Category: W.E.B. Du Bois

Introduction

The novels by Mark Twain are, perhaps, the most well-known specimens of American literature. Similarly, the works by DuBois feature the ideas embracing the traditional American values. The works of both Twain and DuBois have a very pronounced American voice since they focus on the problems faced by African Americans in the U.S. at the time. Because of a more clear focus on the social implications of racism in the U.S. and the refusal to use satire as the medium for conveying his argument, DuBois work introduces a more sincere argument than the one of Twain, which makes it a stronger narrative.

Dubois The Souls of Black Folk is very straightforward in its message. The author states explicitly that there is a drastic lack of equality in American society. In turn, Mark Twain makes efficient use of satire as the means of supporting the African American struggle for equality and fairness, which makes the main idea of justice more subdued. Nevertheless, there is an evident demand for the introduction of equality in the realm of American society. Overall, The Souls of Black Folk vocalizes the needs of African Americans and serves as their voice much more powerfully since the protagonist is African American, and since the conflict of the novel wraps around the issue of racism and discrimination.

Main body

In The Souls of Black Folk, the plot does not meander around any additional issues that make it diverge from the main topic, thus allowing for the creation of an authentic African American identity (Sullivan & Cross, 2016). Quite the contrary, DuBois provides a strong and unambiguous set of arguments against racism from the beginning, introducing authenticity to his work and making his claims legitimate (DuBois, 1930). It is quite remarkable that, even by stressing the characteristics of African Americans such as the lack of education and poverty, the author does not resort to racial stereotypes (Sullivan & Cross, 2016).

Instead, DuBois encourages a very sympathetic look at the situation in which the vulnerable group in question found itself at the beginning of the 20^th century, using a very clear and formal language: By the poverty and ignorance of his people, the Negro minister or doctor was tempted toward quackery and demagogy (DuBois, 1930, p. 3). As a result, the authenticity of the speech and the legitimacy of DuBois claims remain high.

Twain, however, represents Hucks point of view not as an entirely positive and completely distanced from the moral bankruptcy of the rest of the American society. Unlike The Souls of Black Folk, which renders the problem of racial inequality openly and honestly (Sullivan & Cross, 2016), Twains novel meanders around the issue by stating that Huck initially agrees with the social standards that made Jims escape illegal and worthy of punishment (Twain, 1884).

Very early on in his novel, Twain sets the mood of Jims escape and the overall problem of slavery and racism in America by using a very distinct language, particularly, using derogatory terms to define African American population (Ford, 2014). While the reader should realize that Hucks thoughts are supposed to represent Twains satire, these ideas that come from the most innocent person in the novel undermine the legitimacy and authenticity of the message (Levy, 2016). Furthermore, the very fact that the entire novel is framed from a White persons perspective and uses the corresponding language deprives it of its African American voice.

The Souls of Black Folk does not have the problem of internal contradictions since it is established from the very beginning as an honest and unvarnished representation of the sad reality of American racism. The author states from the very beginning in a manner that is rather unprecedented for the literature of the time that racism and slavery are a blight on U.S. history (DuBois, 1930). In The Souls of Black Folk, the problem of racism is addressed unambiguously, with the author condemning it openly:

After the Egyptian and Indian, the Greek and Roman, the Teuton and Mongolian, the Negro is a sort of the seventh son, born with a veil, and gifted with second-sight in this American world,a world which yields him no true self-consciousness, but only lets him see himself through the revelation of the other world. (DuBois, 1930, p. 2)

Additionally, the choice of representing the problem of prejudices and racism in the American society from the African American perspective allows the author to incorporate a strong African American voice into his work (Bell, Grosholz, & Stewart, 2014).

The approach used by DuBois is entirely different from Twains work, where the readers see the events of the novel not from the perspective of Jim but from the one of Huck. The specified decision stifles the voice of African Americans in the novel and fails to represent their plight properly since the actual Black character is only a foil for the development of the lead one. Thus, The Souls of Black Folk adds urgency to the problem and uses stronger arguments to support it.

Conclusion

Although both The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and The Souls of Black Folk render the problem of racism in the American society of the 19^th century, it is DuBois novel that makes the reader focus on the problem and prompts the need to resolve it. Twains novel, in turn, represents the implications of racism as a secondary element of the plot and, instead, follows its White protagonist. Thus, The Souls of Black Folk has an admittedly much stronger African American voice in it, with the problem of inequality and the issues within the Black community discussed openly.

