Category: W.E.B. Du Bois

The book ‘The Souls of Black Folk concentrates on the ideas of race and equality, the position of a black man in society, and his unique identity neglected by the white majority. Du Bois underlines that the failure to see or acknowledge black presence and contributions to the church and the society is a by-product of the social sin of racism. Institutionalized racism so blinds the minds, eyes, and hearts of those infected with its pernicious sense of white supremacist ideology that few perceive the patterns of racial exclusion and segregation that infect the dynamics of institutions (Cronon, 1987). These racist dynamics are viewed as normal by most members of both the dominant and oppressed culture. The history of the dominant culture’s exclusion of African Americans from full participation within its social institutions and the history of the contributions of African Americans to church and society, despite their social exclusion, are often ignored, denied, or deliberately omitted (Backer, 1872).

It is possible to say that Du Bois uses an angry style to appeal to the black community and white majority through vivid examples and language means. African American Catholics experience double invisibility, marginalization, and devaluation. In the Black world, we are marginalized because of our racial identity; and in the Catholic world, we are marginalized because of our racial and cultural identity as African Americans (Cose, 1993). The situation is further complicated when the economic and gender locations of some African American Catholics are taken into consideration. Poor, black, African Americans experience an intensification of marginalization and devaluation. The social marginalization of Black people in the United States is shared with all Blacks and other oppressed peoples within our nation. This marginalization is rooted in the historical development of the United States. Paradoxically, those seeking the recognition of their full human dignity through the acquisition of social and religious freedom have sometimes concomitantly denied the recognition of the full human dignity and acquisition of social and religious freedom of others. Africans and Native Americans were either enslaved, segregated, placed on reservations, or murdered. They were neither acknowledged as fully human nor as children of God. Social marginalization, with its concomitant invisibility and devaluation, is perpetuated when historians and others refer to the United States as a “nation of immigrants” (Connolly, 1983). This description ignores the existence of non-immigrant populations. Most Native Americans and Africans did not “immigrate” to this continent during the colonial period. The colonial and ecclesial expansion of Spain, France, and England, which began in the fifteenth century with explorers and colonial pioneers, continued with successive fluctuating waves of immigrants until the first half of the twentieth century. Former slaves in the United States seek political, religious, and economic freedom (Baron, 1969).

The text reflects the historical context and unique culture of the American nation speaking about internal problems and racial issues so important for the American society. American represents a multicultural unity that consists of different races and nations. In these circumstances, people are conditioned to their origins and presence of the ancestors of present-day Native Americans, African Americans, Asian Americans, and Mexican Americans within nations history. The perspective of U.S. history, though partially true, glosses over the negative impact of colonization and immigration upon the lives of the Native peoples and Africans in the early foundation of the nation. The book reflects positions expressed by Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass and Martin Luther King. Similar to these writers, Du Bois speaks about racial problems and the importance of all men to be equal, despite their race and nationality. The genocide of Africans during the slave trade of the Middle Passage, and their brutal treatment as slaves, were, similarly, justified by denying their full humanity, by denying them any human rights, and the fear of their retaliatory violence (Banfield, 1999).

A more inclusive and accurate designation of the population of the United States would be that the United States is a nation comprising descendants of native peoples, European immigrants, enslaved Africans, and continuous waves of economic and political refugees and immigrants from Europe, Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean. At the dawn of the twenty-first century, people are a culturally diverse nation. Succinctly, the United States is a microscopic cultural mosaic of the cultural diversity that characterizes the global world. That brings me to the third goal of Church history: understanding. The past enables one to understand the present. It helps one to distinguish the strands of the present. The characteristic of African-American culture is a passionate concern for justice (Davis, 1999). The virtue of justice means that as we live we fulfill our obligations to everyone and harm no one. That’s a daunting challenge, reminding us of the bonds we have with everyone and the responsibility we have to be attentive to their needs (Cronon, 1987). For the white majority, justice was not a consequence of morality but constitutive of morality. The weak, helpless, and downtrodden, the countless victims of racism, must be at the center of our ethical reflection, not on the fringe. Equality must begin with the concrete and particular, but specifically with concrete, particular cases of injustice. Racism cannot be bracketed while we consider other dimensions of moral life but must be its starting point.

Bibliography

1. Backer, Houston A., Jr. 1872, Long Black Song: Essays in Black American Literature and Culture. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
2. Banfield, Edward. 1999, The Moral Basis of a Backward Society. New York: Free Press.
3. Baron, Harold M. “1969, The Web of Urban Racism,” in Louis L. Knowles and Kenneth Prewitt , eds., Institutional Racism in America. New York: Prentice- Hall.
4. Du Bois, W. 1994, The Souls of Black Folk, Dover Publications; Unabridged edition.
5. Connolly, William E. 1983, The Terms of Political Discourse. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
6. Cose, Ellis. 1993, The Rage of a Privileged Class. New York: HarperCollins.
7. Cronon, E. 1987, David. Black Moses: The Story of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
8. Davis, Allison. 1999, Leadership, Love and Aggression. New York: Harcourt Brace.

In the first pages of The Souls of White Folk, the author reflects on the prospects of perceiving white skin color in the nineteenth century. In the Middle Ages, reflection on skin color and its meaning were not prevalent. Next, the author reflects on the meaning of whiteness in general.

The author describes the experience of a young African-American child. She encountered a lot of hatred and misunderstanding from the white people. In the next paragraph, the war and its horrors are discussed.

These wars are a result of white men who fight against other white men. The conflicts that happened in Africa, Nigeria, Morocco, and other countries led by Germany, Frane, and Spain are mentioned. In these pages, the author reflects on the meaning of the souls of the white folks.

The effect that this has on family life and society is highlighted as the author mentions Belgium as it flourished during the war. The author describes the words of Hauptmann and questions the modern theory of colonial expansion. In the following pages, the exploitation of black and brown people and colonial life, the cheap labor, and fertile lands are outlined.

