace principles of democracy in governance (Filipec, 2009). This research explores some of the tactics that are brought out in Collier’s text and how they result in the failure of the contemporary government in Egypt to maintain political power. The tactics that are critiqued in the paper are the change in governance by embracing positive principles of governance, lying to the electorate, and scapegoating the minority.
Becoming a good government
The reason why a revolution was staged in Egypt was to press for change that entails good attributes of governance. The mere presence of a new government in the country is, therefore, widely seen as a new form of leadership in the country. One main concern about this suggestion is how good governance can be portrayed in a country in which the antecedents of autocracy are still in the minds of most of the people. The cost of becoming a good government, as proposed by Collier, is quite high and has a lot of implications on the political sustenance of the government of President Mohammed Morsi (Filipec, 2009).
The first step in the attempt to mould the government and picture it well in the eyes of the public is to win the detractors. This is what formed the first agenda of president Morsi during his early years of trying to establish a democratic government in Egypt. While this tactic can help in attaining political support and bring about a favorable environment for pursuing democracy, it also has its setbacks in the process of democratization. It should be noted that one of the main goals of the Egyptian government should be to embrace the principles of democracy on governance because this was one of the causes of the political uprising in the country. There ought to be a balance between the appeasement of the detractors and the pursuance of reforms (Fletcher, 2012). Appeasing detractors translates into accommodating them in governance. Some of the detractors are the same people who were critiqued for poor governance of the country. Thus they are bound to oppose governance from within, bar reforms, and put the government efforts in jeopardy. It should be noted that the country is still in the revolutionary mood, and several political and religious groups in the country have their interests, which do not match with the interests of the entire citizenry. This is the reason why violence and violent opposition is still being witnessed in the country (Peralta, 2012).
The other critical element in the governance of President Morsi should be the championing of change as an element of good governance. Change is embedded in the constitutions of the country, which is already facing opposition for retaining the attributes of governance that were embedded in the old constitution. The implication is, therefore, that the more Morsi continues to enforce the attributes of change that are embraced in the constitution of the country, the more his government will face opposition from the political factions in the country (Ottaway, 2012). How the reforms that are embedded in the constitutions can, therefore, be enforced without bringing political division in the country remains to be a mystery. According to Hendawi (2012), the basis of political change and good governance in Egypt is the constitution, which has already been critiqued for giving the president more powers. It can, therefore, be said that bringing about a positive look of governance in Egypt is a complex matter that cannot be easily addressed by way of trying to portray the attributes of good governance.
Lying to the electors
In a review of the work of Collier, Filipec (2009) observed that lying to the electorate is a kind of propaganda that is used for propagating power in most autocratic regimes across the world. Controlling the flow of information in the contemporary political economy in Egypt is quite difficult because most of the Egyptian population has access to the internet and other communication tools like mobile phones, which help them to access and pass across the information. Morsi, therefore, does not seem to embrace the protection of the message, but he embraces open governance by inviting protestors and opposition to the political regime in the country (Stangel, Ghosh & Vick, 2012). How this can work for him and the retention of power in the next few years is an issue of concern to several commentators on political matters and democracy in the Arab world. The invitation of opposition and protest in a country whose political environment is characterized by the presence of political and religious factions is quite dangerous as far as the sustainability of political power by the political regime is concerned. Instead of guarding the message, Morsi is fond of confronting issues, which results in the attraction of more protest and opposition.
Guarding the message would have worked well as far as the pacification of the political environment in the country is concerned. Failure to guard the message could result in lethal levels of opposition and protest, thereby making it quite difficult for the Morsi regime to contain the opposition. The open criticism of issues and affirmation of certain political inclinations are also bound to put the regime at loggerheads with other political regimes, which has a negative connotation on the sustenance of power by Morsi (Mustafa al-Labbad, 2012).
Scapegoating a minority
Contrary to the acclamations that he made before clinching the presidency of the country, Morsi has chosen to shun form accusing minority groups of the problems that engulf Egypt. This is irrespective of his belief that the Jews and the state of Israel have a responsibility for the political situation in the country. The influence of Israel in the politics of Egypt will continue to be felt, irrespective of whether Morsi avoids confronting Israel for its participation in fostering opposition in the country. There is a need to confront the underlying developments in the political relation between Egypt and other countries that have both a direct and indirect influence on the politics of the country. Covering issues results in underground developments that may explode later, resulting in the loss of political control by the regime (Sustar, 2012).
The United States does not have the best options for dealing with the North Korean and Iranian nuclear energy disputes. Inducements, pressures, and intimidations have not been successful.
A military intervention would provisionally stop the plans to launch a nuclear energy, but human organizations and diplomatic requirements would prevent this strategy. Moreover, military strike would bring about a high risk of reconstitution and would hasten the conflict.
For some decision makers in the American government, the superlative alternative is to isolate these governments until they disintegrate or pressures build on them to an extent where they might be forced to engage in consultations based on the US stipulations.
This alternative has the veneer of stiffness, which is enough to make it politically justifiable in the American government. Upon a careful analysis, the strategy in reality permits North Korea and Iran to carry on with their nuclear programs uncontrolled.
It also neglects more attainable short-term objectives of improving intelligibility and securing susceptible nuclear equipments. The policy seeks to attain tentative long-term ambition of denuclearization.
These short-term objectives are believed to be significant to the US national security in the 2010 Nuclear Posture Review (NPR) and Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR).
North Korea and Iran are extremely different nations that share in any case one vital relationship, which is related to decades of separation from Washington. The US has developed various policies aiming at segregating the two from the global society.