References

Bell, B. W., Grosholz, E. R., & Stewart, J. B. (Eds.). (2014). W.E.B. Du Bois on race and culture. New York, NY: Routledge.

DuBois, W. E. B. (1930). The souls of Black folk. Web.

Ford, S. G. (2014). Tracing Southern storytelling in black and white. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press.

Levy, A. (2016). Huck Finns America: Mark Twain and the era that shaped his masterpiece. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Sullivan, J. M., & Cross, W. E. Jr. (Eds.). (2016). Meaning-making, internalized racism, and African American identity. New York, NY: SUNY Press.

Twain, M. (1884). The adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Web.

Black Americans have played a vital role in the history of the United States at the turn of the century in fighting for their freedom. The struggle for justice, equal opportunity for all, and recognition took a centre stage in the liberation movements. The turn of the century witnessed many changes taking place due to the relentless efforts of the Civil Rights Movement. Many slaves ultimately got their freedom but were left to struggle to find jobs, get educated, and endure a setting of increasing oppression and intolerance. This was a hallmark in ending racial segregation in the United States. This period was the test of the democratic principles of the US in working for all classes and races of people. The right of Black Americans to become full US citizens was denied by their race. At the forefront in pursuit of freedom were Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois who distinctively used different approaches to advance the status of Black Americans at the turn of the century.

Booker T. Washington was born in 1858 in slavery (8). As the civil war ended in 1865, his family were freed from the yoke of slavery. He had a career as an educationist in the Tuskegee Institute which acted as the headquarters for his operations. He was a skilled orator that gave him immense success in fighting for the rights of his brothers. To emphasize his claims, he authored books that furthered his efforts in fighting against slavery. He was regarded as one of the instrumental leaders in the African American group of people in the US. Washingtons road to prominence as a spokesman for Black- Americans was portrayed in his Atlanta Address of 1895 on the relationship between the races. He exerted his influence till he died on November 14, 1915 due to exhaustion.

W. E. B. Du Bois was born on February 23, 1868 (pg.ix). His family belonged to a small free black population of Dutch and African ancestry. Du Bois faced instances of racial segregation whilst at school but this did not deter him from achieving his academic ambitions. He showed amazing academic ability that led him to ascertain that he could use his skills to empower Black Americans. In 1895, his academic ambitions were realized when he ultimately became the first Black American to get a PhD from Harvard university. He had a successful career as an activist, sociologist, pan-africanist and as a historian. He also edited and authored over 4,000 literary works. He was regarded as an intellectual figure in the fight for liberation by the Black Americans. He was one of the originators of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), but later came out of the organization upon differing with Washington in taking a different philosophical view of the race topic. Du Bois passed away at the old age of 95, in 1963, as a naturalized Ghana citizen.

The rights activists of the same race surprisingly did not have the same grounds on dealing with the racial problem. They had distinct opposing views on education and politics that hampered the liberation process. The differences were mainly philosophical.

On educational matters, Du Bois agreed that industrial education was appropriate for some blacks and he even commended the Tuskegee Institute for doing a good job. On his part, Washington held the same views. The difference was in the emphasis each one of them placed in the process of achieving it. Washington had the view that industrial education should be first so as to enable the southern blacks gain basic schooling coupled with useful skills that is of benefit to them. In advocating this he led the Tuskegee Institute that provide industrial training to Black Americans. He believed that the barrier between the whites and blacks could be removed in gaining trade skills that were important for economic security. On the opposing side, Du Bois advocated for academic education with emphasis in arts and sciences in favor of a mere trade education. He said that in the blacks not getting higher education will result in lack of teachers for the industrial schools hence limited improvement experienced on the blacks (Moore 61-2).

Besides the debate, the two prominent men practiced similar educational practices in real life. The Tuskegee Institute taught academic lessons like mathematics and expertise in literacy. In his life Du Bois was a firm crusader in success. He made efforts to give confidence to the Black Americans to strive in working hard in spite of their careers.