The policy of the open door, which was only opened for the white people, is discussed. In the final pages, the author mentions the World War. Europe’s delusion is highlighted, considering the history of hatred and war. America is stated to be a suitable peacemaker, despite its failure in the context of racial discrimination.

In summary, The Souls of White Folk depicts the experiences of the racial discrimination that the author witnessed throughout history and specifically in the twentieth century. In addition, this essay highlights the history of colonialism and imperialism, which, in essence, exploited the black people and their land. As conclusion, the author states that America should be an example of democracy and acceptance but fails to do so.

Introduction

“herein lie buried many things which if read with patience may show the strange meaning of being black here in the dawning of the twentieth century. This meaning is not without interest to you, gentle reader; for the problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color-line.” These concise lines sum up the intent of the collection, which is to make an impression upon the world, the exacting familiarity of being an African American about forty years after the Civil War.

The Souls of Black Folk is testimony to Du Bois’ position as one of the leading scholars on race, religion in general, and the Black experience, in particular. The work comprises fourteen essays on a variety of topics, ranging from a history of the U.S. government’s labors at Reconstruction to a dialogue of the function of religion in the black community. Popularly known as the Father of social science, Du Bois’ observations and findings are everlasting and several of his worries continue to afflict society even today.

The Major Themes

The themes of race and religion were woven through each essay to demonstrate life behind “the veil” for the slave, the free person, and the Negro. This same theme offers insight into “double consciousness” for Blacks today. The author’s manner moves from solemn scrutiny to euphoric demonstration as he accounts a history burdened by the irrational, the unreasonable, the pointless, and in some cases, the dreadful.

In some sections of the essay, Du Bois continuously illustrates how their spirit in some way remained intact and all set to battle a new day while the remaining sections consider some ways in which Du Bois’ The Souls of Black Folk updates the discipline of sociology with relation to racism and race relations, monetary discrimination and Black management, edification, and religious conviction and the Black Church. At the heart of the text is the staging of a divergent, dichotomized identity of being Black and American, where the Black identity branded one a “problem” to be overlooked, sympathized, or disgraced and the White personality remained a steady reminder of an inheritance of domination and position to be honored but by no means reached.

Racism and Race Relations

Du Bois primarily lay emphasis on the inheritance of racial discrimination and its harmful effects on the lives of Black people. He in addition educated the reader that discrimination and prejudice not only stymied the Blacks, but had severe consequences for the Whites whose apprehension, suspicion, mistrust, derision, and hatred of Blacks weakened their own humanity. As a result, the inheritance of racism left the complete nation wanting the fundamental human qualities on which it was apparently originated. Isolation in metropolitan cities, economic discrimination, and poverty are evidence of the increasing effects of racism (Wilson 1986; 1997).

Importance of Education

Du Bois constantly points to education as the principal means of mobility and personality development for Blacks. The author applauded the “planting of the free school among Negroes” (p. 34) and documented the requirement for a diverse education system. Nevertheless, he held a very clear vision that those persons most equipped in character and devotion should serve as leaders (The Talented Tenth) and perfect their expertise by means of a liberal arts education. According to him, education continues to be important for success.

Significance of Religion and the Black Church

Du Bois was lucid that religion, illustrated by “the Preacher, the Music, and the Frenzy” (p. 191) served to uphold and give power to people. Du Bois recognized the Black Church as the communal axis of Black life which fulfills spiritual needs, serves as an educational platform, provides monetary aid, and provides refuge from prejudice, racism, and other stresses (Felder 1991; Frazier 1964; Lincoln 1984; Lincoln and Mamiya 1990).

The Souls of Black Folk holds an exceptional position as a religious commentary, a social analysis, evidence to the human spirit, a literary wealth, and a pragmatic investigation of political and economic conditions. At the heart of its legacy is victory in the face of adversity.

Characterization

Du Bois inquires about the leadership role of Booker T. Washington and his apologetic attitude toward the Whites. Even though Du Bois acknowledged Washington’s genuineness and accomplishments, he observes, “there is among educated and thoughtful colored men in all parts of the land a feeling of deep regret, sorrow, and apprehension at the wide currency and ascendancy which some of Mr. Washington’s theories have gained” (p. 47).

Contrasting to the honor he bequeaths upon Alexander Crummell, Du Bois considers that Washington’s attitude justified sustained domineering conditions and stifled possible opposition by the Black masses. Du Bois argues that the accomplishments of the Blacks can be associated with the competence and quality of Black leaders. A century later, West (1993) questions, “How do we account for the absence of the Frederick Douglasses, Sojourner Truths, Martin Luther King Jrs., Malcolm Xs, and Fannie Lou Hamers in our time? Why hasn’t black America produced intellectuals of the caliber of W.E. B. Du Bois…in the past few decades?” (p. 35). Supported on West’s (1993) typology of the Black political leaders, Washington could be believed a “race-effacing managerial leader” that yielded to domination, rather than a race exceeding visionary leader that would review.

Some Important characters

Alexander Crummel is the foremost African-American man fated an Episcopalian priest. Over the path of his life, he instituted his own parish, requests counsel and motivation in England, and ministers in Africa out of the passionate yearning to uplift his people. As a man who endeavors to serve his people with very little support or appreciation, his life is a great inspiration to Du Bois.

W. E. B. Du Bois is the author of The Souls of Black Folk and since the essay replicates his own experience; he is the hero and narrates the compilation, in an attempt to symbolize the extensiveness of the African-American experience in lieu of his own.

References

Du Bois, W.E.B. 1990 [1903]. The Souls of Black Folk. New York, NY: Vintage Books.

Kelley, Robin D.G. 1990. Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists During the Great Depression. Chapel Hill, NC: U of North Carolina Press.