They are also compared in terms of their role, which is related to undermining the peace and security of the regions they occupy. The countries do not have respect for fundamental freedoms and support policies that are hostile to the United States, its associates, and partners.
Introduction
The nuclear dispute with North Korea and Iran are amongst the most obstinate national security problems that the US policy makers are faced with in the current international system. Democratic and Republican regimes have generated diverse strategies toward every state at different periods.
These policies vary from joint and polygonal discourse with inducements or pressures to sanctions, segregation, and even the threat of military intervention. None of these strategies has prevented the nuclear development of either country.
Iran has moved on with its uranium fortification plan and abridged collaboration with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
The breakdown in North Korea is even more sensitive because Pyongyang pulled out of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 2003, carried out nuclear experiments in 2006 and 2009, and currently requesting for recognition as a “Nuclear Weapons State.”
One question that cannot be avoided is that why did agreements reached with North Korea and Iran to congeal or limit their nuclear plans disintegrate1.
One wonders what could be the projections for current ambassadorial efforts. Evaluating the two cases discloses general prototypes that offer the signs of deteriorating negotiations. North Korea and Iran were forced to negotiate based on their insight of chance and susceptibility.
Their views were motivated by the instantaneous strategy context they faced, which includes the political, financial, and defense situation existing at home, in their regions, and in the international system2.
When accords reached could not convene their objectives, their views on chance and susceptibility, and in turn, their policy, changed. Discussions in both cases were prolonged and Iran and North Korea changed policy in reaction to the development in the policy context over time.
Particularly, their justifications for possessing a nuclear potential extended to include discouraging governmental change, improving negotiation advantage, and attaining political trustworthiness with the United States.
This proposal suggests a study that would be of great importance in understanding the American policy makers behavior as regards to the threats posed by Iran and North Korea since the two countries have always posed serious security challenges to other actors in the international system.
The paper proposes a methodology that would be used to conduct an extensive research on the views of some of the American policy makers regarding the actions to be taken to stop the influence of Iran and North Korea. The techniques will be discussed in summary, as well as the data collection methods.
Before moving to give a viable methodology, the paper will review the existing body of knowledge under the literature review section to understand the actions that have already been taken by both Democrats and Republicans.
In the fifth chapter, the proposal will give a data analysis technique, which would be ideal for analyzing data generated through quantitative study. The proposal gives the summary of the finding at the end.
Research Question
How will the United States respond to North Korea and Iran’s threats of nuclear war?
Purpose Statement
The United States has an intricate plan for addressing issues related to Iranian and North Korean nuclear programs. The plan is not restricted to the nuclear challenges that the two states pose.
This implies that the United States has always perceived the two states as the major threat to its national interests because of their capability to disrupt peace.
The United States has come up with various programs aiming at stopping the two countries from interfering with its national interests, especially its national security.
The main question is how the United States will act to prevent the two aggressors in the international system from tempering with the lives of its citizens.
The main question is whether the United States will act unilaterally or it would consult other actors (Multilateral action).
The main purpose of the paper is to evaluate the options available to the United States policy makers. The US has various options, but some factors would be considered before arriving at the most excellent option.
The paper looks at some of the factors that must be considered before coming up with the best option to address the challenge posed by North Korea and Iran
Significance
The study is of great importance because it discusses some of the consequences that the state will have to deal with when it decides to intervene military. The paper gives a number of options, as well as their effects to the people of the United States and the international system.
The study conducts a literature review to determine some of the options that have been employed before, implying that policy makers can rely on the document to come up with the most viable policy as regards to addressing the thorny issue of nuclear weapons.
Literature Review
Existing body of knowledge offers various alternatives to the American policy makers as regards to nuclear weapons threats that Iran and North Korea pose.
There are gabs in the literature because some scholars and analysts observe that the United States should act unilaterally meaning that it should act as a world police in mitigating the nuclear problems while some observe that consultations would be the only viable approach.
The existing literature proves that the spread of democracy is the only way in resolving the nuclear problem, even though the approaches differ. In one of the articles titled ‘the spread of nuclear weapons,’ Sagan and Waltz posed a major question regarding world security and peace.
They ask the question, “What will the spread of nuclear weapons do to the world.” Waltz’s standpoint is that the spread of nuclear power would be productive to the world economy and the development of the world3.
For developing countries such as Iran and North Korea, their acquisition of nuclear power is productive since it would go a long way to uplift the living standards of the poor.
His believe is that the deterrence policy and the rational actor model would be utilized effectively to prevent the occurrence of war owing to the possession of nuclear weapons.
He even goes a notch higher to claim that the presence of nuclear weapons would make states more cautious because they are mutually assured of destruction.
With the acquisition of nuclear weapons, states would definitely drop their ambitions of producing conventional weapons. Moreover, states would cut military spending, as soon as they acquire nuclear energy, which is beneficial to the world security.
Waltz advises that states should not stop arming themselves simply because the US instructs them not to acquire relevant weapons. The role of the US in this case is to enter into peaceful agreements with a state wishing to acquire nuclear energy, but not impeding the plans of the state.
This is because the United States cannot offer protection to all states in the world hence the acquisition of nuclear energy should not be an issue of debate.
To Waltz, the presence of nuclear weapons in the international system would reduce war and conflicts because it successfully reduced tension between the United States and the Soviet Union.
Sagan differs significantly with the views of Waltz because the deterrence notion and the rational actor model require the existence of some conditions, which are absent in the current international system.