The difference in philosophical political opinions that they had was their greatest bone of contention. While both of them were for the attainment of equal rights by both the Black Americans and the White Americans, the process on how to achieve this was their major disparity. In the historical Atlanta Exposition speech of 1895, Washington advanced his self-help philosophy by urging the middle-class whites in the south to give blacks the opportunity to do their labor and build up separately. His reasoning was that confrontation could lead to worsening of the situation as the blacks were few in number. He was quick to point out that collaboration with some of the sympathetic whites was the prime way to achieve the long term struggle. In the address, Washington asserted that the intelligent among his race understood the folly of fighting for equality, and that equal rights can only come from constant struggle rather than by artificial forcing.

He advocated for accommodation to solve segregation problems and advised against the blacks involvement in politics (105-116).

His views received a hostile reception by the aggressive northern group led by Du Bois who dismissed the speech and branded it The Atlanta Compromise. He critiqued Washington as emphasizing economic advancement for Black Americans while giving backing to racial segregation by suggesting that blacks and whites can co-exist similar to the separate hand fingers. Du Bois thought that Washingtons views accept white domination by not confronting segregation directly. He critiqued submission and silence in fighting for civil and political rights and advocated for political voice in dealing with the situation (35-42).

Moore comments that Washington often worked behind the scenes to avoid losing backing from the Whites if he started to protest discrimination. She notes that the difference between the two is that Du Bois made his opposition known, and Washington did not. When their confrontations were made public, it was more rhetorical than real, more personal conflict than theoretical debate (62).

In the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, the prominent black leaders disowned Washingtons philosophy. The leaders asked for federal civil rights laws in achieving the ultimate success of complete freedom.

Works cited

Du Bois, W.E.B. The Souls of Black Folk. Chicago. A.C. McClurg & Co. 1903.

Moore M. Jacqueline. Booker T. Washington, W.E.B. Du Bois, and the struggle for racial uplift. Wilmington. Del. Scholarly Resources, 2003.

Washington T. Booker. Up from Slavery. New York: Cosimo Publications. 1901.

Biographical Information

William Edward Burghhardt (W.E.B) DuBois (February 23, 1868) was an esteemed African American civil rights activist, historian, sociologist, author, editor, and Pan Africanist. A respected and prolific writer, DuBois authored 22 books, including five novels and three autobiographies as well as helped establish four academic journals. Some of his most prominent works include The Souls of Black Folk, The Negro, Black Reconstruction, and Black Folk, Then and Now. As Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. profoundly states history cannot ignore W.E.B. DuBois because history has to reflect truth and Dr. DuBois was a tireless explorer and a gifted discoverer of social truths. His singular greatness lay in his quest for the truth about his own people. There were very few scholars who concerned themselves with honest study of the black man and he sought to fill this immense void. The degree to which he succeeded disclosed the great dimensions of the man. (Hynes).

Book Review

Published in 1903, The Souls of Black Folk is considered a cornerstone of African American history and classic work of American literature as well as a seminal work in the history of sociology. An anthology of essays on race, DuBois draws from his own personal experiences to formulate this pioneering epic on the African American experience in American society. The soul consists of sixteen essays inclusive of a Forethought and Afterthought. The opening paragraph in the Forethought epitomizes DuBois intentions and premise for his groundbreaking treatise. Herein lie buried many things which if read with patience may show the strange meaning of being black here at the dawning of the Twentieth Century. This meaning is not without interest to you, Gentle Reader; for the problem of the Twentieth Century is the problem of the color line. I pray you, then, receive my little book in all charity, studying my words with me, forgiving mistake and foible for sake of the faith and passion that is in me, and seeking the grain of truth hidden there (DuBois).

Soul assesses the progress of the African American race, the obstacles confronting such and future progress at the dawn of the 20^th century. Historical and political issues are addressed in the first three chapters. DuBois explores African American life following the Civil War and in particular analyzes the policies of the Freedmens Bureau during Reconstruction as well as the counterproductive role of Booker T. Washington in terms of promoting racial segregation and material wealth which interferes civic equality and progress. He shares his experiences as a schoolteacher in rural Tennessee. DuBois critiques American materialism its negative effects if not properly balanced life-promoting ideals as well as standards of human culture and explores the role of the Talented Tenth or African American elite as liaisons for improving race relations. African American life in the Southern Black Belt has been examined as well the significance of religion on African American experience and the impact of slavery on American morality. Finally, DuBois focuses on racial prejudices impact on the individual. The last chapter examines African American spirituals and their personification of the Black experience. DuBois tackles the concepts of African American life under the veil of race and its by-product, double-consciousness  viewing self through the eyes of others.