Myrdal, Gunnar. 1996 [1944]. An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Reed, Adolph. 1997. W.E.B. Du Bois and American Political Thought. New York, NY: Oxford. Sandra L. Barnes Department of Sociology & Anthropology.

Introduction

The novels by Mark Twain are, perhaps, the most well-known specimens of American literature. Similarly, the works by DuBois feature the ideas embracing the traditional American values. The works of both Twain and DuBois have a very pronounced American voice since they focus on the problems faced by African Americans in the U.S. at the time. Because of a more clear focus on the social implications of racism in the U.S. and the refusal to use satire as the medium for conveying his argument, DuBois’ work introduces a more sincere argument than the one of Twain, which makes it a stronger narrative.

Dubois’ “The Souls of Black Folk” is very straightforward in its message. The author states explicitly that there is a drastic lack of equality in American society. In turn, Mark Twain makes efficient use of satire as the means of supporting the African American struggle for equality and fairness, which makes the main idea of justice more subdued. Nevertheless, there is an evident demand for the introduction of equality in the realm of American society. Overall, “The Souls of Black Folk” vocalizes the needs of African Americans and serves as their voice much more powerfully since the protagonist is African American, and since the conflict of the novel wraps around the issue of racism and discrimination.

Main body

In “The Souls of Black Folk,” the plot does not meander around any additional issues that make it diverge from the main topic, thus allowing for the creation of an authentic African American identity (Sullivan & Cross, 2016). Quite the contrary, DuBois provides a strong and unambiguous set of arguments against racism from the beginning, introducing authenticity to his work and making his claims legitimate (DuBois, 1930). It is quite remarkable that, even by stressing the characteristics of African Americans such as the lack of education and poverty, the author does not resort to racial stereotypes (Sullivan & Cross, 2016).

Instead, DuBois encourages a very sympathetic look at the situation in which the vulnerable group in question found itself at the beginning of the 20^th century, using a very clear and formal language: “By the poverty and ignorance of his people, the Negro minister or doctor was tempted toward quackery and demagogy” (DuBois, 1930, p. 3). As a result, the authenticity of the speech and the legitimacy of DuBois’ claims remain high.

Twain, however, represents Huck’s point of view not as an entirely positive and completely distanced from the moral bankruptcy of the rest of the American society. Unlike “The Souls of Black Folk,” which renders the problem of racial inequality openly and honestly (Sullivan & Cross, 2016), Twain’s novel meanders around the issue by stating that Huck initially agrees with the social standards that made Jim’s escape illegal and worthy of punishment (Twain, 1884).

Very early on in his novel, Twain sets the mood of Jim’s escape and the overall problem of slavery and racism in America by using a very distinct language, particularly, using derogatory terms to define African American population (Ford, 2014). While the reader should realize that Huck’s thoughts are supposed to represent Twain’s satire, these ideas that come from the most innocent person in the novel undermine the legitimacy and authenticity of the message (Levy, 2016). Furthermore, the very fact that the entire novel is framed from a White person’s perspective and uses the corresponding language deprives it of its African American voice.

“The Souls of Black Folk” does not have the problem of internal contradictions since it is established from the very beginning as an honest and unvarnished representation of the sad reality of American racism. The author states from the very beginning in a manner that is rather unprecedented for the literature of the time that racism and slavery are a blight on U.S. history (DuBois, 1930). In “The Souls of Black Folk,” the problem of racism is addressed unambiguously, with the author condemning it openly:

After the Egyptian and Indian, the Greek and Roman, the Teuton and Mongolian, the Negro is a sort of the seventh son, born with a veil, and gifted with second-sight in this American world,—a world which yields him no true self-consciousness, but only lets him see himself through the revelation of the other world. (DuBois, 1930, p. 2)

Additionally, the choice of representing the problem of prejudices and racism in the American society from the African American perspective allows the author to incorporate a strong African American voice into his work (Bell, ‎Grosholz, & Stewart, 2014).

The approach used by DuBois is entirely different from Twain’s work, where the readers see the events of the novel not from the perspective of Jim but from the one of Huck. The specified decision stifles the voice of African Americans in the novel and fails to represent their plight properly since the actual Black character is only a foil for the development of the lead one. Thus, “The Souls of Black Folk” adds urgency to the problem and uses stronger arguments to support it.

Conclusion

Although both “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” and “The Souls of Black Folk” render the problem of racism in the American society of the 19^th century, it is DuBois’ novel that makes the reader focus on the problem and prompts the need to resolve it. Twain’s novel, in turn, represents the implications of racism as a secondary element of the plot and, instead, follows its White protagonist. Thus, “The Souls of Black Folk” has an admittedly much stronger African American voice in it, with the problem of inequality and the issues within the Black community discussed openly.

References

Bell, ‎B. W., Grosholz, E. R., & Stewart, J. B. (Eds.). (2014). W.E.B. Du Bois on race and culture. New York, NY: Routledge.

DuBois, W. E. B. (1930). The souls of Black folk. Web.

Ford, S. G. (2014). Tracing Southern storytelling in black and white. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press.

Levy, A. (2016). Huck Finn’s America: Mark Twain and the era that shaped his masterpiece. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Sullivan, J. M., & Cross, W. E. Jr. (Eds.). (2016). Meaning-making, internalized racism, and African American identity. New York, NY: SUNY Press.

Twain, M. (1884). The adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Web.

Introduction

William Edward Burkhardt DuBois is considered to be the savior of the black community during the 19^th century. During the end of the 18^th century and the beginning of the 19^th century, the black community was subjected to racism, slavery and inhumane practices in the United States of America. Likewise other reformists, DuBois also contributed towards the betterment of the black community (African Americans).

The ideologies of DuBois have been interpreted in different manners in comparison to other reformists like Booker T. Washington and Marcus Garvey. While Washington’s method was not fully supportive of the African Americans, Garvey was considered to have adopted illegal means to demonstrate his support. This paper discusses the ideologies of DuBois and the effect that he had on the masses.