One of the major arguments of Sagan is that weak states such as Iran and North Korea do not have sufficient policies and mechanisms through which nuclear energy could be safeguarded. This means that nuclear energy could easily land into the hands of criminals and terrorists, which is extremely dangerous.
The case could be different in case Iran and North Korea were democratic states. For the ideas of Waltz to be accepted, democracy must be restored in the two countries since an egalitarian society would not support the activities of destroyers of life and property.
Weak states such as Iran and North Korea have no ability to implement policies that would prevent nuclear accidents and the spread of nuclear weapons4.
Nuclear energy should only be acquired by states governed by strong civilian governments, unlike North Korea and Iran, which are run either by dictators or by military regimes. States would not be cautious, as was the case in the Cold War because the international system is different.
A report released in 2006 by the National Strategy for Combating Terrorism suggested that the United States had achieved a lot in terms of preserving its national interests, but more had to be done since terrorists had diversified their techniques and channels5.
This means that the US has to come up with additional strategies to ensure that the heinous acts of terrorists are curtailed.
The report concluded that the state had achieved its interest of kicking out terrorists in Afghanistan and Iraq, but much had to be done to ensure that the activities of other extremist organizations funded by states such as Iran and North Korea are stopped.
This means that Iran and North Korea pose a serious challenge to the international community because of the possession of nuclear power. The nuclear weapons could be used to destabilize the world economy and security, especially when it gets into the hands of terrorists.
Iran and North Korea are suspected to support terrorism meaning that they can easily liaise with extremist organizations to cause havoc in the world. In this regard, the report gives some of the strategies that would help the state in fighting terrorism, including the ambitions of North Korea and Iran.
It should be understood that the fight of terrorism is the advancement of freedom and human dignity because the main aim of terrorists is to destroy human life and property.
The report rules out any possibility of poverty being the main cause of terrorism since Iran and North Korea have always claimed that the acquisition of nuclear power would help them elevate the levels of economic development.
To deal with the threats posed by North Korea and Iran, the leadership of these two countries ought to be interrogated meaning that the US should come up with policies such as denying the government officials entry to the US and other allies.
This would force them to comply since travelling sanctions would force them to comply with the internationally set standards. Another strategy entails preventing the attacks that would be launched by terrorists.
This implies that the US government must come into terms with the reality that terrorism does not target only developed countries, but instead it could be committed in other countries that support the US6.
In this regard, the US government should offer technical and military support to other countries around the world to help them curb the issue of nuclear threat. For instance, India and Pakistan have acquired nuclear technologies, which is one of the strategies to counter the influence of North Korean and Iran in the region.
The report also suggests that the US should ensure that the materials used in the manufacture of nuclear power should not reach the hands of criminals, including Iran and North Korea.
To put this strategy into effect, the US government should determine the intentions, capabilities, and plans of Iran and North Korea as regards to the acquisition of nuclear power.
The power could be used to manufacture weapons of mass destruction, which is extremely dangerous to the world security. The sale of materials should be supervised closely.
A study conducted by Blum concluded that terrorists had shifted focus in terms of the targets and the techniques employed7.
However, he noted that the use of weapons of mass destruction is not within the reach of terrorists because the unavailability of materials and qualified personnel to design the weapons.
His study concluded that terrorists were increasingly shifting focus to the Middle East because of the perception that some states in the region are sympathizers of the west. Moreover, terrorists have adopted a new approach of unleashing terror because they no longer kidnap, but instead they carry out suicide bombing.
The study proved that terrorists have never resorted to the use of weapons of mass destruction. Just as the report released by the National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, Blum’s study proved that terrorism had reformed mainly because of the emergence of extremist organizations.
In this regard, Blum suggests that the US should simply focus on promoting peace and democracy in the two countries, which would definitely end the acts of terrorism. This would demand for a multilateral action implying that other actors must be involved in the plan.
In fact, Blum suggests that non-actors should be involved in ending the looming nuclear crisis, which is the main worry in regards to the utilization of the weapons of mass destruction.
A report released by the national security strategy in 2010 gave extensive plans on how the US would deal with actors in the international system considered a security threat8.
The plans proposed are mainly concerned with strengthening the instruments of the American government because disunity in government has always snatched the executive an opportunity to deal with Iran and North Korea as regards to the nuclear threats.
In this regard, American leaders must understand what actually constitutes national security and work in harmony to realize these plans. To succeed in fighting North Korea and Iran, the approaches employed ought to be sustainable and achievable.
It is noted that the US has been able to develop due to the establishment of strong institutions and technological advancement. However, the government has been unable to act on the threats posed by other actors internationally because of the internal wrangles among government the branches of government.
In particular, there are some unfinished reform agendas, which are hindering the capability of the government to deal with external challenges, such as the challenge of possession of nuclear power, which is a threat to world peace.
In this regard, the three arms of government should be able to work in harmony to pass the important legislations that would give the executive the power to act swiftly. Terrorism and the threats of nuclear power are some of the problems that do not demand too much consultation because they are considered urgent.
However, the US government does not have the power to act unilaterally since it must consult other non-state actors, including consideration of public opinion, which is time consuming.
The national strategy for homeland security report released in 2007 suggested that the government had to develop the technology sector if it were to contain the influence of world aggressors such as Iran and North Korea.
The field of research should be developed because it supports the strategies that the government designs in keeping off the threats posed by enemies. Enemark is of the view that the topic on weapons of mass destruction should stop because the weapons have never existed in the international system9.
He notes that even though Iran and North Korea are accused of possessing nuclear power, they have not been in a position to develop weapons of mass destruction.
His major concern is with the use of language because its use may confuse policy makers when making effective policies meant to curb the threats posed by Iran and North Korea10.