Conclusion

A unique merge of history, sociological data, poetry, song, coupled with his personal experience, Soul asserts DuBois vision of why and how to race to pose a dilemma at the onset of the 20^th century and the intrinsic quality of the African American experience in relation to American culture. The Soul of Black Folk testifies to biographer David Levering Lewiss assertion that in the course of his long, turbulent career, W. E. B. DuBois attempted virtually every possible solution to the problem of twentieth-century racism scholarship, propaganda, integration, national self-determination, human rights, cultural and economic separatism, politics&.(Lewis).

Bibliography

1. DuBois, W.E.B. The Souls of Black Folk: Essays and Sketches. A.C. McClurg & Co: Chicago, IL, 1903.
2. Hynes, Gerald C. A Biographical Sketch of W.E.B. DuBois.
3. Lewis, David Levering, W. E. B. DuBois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century, 1919-196. Henry Holt and Co.: New York, NY, 2000.

William E. B. Du Bois’ sociological study The Philadelphia Negro provides an interesting and insightful examination of disparities that affect the United States today, over a century after its publication. The book provides historical context, explaining some of the factors that contributed to shaping and maintaining said disparities, some of which seemingly remain unchanged. One such disparity evident today is the negative marriage statistics of black Americans when compared to other ethnicities.

Du Bois condemned the high occurrence of cohabitation and children born out of wedlock as arising from “the lax moral habits of the slave régime” (67). Although the marriage rate is declining, poor family structure has nonetheless been attributed to many problems black Americans struggle with today.

It is interesting to note that even while discussing a problem that is, at its core, racial, class is an additional topic of discussion. Neighboring the lowest poverty and crime, sometimes literally in the Seventh Ward, were a middle and an upper class (Du Bois, 60-62). Even in the relatively oppressive eighteenth century, there were individuals like Absalom Jones and Richard Allen who were, by all accounts, notable regardless (or, perhaps, in spite) of their race. Furthermore, even as segregation, in its various forms, continued to be upheld, Du Bois explains that a trade guild made up of black people, the guild of caterers, rose to prominence. The author himself, having gained a higher education and recognition, is an example of an exceptional individual achieving great heights despite their circumstances.

The class divide described above can be attributed to education. Du Bois explains that it is not only the availability of schooling but the attitudes of the Seventh Ward’s black residents towards it that contribute to the issue.

He points out the low school attendance, which is still remarked as a problem in the modern education system. In the first half of the nineteenth century, black Americans were deliberately excluded from learning specialized professional skills, which ultimately allowed foreign immigrants to out-compete them. Although this practice has since been outlawed, this disadvantage and negative attitude are visible in today’s education statistics.

Another interesting observation is related to the matter of poverty and upward social mobility. It is not too uncommon to see poor people “dressed far beyond their means; much money is wasted in … visible parts of the homes” (Du Bois 178). There are cultural pressures — not limited to any race — to uphold an appearance of wealth, sometimes with extravagant and excessive displays. Ultimately, however, such spending habits have contributed to the difficulty of achieving a higher social class from poverty. The wealthy, meanwhile, seem to “fear to fall if now they stoop to lend a hand to their [less fortunate] fellows” (Du Bois 392). This reluctance helps create a stereotypically negative image of the rich, making it less desirable to strive towards wealth.

In the final chapters of The Philadelphia Negro, Du Bois suggests a potential solution to what he terms “the Negro problem.” Rather than sweeping reforms, it involves a gradual change in public opinion, peaceful reconciliation, and mutual assistance. He further advocates for the higher classes taking responsibility for helping those less fortunate and assigns responsibility for resolving the issue to both sides of it. These statements are both enlightening and disheartening in light of the current rising racial tensions. Overall, the themes and situations described in The Philadelphia Negro are a perfect illustration of the proverb, “the more things change, the more they stay the same.”

Works Cited

Du Bois, William E. B. The Philadelphia Negro. Schocken Books, 1967.

Introduction

The book “The Souls of Black Folk” by W.E.B. Du Bois expresses the author’s perception and reflection towards the life, fate, and self-determination of African people in America. The author attempts to convey his experiences and realization, describing past and present events he witnessed or participated in and people representing these nations. The book raises many questions by expressing essential for humanity concepts. Among them, there is the concept of double-consciousness that Du Bois inserts into his work. Are there ways that this concept still resonates in 2020? It partially seems to be reflected even nowadays.