A Short Note on W. E. B. DuBois

William Edward DuBois was born in 1868 in Massachusetts. Many people remember him as an American historian, civil rights fighter, and a great sociologist. During his life, William helped establish several organizations to fight for the suppressed rights and needs of the African Americans in the country (White, 2008). Some of these organizations include the Niagara Movement and the NAACP established in the year 1909. During his time, he wanted to see African Americans free and successful. Because of this reason, he continued to change his views and perceptions such that he empowered the blacks to become free in American society.

Literature Review and the Circumstances That Instigated W. E. B. DuBois

One example of the economic disparity between the African Americans and the Americans was the basis of salary paid to workers. The African Americans were paid much less than the Americans for the same work. For a post of an engineer, an American was paid as much as 3 to 4.5 dollars a day whereas an African /American got only 2 to 2.5 dollars a day. Socially, the African Americans were neglected to such an extent that due to insufficient income, unhygienic living conditions and shortage of medical facilities, the rate of mortality was almost double than that in the case of Americans. African Americans were not allowed in important services like the police and judicial services. As a result, most of the arrested African Americans were convicted and moreover, their punishment was far severe than what was awarded to American convicts.

The Reconstruction was supposed to bring about major reformist changes in the social and economic conditions of African Americans. But unfortunately, it could not bring about the desired reforms. Even though the slavery system was abolished, the ethnic discrimination still persisted. Moreover, the rights that the African Americans were given during the Reconstruction were retracted imperatively, without leaving any scope of protest.

During these developments, DuBois had just completed his schooling and he was deeply perturbed by the condition of the African Americans. During the ensuing years, while doing his Ph. D., he wrote several books in which he tried to highlight the plight of the African Americans. According to Zhang Juguo, “DuBois was outspoken about African Americans’ weaknesses as a race. He admitted that African Americans as a mass had not reached a sufficiently high grade of civilization, and had not reached the social standards of the nation with respect to economic condition, mental training and social efficiency” (Juguo, 2002).

The ideologies of W. E. B. DuBois have been compared in different perspectives with different reformists. Adolph Reed suggested that “Against Washington, DuBois has been understood as a defender of radical activism and a pristine idealist. Against Garvey, he appears as an elitist integrationist…Communists claim him, his elitism notwithstanding, as do anti-communist Pan-African nationalist” (Reed, 1985).

Washington was considered to be a great leader of African Americans. But somehow DuBois could not approve of his ideologies and the method of working. According to DuBois, Washington was pro-American and was compromising on the interests of African Americans. According to Washington, the economic stability of the African Americans was more important than their social equality and that the immediate aim was economic independence.

His famous ‘Atlanta Compromise’ speech is proof of his ideology, wherein he urged the African Americans to compromise on their social equality status in lieu of jobs and higher education. He was of the opinion that once the African Americans were economically sound they would be able to fight for their social rights. According to Robert Gibson, “Washington counseled blacks to remain in the South, obtain useful education, save money, work hard, and purchase the property. By doing such things, Washington believed, the Negro could ultimately ‘earn’ full citizenship rights” (Gibson).

DuBois was totally against the ideologies of Washington and raised his voice against him. In his endeavor to attain justice and equality for the African Americans and to garner support against Washington, DuBois teamed up with 29 black leaders from different states and formed the ‘Niagara Movement’. Eventually, the movement was converted into the ‘National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and DuBois was made its Research and Publicity Director.

DuBois went to France as NAACP’s observer to participate in the ‘Paris Peace Conference’. During the proceedings, DuBois felt the necessity of spreading worldwide awareness of the plight of African Americans. But due to a lack of support from other African organizations, DuBois could not materialize his plans. Undeterred by the failure, in 1921 DuBois held another Pan-African conference where he was introduced to Marcus Garvey.

Garvey’s style of working was different from that of DuBois. Garvey believed in mass protests and conducted parades with people holding liberation flags. This attitude of Garvey did not go well with the government and as a result he was convicted of some fraud and sent to jail and was later exiled. DuBois had incessantly opposed Garvey’s ideology.

It was his tour of Russia that changed the ideology of DuBois. He went through the details of the Russian Revolution and was convinced that his present conformist integration thought was not the right way to reform the conditions of African Americans. He was very much impressed by the Russian social setup where there were no different classes or sects.

The other changing view of DuBois is that he continued to promote educational opportunities for individuals in the country and empowering the blacks to embrace peace in the country. He also educated his people about the need to empower themselves without necessarily involving themselves in activities such as strikes or attacking the whites (Winston, 2007). Through the fight against all forms of oppression and discrimination, the leader believed that he would successfully educate the people and understand how they could obtain maximum benefits from the integration. He also encouraged his people to embrace the relevance of different forms of education in order to be empowered (White, 2008).

Discussion on the topic

History reveals that DuBois was a prominent individual in the country. He played an enormous role in the emancipation and empowerment of African Americans in the country. His tireless efforts helped to empower the people thus making it possible for them to fight white imperialism and discrimination that characterized the country during the last years of the 19^th century and the beginning of the 20^th century (Winston, 2007).

Being one of the black educators in the country his efforts helped a lot in changing the views of the people. It is therefore acknowledgeable that DuBois relied on different policies and ideologies that did help many people understand their unique positions in the country and the need of being free. He also managed to enlighten the people about African American emancipation and the need for economic prosperity in a society dominated by the whites (Quarles, 2009).

The hero, therefore, remains famous for his role in establishing good relationships among the blacks in the country. This made it possible for them to fight united for a general cause. Because of his roles to ensure the African Americans were free in the country, DuBois empowered the people by giving them good ideas and views about their position in the country as colored people.

It is also acknowledgeable that DuBois was against some of the moves and ideologies presented by some people like Booker Washington who viewed small businesses, economic involvement, and self-employment as the best ideas to empower the African Americans in the country. This was the sure way to have the people contented with their lives and realize economic prosperity. According to DuBois, this move was unnecessary because it did not help African Americans to become free.