The scholar suggests that policy makers should focus on formulating policies aimed at stopping Iran and North Korea from proceeding with their nuclear plan, but they should not incorporate the term weapons of mass destruction in their plans.
Methodology
This chapter focuses on various aspects of research development. It includes methods of data collection, its analysis and presentation procedures. Every research project applies a certain research method to achieve its objectives depending on its goals.
The methods used to conduct research in this project compared closely with the methods proposed in the project proposal. This was so because the project proposal had been proven to be workable.
In research, design deals primarily with aims, uses, purposes, intentions, and plans within the practical constraints of time, location, money, and availability of staff
Research Design
The chapter brings back the research hypotheses. This is important because it is at this stage that the researcher goes into the field to gather information. It is therefore necessary that the research hypothesis is brought to focus because it would be the guiding light in the process of gathering data.
The researcher would be trying to confirm the hypotheses. In order to eliminate criticism, this chapter clearly states the scope of the study. There are limits beyond which this research may not hold because of the method used in data collection and analysis11.
It is therefore important that limitations are clearly stated to make it clear to readers of this material how far this research reveals what it purports to. Therefore, data sources are expected to be more reliable.
However, the rationale to use such data is that data sources are available at lower cost or free of costs while data collection process using questionnaire is time consuming and expensive.
As the researcher of this dissertation would follow both qualitative and quantitative research approach, it is essential to collect significant part of secondary data. Therefore, this paper mainly focuses on published data and computerized database to formulate the paper.
However, secondary data has a number of positive factors. For instance, it is easy to collect, and less expensive. In order to formulate the paper, the researcher would use Computerized Database and Published Secondary Data including general business sources.
However, the following chart gives an idea about the secondary data sources, as shown below. The dissertation would mainly focus on the internet databases because this is an easy and less expensive system of data collection.
Theoretical Framework
Data Collection
Data in this article will mainly be obtained from the various sources that are already published, as shown in the above diagram. It should be noted that the sources to be utilized are peer reviewed journal articles and books.
The researcher will restrict himself to the public articles and books in order to make the whole process valid and reliable. In any study, the researcher should ensure that validity and reliability is achieved.
In this study, keeping off from biases and unneccessary criticism would be one of the techniques employed to ensure the study is credible12.
From the chart in the theoretical framework section, both government and other publications will be relied upon in analyzing the behavior of leaders as regards to policy formulation.
Analysis and Findings
From the literature review, the researcher gathered considerable amount of information about this field. Many of the reports that exist in this field are very resourceful as individuals of high integrity did them. The manner in which they were done also passes as good enough to be used in various aspects of research.
However, this is a different research. It must be in a position to develop its own arguments based on data collected from primary sources. This does not rule out the importance of secondary sources of data. To ensure originality in any research, there is need to use primary data.
The purpose of collecting data was to help facilitate analysis that would lead to giving answers that are desired in this research. The objective of this research was to respond to some of the questions that other scholars had not responded to through the existing literature.
To be in a position to respond to these questions, there will be need to collect data. After successful collection of data, analysis would be very important.
When taken from the field, data is considered raw and therefore cannot be of much help to the target audience. For this reason, it is important to analyze data to produce the desired result that would be useful to various individuals.
Role of literature review in data collection requirements
Literature review plays a vital role in data collection process. As noted above, research has been going on for some time now. Every field of study has some relevant previous bodies of literature that other researchers had conducted before. This information is very important to a researcher.
In the process of gathering data, the first source that any researcher should not assume is the secondary sources of information. It is important to note that the studies were done after careful collection and analysis of relevant data.
When taking literature review as part of the sources of data, it is important to note that they are secondary sources. Unlike the data that would be collected from the fields which is raw, literature provides data that is already processed.
Literature review plays an important role in determining how data collection would be done.
Because the bodies of literature provide information that is already synthesized, and with clear steps that were taken to reach the results, the researcher may consider taking an approach used by one of the researchers that may lead to generation of required answers.
Alternatively, the researcher may consider integrating a number of methods employed by different previous researchers to come up with his or her own technique that incorporates all the desirable concepts used by the available literature. A good research project should not purport to be basing its arguments from the scratch.
It is important that a researcher engage closely with the works of previous researchers from an early stage of data collection.
With this, the researcher would be informing the consumers of this document that there was an effort from the earliest stage of the dissertation that closely compares the works of other researchers, and how they relate to the current research.
This would not only enhance the validity of the report, but also demonstrate that the research seeks to develop the works of previous researches.
The findings from the review of literature reveal that the US should act to prevent North Korea and Iran from establishing their nuclear power programs. The United States needs to come up with comprehensive strategies to compel Iran and North Korea to negotiate on its own terms.
However, this would not be an easy task since Iran and North Korea are determined to realize their dream regarding nuclear power programs.
If the US allows the two countries to actualize their nuclear plans, the world security would be at risk since the energy could be used to develop weapons of mass destruction, which are extremely dangerous to the very survival.
However, some scholars observe that the issue of nuclear energy should not be tied to weapons of mass destruction since they are not related at all. Terrorists have never employed weapons of mass destruction mainly because of the technicalities involved in the designing the weapons.
Literature reveals that the US should focus on seeking multilateral support because nuclear energy is a matter of death and life meaning that each actor should be involved in designing the policies aimed at stopping its development.
In this regard, the role of the United Nations is critical since it could invoke its powers, including slapping economic and political sanctions on the two states, which would force them to stop the program13.