The way it resonates is the state of all the people who feel unaccepted, estranged, and not belonging anywhere. For instance, people who do not match the modern society frames, such as appearance, orientation, gender. According to Rios, Carney, and Kelekay, today, the issue seems to broaden.¹ Not only the color of a person’s skin can be a cause of unacceptance and problems with self-identity, but a much wider range of characteristics is taken into account. Nowadays, a person often faces a confrontation between the image created by what he himself wants and the image based on what the society wants him to be. It is where the “two-ness” begins. To analyze the concept of double-consciousness further, it is necessary to focus on two chapters from this book – “Of Our Spiritual Strivings” and “The Sorrow Songs”.

Of Our Spiritual Strivings

The first chapter concentrates on explaining the concept and its origin. Du Bois says about the feeling: “It is a peculiar sensation, this double-consciousness, this sense of always looking at one’s self through the eyes of others.”¹ The author describes the feeling of “two-ness,” which was developing in him, starting from the boyhood. It was the time when he began to realize that the place where he was contradicted with his heart and soul.

Later on, this sense transformed into a willingness to adapt to the alien culture, make something meaningful out of life, and fulfill the potential. Simultaneously, he could not deny or forget his origin and, therefore, could not be free to live in another culture with different values and realities. This “two-ness” is transferred into the sense of inner confrontation and inability to identify oneself. As was mentioned before, nowadays, many people who do not match society frames tend to suffer from similar problems.

The Sorrow Songs

The next chapter to be discussed focuses more on people and their self-expression through creativity and music, their ability to convey their culture and deep emotions sometimes even without comprehensible words. African people can recount so much in their songs – their origin and culture, pain, and happiness; sometimes. Apart from the concept of double-consciousness, they manage to communicate such notions as death, motherless, faith. “Sometimes it is faith in life, sometimes a faith in death, … But whichever it is, the meaning is always clear: sometime, somewhere, men will judge men by their souls and not by their skins.”² The main hope implied in most of the songs is that acceptance is possible and will come one day.

Conclusion

All in all, as a result of the analysis, it is possible to conclude that the concepts of double-consciousness and hope not only permeate the book “The Souls of Black Folk” by W.E.B Du Bois. They are also vital conceptions of American people’s lives. Last but not least, it is impossible not to be touched by this poignant book and deep insight into these people’s culture and life. Moreover, the concept of double-consciousness still resonates in today’s reality through people who are not entirely understood by society but want to be accepted, which leads to the inner confusion and “two-ness”.

Bibliography

Du Bois, W.E.B. The Souls of Black Folk. Edited by David W. Blight and Robert Gooding-Williams. Boston: Bedford Books, 1997.

Rios, Victor M., Nikita Carney, and Jasmine Kelekay. “Ethnographies of Race, Crime, and Justice: Toward a Sociological Double-consciousness.” Annual Review of Sociology, no. 43 (2017): 493-513.

Footnotes

1. W.E.B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk. Eds. David W. Blight and Robert Gooding-Williams (Boston: Bedford Books, 1997), 38.
2. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk, 192.

William Edward Burghardt DuBois attacked injustice and worked against the racial discrimination against Africans. He was a socialist African-American who devoted his life towards studying the life and oppression faced by Africans and worked for their upliftment. He believed in inequality in society and condemned the prejudice of the whites against any section of society. “His singular greatness lay in his quest for the truth about his own people.” (Hynes, (n.d)). Here, using DuBois’s ideas, the hazards faced by the disabled and how he would have approached them, are being discussed. The socio-cultural and economic barriers that the disabled people face would surely be the factors that he would shed light on.

Sources say that disabled persons make up quite a large proportion of the working-class population, of about 12-16 percent. Disability accounts for every kind of physical and psychological disability. This category is one that has always suffered social prejudice the most. They are alienated for reasons they are not responsible for. Getting work is very difficult for them. Only about forty percent of the disabled get employed, and the payment that they get is almost fifty percent lower than a general payment. As for the people who get disabled during work, only one in six get employed again. Many of them do not even receive proper education because their families abandon them. (Burchardth, 2000).