Many people consider William DuBois as a great fighter in the history of the United States. He is among the first leaders whose efforts and opinions led to the Civil Movement that happened in the United States in the 20^th century. Throughout his life, DuBois was concerned about his career and worked as a historian, sociologist, and educator. Through most of his teachings, DuBois influenced African Americans to stand up and fight for their rights. DuBois believed that it was the best way to ensure that people became free members of society. Because of his efforts to help his people, DuBois became one of the highly distinguished and respected educators in society (Johnson & Watson, 2004).

In most of his works, DuBois was concerned about the success of his people and this was the reason he provided them with the necessary incentives and ideas towards their prosperity. He also stood firm against racism and discrimination that continued to characterize American society during the time. He used his works and publications to address issues such as unemployment and racial discrimination in the country. In his life, he was also concerned about the welfare of blacks in different sectors such as the military. He traveled widely into different continents to address issues of bigotry and prejudice against the blacks.

Conclusion

W. E. B. DuBois was certainly a savior for the black community in America. He fought for their rights and at the same time, educated them about their rights and encouraged them to fight united for the cause. People were motivated to a great extent by his speeches and written works. As a result of his incessant endeavors, today the African Americans live happily in peace and harmony with the white Americans. Even though his ideologies changed with the passage of time, he was always concerned about the betterment of his fellow black people.

References

Gibson, Robert. n.d. Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. DuBois: The Problem of Negro Leadership. n.d. Web.

Johnson, Keith V., and Watson Elwood. 2004. “The W. E. B. DuBois and Booker T. Washington Debate: Effects upon African Roles in Engineering and Engineering Technology.” Journal of Technology Studies 1: 65-70.

Juguo, Zhang. 2002. W. E. B. DuBois: The Quest for the Abolition of the Color Line. United States of America: Routledge.

Quarles, Benjamin. 2009. The Negro in the Making of America. New York: Macmillan.

Reed, Adolph. 1985. “W. E. B. DUBOIS: A Perspective on the Bases of His Political Thought.” Political Theory: 431-456.

White, John. 2008. Black Leadership in America, from Booker T Washington to Jesse Jackson. New York: Longman.

Winston, Michael R. 2007. “Through the Back Door: Academic Racism and the Negro Scholar in Historic Perspective.” Daedalus 100: 678-719.

Introduction

Black Reconstruction in America was written in 1935 by W. E. B. Du Bois a distinguished American historian, sociologist, and civil rights activist. Du Bois is an author of a large number of books and articles devoted to the history of people of African descent and their fight against racism, slavery, and the slave trade. He was an advocate for the development and independency of rich traditions of the African culture. Du Bois’ ideological legacy was used by many civil and political rights activists, and Black Reconstruction in America is considered one of his most influential works. The main theme throughout the book is the role Black people played in both the Civil War and the Reconstruction Era.

The Origins and Context of the Book

By many, the book was and still is perceived as a direct response to the views and ideas promoted by the Dunning School. The representatives of this school of thought believed the Reconstruction era to be a failure. They diminished the Black people’s role during the Reconstruction, and their views were based on the strong opposition to the ideas of the Radical Republicans, who advocated for the immediate eradication of slavery. In addition, the Radicals took measures to establish civil rights in the South, pushing new policies and laws through Congress. Du Bois’ book reflects this historical and biographical context by directly addressing the accusations and assumptions proposed by the Dunning School members. His discussion presents them as a part of the White elite, which prevented poor whites from uniting with slaves and confronting the planter capitalist class together. White workers were led to believe that their whiteness somehow made them better than black workers, and that was one of the most devastating impacts of the Dunning School and the White elite in general.

The academic and intellectual context was thus highly influenced by the ideas of white supremacy, particularly in perceiving Reconstruction as a failure and diminishing Black people’s role in promoting positive changes. This was the idea commonly supported by many scholars at the time, including such prominent figures as Woodrow Wilson and James Ford Rhodes. In his works, Du Bois sought to overcome the perceptions the White elite class propagated at the beginning of the 20^th century.

Du Bois had published a number of works on Reconstruction before the final publication of Black Reconstruction in America. His first work related to the history of black enfranchisement was an essay published in the Atlantic Monthly in 1901 titled The Freedmen’s Bureau. In this essay, Du Bois examined the bureau’s role and its work’s efficiency in helping recently freed Black people living in the South. The Gift of Black Folk, published in 1924, was another work that served as a basis for Black Reconstruction. In it, Du Bois describes the contributions that Black people made to the creation and development of the United States. “Reconstruction and Its Benefits”, an essay published in the American Historical Review in 1910, was also highly important. All these books, articles, and essays eventually led to the creation of the major work on the topic of Black Americans’ role in the history of Reconstruction.

The Life of the Book after Publication

Although Black Reconstruction in America has earned positive reviews from the New York Times and several other newspapers and magazines, it was still ignored or rejected by most historians and scholars. This was due to the fact that most of them were proponents of white supremacy, segregationists, former slaveholders, and members of the Dunning School. They ridiculed the idea that a Black man could write a scholarly work. Black critics and journalists expressed favorable assessments of the book but were moderate and dispassionate in supporting Du Bois or the ideas he proposed. All this resulted in the book being ignored until the beginning of the 1960s when black civil rights movements started gaining strength again.

In the second half of the 20^th century, the book became more popular among scholars, historians, and civil rights activists. At that time, Black Reconstruction in America began to be viewed as a close analysis of the American culture and the history of the Reconstruction period. Some of the major ideas of the book were recognized by more people and eventually became common for the majority of historical writings done on the topic since the book’s publication. Some of these ideas include slavery being the main cause of the Civil War and black people being active agents of change during the war and Reconstruction periods.