In this case, the US should lobby other powerful states, mainly the five permanent members of the Security Council, to force the UN to slap economic sanctions14. The influence of the UN has been tremendous, especially its use of a no-fly-zone rule, which forces states to negotiate.
From the review of the existing body of knowledge and evaluation of various government reports, at least three viable policies can be applied successfully in dealing with the Iranian and North Korean nuclear weapons threat.
One of the policies is containment. This policy was applied successful to check the influence of the Soviet Union during the Cold war. In early 1990s, the US was able to contain the influence of Iraq in the Middle East region through the application of the policy.
The policy does not demand the involvement of the international community since it is just upon the US government to isolate the two states. The United States has applied the policy variously whenever its national interest was under threat15.
Truman advocated for the application of the containment policy meaning that the United States confronted its adversaries in all corners. In this regard, the United States should come up with policies aiming at reducing the influence of Iran and North Korea in regions they are perceived to be strong.
The second policy is the use of diplomacy and economic sanctions, even though they have been applied unsuccessfully previously. Iran and North Korea are signatories to the world agency in charge of nuclear energy control and management (International Atomic Energy Agency).
In this regard, they should be forced to abide by the provisions of the agency. The agency should be supported to conduct frequent inspection in the two countries and the leadership of the two countries should be urged not to interfere with the operations of the agency.
Through diplomacy, Iran should be reminded that it sits on massive deposits of oil, which can sustain the country’s energy for years hence there is no need of developing nuclear energy.
In case the two policies fail, the US could as well deploy the military in the two countries to restore democracy and install civilian governments. Democratic regimes would be willing to take part in diplomatic negotiations rather than generate unnecessary conflicts.
Summary and Conclusion
The United States has a role to play to its people as far as preservation of peace and maintenance of security is concerned. American foreign policy makers have engaged in negotiations aimed at resolving the issue, but the efforts have bore no fruits because of techniques applied were defective.
The US came up with a policy that would entice Iran and North Korea to drop their nuclear plans, but the plans were unsustainable. Therefore, policy makers should come up with a long-term program, which is realistic and all-inclusive meaning all stakeholders in the world security should be involved.
It should be understood that unilateral decisions are usually aimed at resolving the short-term problems, but they do not address the long-terms issues. Therefore, the US should advocate for a policy that would resolve the issue finally.
This entails the involvement of the UN and other powers in the plans. The policies made towards the relations with the two countries should not be isolationist in nature because it would simply worsen the issue16.
This article has tried to come up with some of the best decisions that would resolve the issue at hand. The paper would conduct an extensive research to establish the views of American foreign policy makers before recommending the best policy option.
The paper has always conducted a literature to determine the views of previous scholars and policy makers. The findings suggest that the US government cannot handle the issue without involving other actors, including the American populace, the United Nations, and other units in the international system.
The existing body of knowledge shows that no single policy that can be applied in resolving the existing nuclear energy crisis between the United States and the two world aggressors.
It is also eminent that the two aggressors are determined to move on with their nuclear programs despite the objections from various units in the international system. The United States has a role to play given the fact that it is the world’s superpower.
Three options are available to the superpower, but the main problem is choosing the best option that would preserve the status of the superpower and at the same time fulfill the interests of the American people17.
Studies show that the Iranian and North Korean citizens are tired of the tyrannical and militaristic governments.
They are willing to cooperate with the international community to end injustices and the conditions of the 19th century, which include lack of food, lack of representation in government, inequality, oppression, and brutality.
Irrespective of the policy that the United States employs, the life that people face in Iran and North Korea should be uplifted. All possible means should be employed in uplifting the living standards of the Middle East citizens. In the region, the human rights are never respected at all.
Bibliography
Blum, Andrew. Non-state Actors, Terrorism, and Weapons of Mass Destruction. International Studies Review 7.1 (2005): 133-170.
Creswell, John. Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, Sage, 2009.
Department of Defense. National Security Strategy. Washington: Government Printing Office, 2010.
Department of Defense. National Strategy for Combating Terrorism. Washington: Government Printing Office, 2006.
Department of Defense. National Strategy for countering Biological Threats, 2009. Washington: Government Printing Office, 2009.
Department of Defense. National Strategy for Homeland Defense and Civil Support. Washington: Government Printing Office, 2007.
Enemark, Christian. “Farewell to WMD: The Language and Science of Mass Destruction.” Contemporary Security Policy 32.2 (2011):382-400.
Hakim, Catherine. Research Design: Successful Designs for Social and Economic Research. London: Routledge, 2000.
Harvey, David. The New Imperialism. New York: Oxford UP, 2003.
Jafarzadeh, Alireza. The Iran Threat. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
National Science and Technology Council. A National Strategy for CBRNE Standards. Washington: Government Printing Office, 2011.
Safire, William. “On Language; Weapons of Mass Destruction.” New York Times Magazine, April 19, 1998, 22.
Sagan, Scott, and Kenneth Waltz. The Spread of Nuclear Weapons. New York: W.W. Norton, 2003.
Sagan, Scott. “How to Keep the Bomb from Iran.” Foreign Affairs 85.5 (2006): 45-59
Sciolino, Elaine. Persian Mirrors: The Elusive Face of Iran. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000.
United States Government Accountability Office. Steps Have Been Taken to Improve U.S. Northern Command’s Coordination with States and the National Guard Bureau, but Gaps Remain. Washington: Government Printing Office, 2008.
Footnotes
1 United States Government Accountability Office. Steps Have Been Taken to Improve U.S. Northern Command’s Coordination with States and the National Guard Bureau, but Gaps Remain. Washington: Government Printing Office, 2008.