It is a known fact that disabled people are not considered equal by others in society. It is found that almost eighty percent of all disabled persons live in isolation and they face physical, cultural and social barriers which affect their education, health and employment. They are considered useless and cursed by God. In many places, these helpless people are killed, abandoned, and at times disabled children are even thrown into rivers. A negative stigma attached to them, stop them from overcoming their disabilities and succeeding in life. A sad part of such barriers and negative stigma is that it adds to their disabilities causing mental depressions. To quote an incident; Audrey Robinson was a 50 year old woman, a stroke survivor visibly disabled. When she was diagnosed with breast cancer, she decided to consult a doctor who she knew was an expert. But the doctor’s attitude towards her depressed her. He made her wait for two hours and was impatient.

DuBois would probably find it most disgusting when people approach the disabled with charity. It should be understood that nothing irritates the disadvantaged people more than the charity and sympathetic talks by others. They are not seen as equals among other people. Instead, they are given concession in everything that they do. For example, every public transport bus reserves a seat for the disabled. It is ironic that none of them ever use that particular seat. It gives them a feeling that they are considered inferior to others.

What they need is equal opportunity in all walks of life, including education and employment which are the basic requirements to succeeding in life. They would prefer to be talked to in the same way as to others avoiding any kind of sympathy because they are as good as or even better than many other people with no disability. Take the example of Helen Keller, the girl who was deaf and blind. She became a world-renowned author and speaker. DuBois would probably remind everyone that anyone can get disabled at any time in their lives. An accident on the road, at the workplace, or disease can cause disabilities to anyone.

References

1. Hynes, Gerald, C. (n.d.). A biographical sketch of W E B DuBois: Introduction.
2. Burchardth, Tania. (2000). Enduring economic exclusion: disabled people income and work. Joseph Rown Tree Foundation.

Jacqueline M. Moore states in her book “Booker T. Washington, W.E.B. Du Bois, and the Struggle for Racial Uplift” that it is impossible to analyze black history without referring to one of the key figures in this field, W.E.B. Du Bois (xv). The scientist’s activity is characterized by radical orientation, as he insisted on “immediate and full civil rights” for black Americans (Moore xv). Phil Zuckerman perfectly sheds light on the considerable impact of W.E.B. Du Bois to the development of sociology, saying that the scientist was a pioneer in many central fields of science (5). Reiland Rabaka states that “All theories have blind spots and lens limitations, and all theories make critical contributions as well” (19). This is why the legacy of W.E.B. Du Bois, especially his race theory, which was, in fact, overlooked and underestimated for a long time, deserves special attention.

The first merit o W.E.B. Du Bois is, as we have stated above, is that he was the first in many fields. He is considered to be “a pioneer of urban sociology, a pioneer of rural sociology, a pioneer of criminology, the first American sociologist of religion, and the first great social theorist of race” (Du Bois and Zhuckerman 5). What is more, the scientist was not a mere theorist, but a practitioner as well, he organized the first courses in sociology at Atlanta University, and he organized and conducted sociological conferences.

The importance of Du Bois’s work is great. This can be proved by the analysis of his race theory, the central theory of his legacy, which was interconnected and interrelated with other aspects of his work. The race theory has a number of significant advantages. The scientist’s theory has a number of features in common with other authoritative sociologists, such as Karl Marx, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim, etc. However, despite similarities, the sociologist contributed his own original and unique ideas. The main center of his theory is his focus on race. He emphasized the absolute importance of “racial distinctions and racial constructs” for the way people experience the world (Du Bois and Zuckerman 10). It referred to all spheres: health, politics, international relations, etc. What is more, the sociologist established the link between two analyses: racial and class analysis. Consequently, Du Bois showed the weak point of Marx’s analysis – the ignoring of the color line. Thus, Du Bois managed to add “racial dynamics to class dynamics” (Du Bois and Zuckerman 10).

Another strong point of Du Bois’s race theory is his unique idea that race is a social construction. It means that race is based not only on a biological basis but on a number of other factors: economic situation, cultural basis, etc. What is more, Du Bois managed to explain the connection between class, race and globalization.

At the same time, like every theory, Du Bois’s theory is not ideal, it, evidently, has drawbacks. His “theoretical assertions were often stated implicitly, rather than implicitly” (Du Bois and Zuckerman 11). It means that the sociologist frequently based his assertions on historical illustrations and employed ethnography, instead of theoretical postulates. Besides, he did not pay enough attention to the matter of gender, which could have been useful for his theory. Some scientists blame Du Bois for employing diverse theories from several different disciplines (Rabaka 194). Gordon says that Du Bois’s views are “archaic today and downright false”, but it is his merit, that “his essays challenged the intellectual community of color to take action” against the racial problems of his time.