Another idea gaining recognition over the course of the century was that the era’s politics were focused on the struggle over controlling black labor. More and more people accepted the fact that Reconstruction had presented numerous opportunities for improvement and that its overthrow was a tragedy and a defeat of democracy in the US and the world. Nowadays, the book is considered one of the fundamental works on American racism and influencing historical change. There is a unanimous agreement among historians and academic scholars today that most of the disappointments of the Reconstruction period were caused by slavery legacies.

The Importance of the Book Today

As mentioned above, Black Reconstruction has made a major contribution to the narrative of the Reconstruction era and the establishment of Black civil rights. It has introduced an important idea of viewing Reconstruction as a phenomenon that has to be understood in relation to the entire nation. Thus, its analysis should include not only “the South, but all the classes, from Northern industrialists and workers to Southern freedpeople, planters, and poor whites”. Another contribution to the historical scholarship of today is the fact that this book contains numerous quotes from primary sources. This allows the readers to gain new insights and perspectives on the views common among the notable leaders at the time. Some of these include quotes from Abraham Lincoln, Rutherford Hayes, Thomas Bayne, Charles Sumner, etc. Du Bois claimed that historians should “regard the truth as more important than the defense of the white race”, and his contribution to spreading such attitudes among scholars is invaluable. I believe this book is one of most important historical works, and reading it is essential for all scholars and individuals interested in the discussions of racism in American history.

The book is also important because it presents detailed explanations of how Southern and border states changed their governments after the Civil War. Du Bois refutes most of the myths created and spread by the Dunning School members. For example, the ones that state that Black people were able to fully control their governments and that they tended to misuse the financial help provided by the state. Du Bois states that some Black leaders did take bribes but explains that it is only due to the fact that they lived in poverty. This and other arguments that Du Bois presents concerning the corruption narrative seem persuasive to me. Through this work, he disproved the idea that Black leaders were the only ones to blame for corruption during Reconstruction.

Although I consider Black Reconstruction to be one of the fundamental historical works, I still think that in addition to being too long for modern readers, it can seem repetitive to some. Overall, I agree with Du Bois’ view about the possible accomplishments that could have been achieved during the Reconstruction era if white supremacists had not ended it.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it can be stated that Black Reconstruction in America is one of the classical historical works, the themes of which can still be seen in modern society. Although the book had been ignored by scholars for several decades after its publication, it is now an essential work to read for all historians, academics, and general readers interested in the topic. With this book, Du Bois managed to completely change the narrative in which the history of Reconstruction had been taught before. As a result, it is now rightfully considered to be his magnum opus and an extraordinary work of history.

Bibliography

Du Bois. W E. B. Black Reconstruction: An Essay toward a History of the Part Which Black Folk Played in the Attempt to Reconstruct Democracy in America, 1860-1880. Temecula, CA: Reprint Services Corp., 1935.

Foner, E. “Black Reconstruction: An Introduction.” South Atlantic Quarterly 112, no. 3 (2013): 409–418.

Meer, Nasar. “W. E. B. Du Bois, Double Consciousness and the ‘Spirit’ of Recognition.” The Sociological Review 67, no. 1 (2018): 47–62.

Introduction

Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Dubois were both prominent leaders of the black community. Despite this unifying trait, their views and goals regarding black people’s advancement in society were significantly different. This essay is created in a historical context, which allows to reflect and evaluate both strategies from the positions when the discussed individuals’ strives are more or less achieved. There are many strong differences between the two ideologies, the main being that Washington advocated for winning equality through obtaining the respect of white people while W.E.B. Dubois believed in protest. The reason for the varying approaches of Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Dubois lies in their history, more specifically, their upbringing and background.

The Views on Black Advancement Movement

The Core of the Dispute

When pondering the exact reasons behind this vast difference in approaches to the subject of black advancement, it is important to consider the individuals’ backgrounds. Booker T. Washington was born in slavery in Virginia, and after the Civil War, he was able to find work in a mine and as help for a white family. Later, he could attend the Hampton Institute, which was one of the first educational institutions in America that had only black people attending. After the school, he began teaching and later was chosen as the head of Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute. The main goals of this establishment were to give young black people a sense of moral code and skills that would help them in the developing industrial revolution. While sharing certain similarities, the background of Dubois differs from Washington’s.

W.E.B. Dubois was born free, and his community in Massachusetts was relatively integrated. In his early life, he was a successful student, going as far as becoming the valedictorian of his class. However, at Fisk University in Tennessee, Dubois was confronted with open bigotry and racism, which left a severe mark on his perception of the world. He returned to the north and continued his education with the goal of expanding the rights of black people. He was the first black man to obtain a Ph.D. from Harvard University. His dissertation was dedicated to the subject of slavery and oppression.

The Arguments

The philosophy of Washington was based on ideas of self-help, accommodation, and solidarity among black people. He believed that it was necessary for black people to wait until they were recognized as acceptable members of society. To achieve this recognition, they needed to be hard-working, educated, and morally developed. His ideas were widely popular, but were met with criticism from many black advocates, one of whom was Dubois.

Dubois’ ideology was rooted in agitation, resistance, and independence of the black spirit. He supported the idea that black people should embrace their heritage, and he could not leave Washington’s notions uncontested. In his essay, The Souls of Black Folk, he writes with disdain that Washington’s agenda is to gain sympathy and cooperation from the white south. In addition, he points out that Washington’s actions were misinterpreted by the south, as they saw it as a surrender of the black advancement movement (Dubois). Seeing these arguments from the historic perceptive, it is evident that both Dubois’ and Washington’s ideologies were correct to a certain extent. However, the current socio-political climate shows that the way of open resistance oftentimes is the only way.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the differences in ideologies are a matter that could be traced to the leaders’ upbringings and backgrounds. Dubois was born a free man and detested the idea of oppression. Washington believed that freedom and equality needed to be earned. The main difference between Washington and Dubois was that Washington approached the subject from the standpoint of accommodating the white oppressors, while Dubois chose to resist them.