2Elaine Sciolino, Persian Mirrors: The Elusive Face of Iran (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 12.
3Scott Sagan and Kenneth Waltz, The Spread of Nuclear Weapons (New York: W.W.Norton, 2003), 45.
4Scott Sagan, “How to Keep the Bomb From Iran,” Foreign Affairs 85.5 (2006): 45
5 Department of Defense. National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, 2006. Washington: Government Printing Office, 2006.
6 Department of Defense. National Strategy for Homeland Defense and Civil Support. Washington: Government Printing Office, 2007.
7 Andrew, Blum, Non-state Actors, Terrorism, and Weapons of Mass Destruction. International Studies Review 7.1 (2005): 145.
8Department of Defense. National Security Strategy, 2010. Washington: Government Printing Office, 2010.
9 Christian Enemark, “Farewell to WMD: The Language and Science of Mass Destruction.” Contemporary Security Policy 32.2 (2011):382-400.
10William Safire, “On Language; Weapons of Mass Destruction.” New York Times Magazine, April 19, 1998, 22.
11John Creswell, Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (Thousand Oaks, Sage, 2009), 23.
12Catherine, Hakim and Research Design: Successful Designs for Social and Economic Research (London: Routledge, 2000).
13 Department of Defense. National Strategy for countering Biological Threats, 2009. Washington: Government Printing Office, 2009.
14 National Science and Technology Council. A National Strategy for CBRNE Standards. Washington: Government Printing Office, 2011.
15 Seymour Hersh, “The Redirection,” The New Yorker 83.2 (2007): 54.
16David Harvey, The New Imperialism (New York: Oxford UP, 2003), 18.
17Alireza Jafarzadeh, The Iran Threat (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 87.
State building is the process of creating new governments or transforming the existing ones to enhance the governance process (Coyne and Pellillo 6). This concept is highly utilized by established states on entities extensively rocked by political instabilities. It is usually an intervention by well-established organizations.
These organizations, establish strategies for renewing the failed states. In those places where it is rampant, it highly creates a governing regime with competitive personnel thus enhancing the state’s operational effectiveness (Coyne and Pellillo 7).
In as much as state building is a method of reforming failed/failing states, it is crucial to note that states cannot be build without commitment.
According to Hezbollah’s secretary general, it is impossible to build states. Sources indicate that establishing suitable governance for Lebanon might be impossible.
The formation of militia groups intending to sabotage the America’s plan of enhancing peace and prosperity for Lebanon poses many challenges (Coyne and Pellillo 15).
Sources confirmed existence of authorities working to aid the militia group’s effort of dismantling the America’s plan to help Lebanon’s political as well as economic wellness. If this militia’s strategy succeeds, then it would become impossible for the American project to succeed.
The escalating possession of superior weapons by the militia makes the project impractical. He argued that challenges witnessed resulted from availability of many political parties that derailed the entire process.
In the year 2001, the Taliban movement in Afghanistan led to many consequences. The war left the entire economy poor and the country wrecked (Krause 17). In an endeavor to rebuild the state, the government came up with new development strategies.
Back in 2010, the Afghanistan government initiated a project known as the Kabul process. The idea behind it was to enhance good leadership for the country thus realizing the anticipated growth in future.
In an effort to achieve these goals, the Afghanistan government initiated 23 programs mainly addressing good service delivery, a responsible governing system, and infrastructure development (Krause 33).
The government also requested the interested donors to implement programs aligned to Afghanistan’s “National Priority Programs” (Krause 33). Additionally, other international bodies interested in the country’s development have initiatives similar to those for the country.
The International Development Agency (IDA) plays a momentous part in helping Afghanistan’s government power building, developing her economy and enhancing reliability of the private sector. The country had many donors in the year 2002.
The overall donation totaled to US $ 4.1 billion comprising of the highest budget for the country ever (Krause 35). The World Bank contributes highly to the country’s economic advancement.
The programs established by IDA help the country in attaining her goals. The community empowerment strategies significantly help enhance the people welfare. IDA works tirelessly in assisting the country develop economic wise (Kremer, Lieshout and Went 157).
Therefore, in achieving economic stability, there is need of creating employment opportunities. This association aids in propagating agriculture development. Following its efforts, the country’s infrastructure has immensely developed thus easing shipping of the produce across markets.
Despite the appreciated growth in most sectors of the country, some aspects are not fully met. The country’s public service remains deprived, therefore, the government need to enact strategies geared to restore democracy in the country (Kremer, Lieshout & Went 158).
The government needs to establish institutions transparent enough to serve the public accordingly. Corruption among the officials limits the country’s ability, to meet its specified goals.
The concept of state building is crucial in rejuvenating failed states. This is because of high prevalence of international organizations mandated to assisting their growth. In Afghanistan, various organizations developed interest in aiding its development. As a result, the economic sectors developed.
Contrary, the efforts have not fully developed the public service operations. It is therefore evident that, building a country depends on the country’s willingness and preparedness to transform, but not pressure from external factors.
Works cited
Coyne, Christopher. & Pellillo, Adam. The art of seeing like a state: State-building in Afghanistan, the Congo and beyond. March 23, 2011. Web.
Krause, Joachim. International state building and reconstruction efforts: experience gained and lessons learned a publication of the aspen institute Germany. Farmington hills, MI: Barbara Budrich, 2010. Print.
Kremer, Monique, Lieshout, Peter and Went Robert. Doing good or doing better: development policies in a globalizing world. New York, NY: Amsterdam university press, 2010. Print.
Scholars have critically evaluated war since days in memorial; they have researched the 1st and 2nd World Wars, the cold war, the gulf war and other wars like the Israeli Palestine war.
They ended up with different theories that are used to explain the exact causes of these wars, some of the most notable theories that the scholars came up with included the war theory, the game theory and the security dilemma. These theories will play a vital role in covering the paper thus coming up with a proper proposal that is likely going to oversee the end of the Israel Palestine conflict.
The hypothesis
This paper will highlight the security dilemma; the theory indicates that a nation’s security is in a position of strengthening or weakening as a result of its actions and interaction with other nations surrounding it. Thus both theories exhibit the independent and dependent variables (Glaser, pgs 171-201).
The independent variable in security dilemma indicates that a nation is stronger than its neighbors thus it is in a position of protecting itself from the other neighboring nations that might pose any threat to it, while the dependent variable indicates that a given nation is weaker than its neighbors and the latter will take a great advantage and invade the country in order to show that they are more superior.
Therefore, both the independent and dependent theories are viewed as factors that affect the existence of peace internationally (Jervis186-214). The Middle East crisis that is also known as the Israel-Palestine war is a great example, the Middle East (Israel-Palestine war) crisis will form the basis of the paper as strategic analysis of the crisis are going to be conducted.
The Independent and Dependent Variables in Security Dilemma
As suggested by Xin 5, independent variable in the security dilemma is seen as the constant and more predominant factor that causes a war, in security dilemma the most notable factor that causes a war is the superior nature of a nation over its neighbors, which includes a wide range of military equipments, well trained military personnel and a sound economy.
Therefore, a nation that is financially stable and also has the best experienced military personnel will be in a position of being proactive to its neighboring nations (Glaser 201).
Dependent variables in security dilemma are seen to be factors that push a nation that is relatively weaker to the extent of being aggressive or hostile towards its neighbors as a way of safeguarding its sovereignty (Xin 7).
The factors that contribute to the variable include the military, financial, technical support by allies of the nation, territorial disputes, self defense or even reaction to an invasion from another nation amongst other aspects that will disrupt the peace between the nations (Huth 45).
War as a result of Security Dilemma is said to be constituted by these different variables, thus, resulting in the existence of war between the nations, in this case war between nations occurs as a result of a dependent variable that triggers the independent variable that eventually results in the war between these nations (Jervis 214).
Example of a war in the Middle East crisis (Israel-Palestine war)
The most commonly known war that demonstrates the security dilemma theory is the Israel-Palestine war. The war was triggered by the sudden invasion of the Jews into Palestinian land. This is where the Jews were extending their territorial boundaries while the Palestinians were protecting their land from foreign invasion; this conflict definitely resulted in the conflict that is currently being encountered in the Middle East.
Negative implication of the security dilemma theory
War is considered as the main option or resort in case the dialogue fails to yield desired results. It should be noted that war has got negative impacts on both the nation and its people; it happens because economy will be seriously influenced. On the same note, innocent lives are lost in the process of the war, thus, reducing the total income generation of the nation.
Similarly the war would negatively affect the health of people in the nation since the healthcare sector may experience shortage of the necessary requirements such as food, proper medical care amongst other necessary requirements that sustain good health (Ishmael 2-8).
Alternative theory
The most appropriate theory in this case would be the game theory, this is where one nation will be willing to lose to the extent of a win by another nation. The theory tends to ensure that the war ends up in a purely zero sum situation where one nation will totally lose while the other one will win resulting in the end of the war (McIntosh par 4).
Explanation of the theories in my own words
According to my own understanding, the security dilemma theory is the theory that aims at ensuring that a nation and its citizens are secure, this is where a country strives in making itself and its citizens more secure from any form of foreign invasions.
The theory indicates that when a country is striving to make itself more secure by improvising or introducing measures that will make it more secure, it is indirectly making itself insecure as its neighbors will be thinking that the nation is preparing to attack them. For this reason they (the later country) attack the nation before it becomes too stronger and definitely resulting in the war (Glaser 171).
This is noted in the Israel-Palestine war as the Israelites equip themselves with modern equipments from their allies like the United States of America and the United Kingdom.
This is seen by the Palestines as a great challenge or threat and in the process Palestine attacked the Israel as a result of the fear that Israel is equipping itself solemnly to attack Palestine. To water down Israel’s strength, Palestine believes that the only way is to attack Israel before its territories start attacking (Huth 48).
The main contributors of war according to this theory includes
There are constant cases of threats that are being reported, this is where leaders of the respective nations give threats to other leaders. This creates tension which culminates in war because the leaders of the respective nations do not know what the other leaders are thinking which results in a continued conflict between the nations as the leaders are not straight in their efforts at stopping the war (Xin 5-8).
Institutions create peace by decreasing transaction costs; Institutions like the United Nations are seen as some of the leading organizations that are aimed at ensuring that peace in the Middle East is reached; this institution plays a significant role in determining the most appropriate measures that will ensure that peace in the Middle East is realized.
This is when major sanctions on the warring nations are applied in order to ensure that they abide by the rules thus restoring peace between the two warring nations (Jervis186-214).
Case study (The Israel- Palestine war)
The theory of security dilemma is well portrayed in The Israel- Palestine war; this is because one nation aims at securing itself at the expense of her neighbor. Each country is becoming more insecure, as a result of constant attacks from its neighbor (Ishmael 2).
The conflict between Israel and Palestine is seen as a security dilemma theory where the nations don’t trust one another, which is possibly because of the rampart threats and attacks that both the nation leaders and citizens conduct (McIntosh par 4).