Work Cited

Dubois, William. (2021). The Souls of Black Folk.Gutenberg, 2021. Web.

The relationships between African American and European American citizens of the United States were very bitter at the crossroads of the 19th and 20th centuries due to constant discrimination. The plight of African Americans in their desperate search for equality was dire at the given point in time, causing them to put all of their efforts into a struggle for equal treatment (“19th Century Turning Points in U.S. History: Episode 8. 1882-1900”). However, the form that the demand for equity took varied depending on the perspective used in the argument. The two sides of the discussion were represented vividly by Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois in their speeches. While Washington insisted that the social status quo should not be changed immediately but, instead, altered as the African American community increased its economy, Du Bois claimed that the change should be made with a robust political action and education. Although Washington’s ideas were rather beneficial to the African American community in the long term, Du Bois’s approach gave the African American liberation movement its momentum, which made it possible for the actual improvement to take place.

The introduction of the ideas associated with the economic growth was crucial to the well-being of African Americans, which was why Washington’s claims were reasonable and important to follow for the participants of the movement. As Washington put it, “Our great danger is that we may overlook the fact that […] the masses of us are to live by the production of our hands” (Foner 674). Thus, Washington’s approach toward the management of social inequality was rooted in practical concerns. As a result, its steady pace could have seemed ineffective, yet the long-term outcomes promised to be positive for African Americans economically.

Du Bois’s focus on education and the enhancement of literacy was also worth taking into consideration, yet his position on the immediate attack on the phenomenon of racial discrimination could have failed due to the lack of preparedness among the members of the African American community. According to Du Bois, “Mr. Washington distinctly asks that black people give up,” which did not seem accurate and was a call to subverting the statement of his political opponent rather than advocating for the needs of citizens (Foner 675). The emphasis on literacy and the increase in education rates was also an important aspect of Du Bois’s argument, which added legitimacy to it. However, the rapid-fire nature of the changes that Du Bois proposed may have jeopardized the efficiency of the movement.

At the same time, the presence of two polarizing opinions may have hampered the promotion of equality in the early years of American social development. With Du Bois representing a more radical position and Washington encouraging the traditional method of fighting oppression, the two speeches could have introduced confusion into the minds of African Americans and their supporters (“The Rise of Jim Crow in an Age of American Empire” 2). In the situation observed in American society in the late 1890s, the focus on a non-violent and composed attitude toward the needs of the African American population may have been seen as lacking the passion needed to support the oppressed population in its struggle against discrimination. Washington, in turn, introduced a balanced approach toward the management of racial issues and the concepts on which the movement for equality should focus. Still, the movement may not have been as successful if two opposing viewpoints on the subject matter had not been suggested.

Though the contribution of both Washington and Du Bois was instrumental to the development of the African American liberation movement, the ideas that Du Bois promoted seem to be more coherent and, therefore, more important for the promotion of social and racial equality. The two opinions shaped the movement and added a multifaceted approach to it, imbuing the struggle of African Americans with new objectives and contributing to its success.

Works Cited

“19th Century Turning Points in U.S. History: Episode 8. 1882-1900.”JP.NJVid.net, n.d., Web.

Foner, Eric. Give Me Liberty! 3rd ed., W. W. Norton & Company, 2016.

“The Rise of Jim Crow in an Age of American Empire.” 2019. Microsoft Word file.

With its horrendous legacy, slavery was one of the most abhorrent blights on the face of humankind. Even though it has been over a century since it was abolished, it still echoes in the lives of numerous people as discrimination and racism remain rampant in modern society (Nieman 3). In his book, DuBois provided a poignant and prominent description of the experiences of African American people. Questioning the idea of a nonviolent protest like the one that not only slows down the fight for human rights but also undermines its legitimacy by not confronting white supremacism, the book encourages the idea of an uninhibited movement that seeks to achieve dignity and freedom at all costs. Despite the questionable nature of the very concept of fighting violence with a different kind of violence, the book conveys a powerful message about the necessity to confront injustice and not to lose hope in the face of adversity.

What makes “The Souls of Black Folk” especially nuanced and poignant is its ability to contemplate the issues of racism and discrimination not only in the social but also economic and political contexts, which leads to a proper understanding of the complexity of the issue and shows why it remains so deeply engrained in the framework of social interactions. Demonstrating how the specified domains interplay and how they reinforce racist ideas and stereotypes, DuBois emphasizes the need to fight discrimination and racism as forms of systemic oppression, which suggests the application of vocal protests. Therefore, the ability to develop a nuanced analysis of the subject at hand while keeping the focus on the needs of the target vulnerable group is one of the main strengths of the book. DuBois manages to appeal to the emotions of his readers while arguing his point eloquently and convincingly.

Moreover, the idea of representing the main thesis of the book through a collection of lived experiences of African American people described in a raw, unfiltered, and, thus, very emotional and passionate manner made the book especially powerful. “The Souls of Black Folk” gives an insight into the challenges that a marginalized group has to face, therefore, outlining the necessity to fight for the rights of African American people by any means necessary (Bagwell). The book outlines the divide between the white population and the African American one as the main problem to fight against: “The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color line” (DuBois 32). As a result, the book leaves a tremendous impact on the reader, calling to action and emphasizing the necessity to fight against adversity and promoting the emancipation of the African American population.

Although the idea of using violence to fight racism and discrimination could be considered controversial, the book by DuBois sends a crucial message of remaining strong, united, and motivated even in extremely harsh circumstances. The idea of emancipation that DuBois established in his book has provided the basis for the future development of the liberation movement of the African American community. Therefore, “The Souls of Black Folk” has retained its vital meaning and essential message. Outlining the grassroots of the African American liberation movement, the book still holds tremendous weight as a repository of ideas and concepts that create the backbone for the movement for equality and social justice. Therefore, “The Souls of Black Folk” is as relevant today as it was at the time of its writing, and it is likely to stay just as important in the future.