The former Palestine and Israel leaders Yasser Arafat and Ariel Sharon think that given perspective in that they would hold closed door today and later on after the meeting, they would go against the proposed solutions. Their acts imposed threats on their neighbors, these threats resulted in war that triggered by the words of the leaders (Jervis 186).
The citizens of the respective nations also played a vital role in promoting of the war; this is when the Palestine civilians (suicide bombers) would conduct suicide bomb attacks on the Israeli civilians.
In this case the suicide bombers would attack the innocent and unarmed Israeli citizens in public places, the Palestinians would also launch missile attacks in places where the Israeli’s are thus provoking the Israeli military forces into attacking the Palestinian militia groups (Ishmael 8).
Israel’s long list of foreign allies has also played a very significant role in the security dilemma theory, Israel receives a lot of financial, technological and military assistance from its allies which helps Israel to increase its military power over Palestine. This definitely results in Palestine attacking Israel as a result of fear of being attacked first by Israel (Huth 48).
Works sited
Glaser, Charles. “The Security Dilemma Revisited.” World Politics 50.1 (1997): 100-225. Print.
Huth, Paul. Deterrence and International Conflict: Empirical findings and theoretical debates. Oxford University: Oxford University Press, 1999. Print.
The policy of helping countries in need is an indicator of a developed and civilized society where the leaders of successful states are ready to take an active part in supporting those countries that have faced various problems. As a rule, military conflicts are frequent causes of humanitarian and other types of aid. Wars cause destruction and famine; however, they are not the only conditions for foreign aid. Some support may also be provided in peacetime to stimulate the economy of a particular country and protect the interests of its citizens. As an example, Sudan can be taken, the state in northern Africa, which had a rather complex history of formation. This developing country has more than once received assistance from other countries with a more developed economy. Therefore, it is essential to evaluate all the possible consequences of military coups and peacetime in Sudan for foreign aid and to analyze the behavior of the local government concerning such measures.
Positive and Negative Effects of Peace and War on the Distribution of Foreign Aid
Those military actions that continued in Sudan for twenty-two years caused famine and devastation in the country. A huge number of refugees fled their homeland. It was the war that caused some food reserves to be transferred to two confrontation camps in 1989 (Lischer, 2015). Also, at the end of the war, it was decided to allocate a considerable amount of money to Sudan by the European Commission for the reconstruction of the country after its crisis. Until that time, there had been no prerequisites for the distribution of humanitarian aid among the population. A long civil war can be considered the primary and the only factor that determined the need for assistance.
Despite some protection from developed countries, Sudan would hardly have received appropriate assistance if the threat of a military conflict had not been so acute. According to Sawyer, Cunningham, and Reed (2017), the amount of loans and humanitarian charges is a value that, to a certain extent, determines the level of interest of countries with a strong economy in the development of more backward states. Due to the fact that the country of Sudan was in civil war for more than twenty years, it is possible to assume that insufficient measures were taken to prevent military conflicts. The number of refugees is proof that foreign aid was distributed in small amounts, and even the serious consequences of the war could not affect the reconstruction of the country.
Actions Taken by the Leadership of Sudan
Despite some countries’ attempts to help Sudan in rebuilding the state after the consequences of the war, significant steps were not taken by the government to solve all the existing problems. As Juselius, Møller, and Tarp (2014) note, Sudan was one of the few countries that had a rather stable economy even despite problems inside the country. Nevertheless, the local government not only failed to take effective decisions but also even worsened the situation. The fact is that food was used as a tool for manipulating the citizens of the state, and those humanitarian goods that were transferred to Sudan did not always reach the needy (Juselius, Møller, & Tarp, 2014). Therefore, the actions of the local government can be assessed as illegal rather than effective.
Effects of the Extension of Foreign Aid in Sudan
Financial and other types of assistance from developed countries can become quite a good tool in the hands of experienced government to establish order in the country. According to Packenham (2015), the effects of foreign programs to support developing countries tend to be positive, and the establishment of order is a natural process of such aid. However, with regard to Sudan, the expansion of foreign aid in practice did not reduce poverty and war in that country. People continued to starve and observe constant deaths even after some states intervened in their country’s policies to stop degradation. Steinwand (2015) claims that “stability-oriented aid reduces the risk of political destabilization only under narrow circumstances” (p. 395). The case of Sudan is a vivid example of such circumstances when the government of the country cannot and does not want to take important measures to protect the population, and no help is provided to improve the situation.
The end of the war served as the beginning of the country’s development and building a new, more civilized society. Nevertheless, a huge number of refugees left the country forever to save their lives. Sudan’s economy suffered significantly from the crisis, and today, the aid of developed countries can be useful only if it is competently and efficiently distributed.
Conclusion
Thus, an assessment of the effectiveness of foreign aid distribution in Sudan made it possible to conclude that assistance was provided during the war to prevent famine and the deaths of civilians. Nevertheless, the government did not use aid according to generally accepted rules and manipulated it, threatening people. Assistance is effective if it is used to meet the needs of the population rather than to enrich individuals. Proper allocation of resources can be a useful tool in rebuilding the country after a military crisis.
References
Juselius, K., Møller, N. F., & Tarp, F. (2014). The long-run impact of foreign aid in 36 African countries: Insights from multivariate time series analysis. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 76(2), 153-184.
Lischer, S. K. (2015). Dangerous sanctuaries: Refugee camps, civil war, and the dilemmas of humanitarian aid. New York, NY: Cornell University Press.
Packenham, R. A. (2015). Liberal America and the Third World: Political development ideas in foreign aid and social science. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
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