Work Cited

Bagwell, Orlando. Roots of Resistance: A Story of the Underground Railroad, 1990, Web.

Du Bois, William Edward Burghardt. The Souls of Black Folk. Oxford University Press, 2008.

Nieman, Donald G. Promises to Keep: African Americans and the Constitutional Order, 1776 to the Present. Oxford University Press, 2020.

Black Americans have played a vital role in the history of the United States at the turn of the century in fighting for their freedom. The struggle for justice, equal opportunity for all, and recognition took a centre stage in the liberation movements. The turn of the century witnessed many changes taking place due to the relentless efforts of the Civil Rights Movement. Many slaves ultimately got their freedom but were left to struggle to find jobs, get educated, and endure a setting of increasing oppression and intolerance. This was a hallmark in ending racial segregation in the United States. This period was the test of the democratic principles of the US in working for all classes and races of people. The right of Black Americans to become full US citizens was denied by their race. At the forefront in pursuit of freedom were Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois who distinctively used different approaches to advance the status of Black Americans at the turn of the century.

Booker T. Washington was born in 1858 in slavery (8). As the civil war ended in 1865, his family were freed from the yoke of slavery. He had a career as an educationist in the Tuskegee Institute which acted as the headquarters for his operations. He was a skilled orator that gave him immense success in fighting for the rights of his brothers. To emphasize his claims, he authored books that furthered his efforts in fighting against slavery. He was regarded as one of the instrumental leaders in the African –American group of people in the US. Washington’s road to prominence as a spokesman for Black- Americans was portrayed in his Atlanta Address of 1895 on the relationship between the races. He exerted his influence till he died on November 14, 1915 due to exhaustion.

W. E. B. Du Bois was born on February 23, 1868 (pg.ix). His family belonged to a small free black population of Dutch and African ancestry. Du Bois faced instances of racial segregation whilst at school but this did not deter him from achieving his academic ambitions. He showed amazing academic ability that led him to ascertain that he could use his skills to empower Black Americans. In 1895, his academic ambitions were realized when he ultimately became the first Black American to get a PhD from Harvard university. He had a successful career as an activist, sociologist, pan-africanist and as a historian. He also edited and authored over 4,000 literary works. He was regarded as an intellectual figure in the fight for liberation by the Black Americans. He was one of the originators of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), but later came out of the organization upon differing with Washington in taking a different philosophical view of the race topic. Du Bois passed away at the old age of 95, in 1963, as a naturalized Ghana citizen.

The rights activists of the same race surprisingly did not have the same grounds on dealing with the racial problem. They had distinct opposing views on education and politics that hampered the liberation process. The differences were mainly philosophical.

On educational matters, Du Bois agreed that industrial education was appropriate for some blacks and he even commended the Tuskegee Institute for doing a good job. On his part, Washington held the same views. The difference was in the emphasis each one of them placed in the process of achieving it. Washington had the view that industrial education should be first so as to enable the southern blacks gain basic schooling coupled with useful skills that is of benefit to them. In advocating this he led the Tuskegee Institute that provide industrial training to Black Americans. He believed that the barrier between the whites and blacks could be removed in gaining trade skills that were important for economic security. On the opposing side, Du Bois advocated for academic education with emphasis in arts and sciences in favor of a mere trade education. He said that in the blacks not getting higher education will result in lack of teachers for the industrial schools hence limited improvement experienced on the blacks (Moore 61-2).

Besides the debate, the two prominent men practiced similar educational practices in real life. The Tuskegee Institute taught academic lessons like mathematics and expertise in literacy. In his life Du Bois was a firm crusader in success. He made efforts to give confidence to the Black Americans to strive in working hard in spite of their careers.

The difference in philosophical political opinions that they had was their greatest bone of contention. While both of them were for the attainment of equal rights by both the Black Americans and the White Americans, the process on how to achieve this was their major disparity. In the historical Atlanta Exposition speech of 1895, Washington advanced his self-help philosophy by urging the middle-class whites in the south to give blacks the opportunity to do their labor and build up separately. His reasoning was that confrontation could lead to worsening of the situation as the blacks were few in number. He was quick to point out that collaboration with some of the sympathetic whites was the prime way to achieve the long term struggle. In the address, Washington asserted that the intelligent among his race understood the folly of fighting for equality, and that equal rights can only come from constant struggle rather than by artificial forcing.

He advocated for accommodation to solve segregation problems and advised against the blacks involvement in politics (105-116).

His views received a hostile reception by the aggressive northern group led by Du Bois who dismissed the speech and branded it “The Atlanta Compromise’’. He critiqued Washington as emphasizing economic advancement for Black Americans while giving backing to racial segregation by suggesting that blacks and whites can co-exist similar to the separate hand fingers. Du Bois thought that Washington’s views accept white domination by not confronting segregation directly. He critiqued submission and silence in fighting for civil and political rights and advocated for political voice in dealing with the situation (35-42).

Moore comments that Washington often worked behind the scenes to avoid losing backing from the Whites if he started to protest discrimination. She notes that the difference between the two is that Du Bois made his opposition known, and Washington did not. When their confrontations were made public, it was more rhetorical than real, more personal conflict than theoretical debate (62).

In the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, the prominent black leaders disowned Washington’s philosophy. The leaders asked for federal civil rights laws in achieving the ultimate success of complete freedom.

Works cited

Du Bois, W.E.B. The Souls of Black Folk. Chicago. A.C. McClurg & Co. 1903.

Moore M. Jacqueline. Booker T. Washington, W.E.B. Du Bois, and the struggle for racial uplift. Wilmington. Del. Scholarly Resources, 2003.

Washington T. Booker. Up from Slavery. New York: Cosimo Publications. 1901.