In conclusion, it should be mentioned that despite its being old-fashioned in some aspects and imperfect, Du Bois’s views had a great influence on social science, which cannot be undervalued. The reason for a long indifference towards his work was that he was a black man who wrote about black people and racism when this topic was taboo. This may be considered one more merit of Du Bois’s work.

Works Cited

Du Bois, William Edward Burghard and Zuckerman, Phil. The Social Theory of W.E.B. Bois. Thosand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 2004.

Gordon, Lewis R. Backup of A Short History of the ‘Critical’ in Critical Race Theory. 2009. Web.

Moore, Jacqueline M. Booker T. Washongton, W.E.B. Du Bois, and the Struggle for Racial Uplift. Wilmington: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003.

Rabaka, Reiland. W.E.B. Du Bois and the Problems of the Twenty-first Century: An Essay on Africana Critical Theory. Plymouth: Lexington Books, 2007.

The problem of ‘the color line’, DuBois developed and explained in the work ‘The Souls of Black Folk’. In this work, DuBois underlines that as different worldviews and lifestyles collide, the inevitable demand for change in every facet of American life will increase.

Our traditional ways of doing things will no longer be adequate to deal with the diversity of the country and in the world. Racial differences and separation between races are the main problem of the 20th century, which prevents many dark nations to be equally treated by the white majority. Thesis DuBois claims that ‘the color line’ becomes the main problem for American society and the global community causing racial envy and racial inequalities.

Under ‘the color line’ DuBois implies relations between races based on their colors of skin and anthropological types. “The problem of the 20th century is the problem of the color line-the relation of the darker to the lighter races of men in Asia and Africa, in America and the islands of the seas”[i]. The problem of modern global society is the racial difference and racial hatred existed between people. DuBois underlines that the war against racism and segregation in America can be treated as the war and struggle against white supremacy and dominance. The thesis ‘the color line’ concern all black people of African decent and justification of slavery by white community.

DuBois underlines that slavery and white hegemony in the world divide the global community between oppressed and oppressors: blacks and whites. DuBois underlines that “It is usually possible to draw in nearly every Southern community a physical color-line on the map, on the one side of which whites dwell and on the other Negroes”[ii].

With the pressure to change will come clashes between competing groups as to which will have the power to make decisions that will affect how you live in this society. ‘The color line’ leaves no wiggle room for avoidance and ambiguity. It reflects a personal belief that it is impossible for any of us, those born and raised in the United States and those who have been exposed for some time to American culture, not to inherit the biases, stereotypes, and fears of our society. Both individual and institutional racism are intimately linked to culture. Euro-American culture is radicalized and enforces its cultural views by defining the reality of its citizens.

The ability to define reality is perhaps the most insidious and potent form of power. DuBois states that the racial reality of White America is a biased and bigoted one, transmitted through our educational system and the informal but powerful stream of socialization practices of families, peer groups, neighborhoods, churches, mass media, and other organizations. The education system and these other entities define your group (whites) as superior and another group (people of color) as inferior and undesirable, and then they constantly reinforce this message until it becomes reality for our citizens.

“Both sides the color-line are: the Negroes refused to believe the evidence of white witnesses or the fairness of white juries, so that the greatest deterrent to crime, the public opinion of one’s own social caste, was lost, and the criminal was looked upon as crucified rather than hanged”[iii].

The color-line imposes unpleasant or undesirable conditions on certain groups or individuals, and it deprives them of conditions necessary for psychological or physical well-being.

Under the notion of‘ second sight’, Dubois means lack of self-consciousness and low social status assigned to black people. “After the Egyptian and Indian, the Greek and Roman, the Teuton and Mongolian, the Negro is a sort of seventh son”[iv]. The ‘second sight’ reflects the racial reality of many black Americans in the community. It illustrates how misinformation fosters and perpetuates insensitivity, bias, bigotry, and harm toward groups of color: “this sense of always looking at one’s self through the eyes of others” [v].

Being a person of color is “less than” being White. For the boys to so easily come up with racial slurs indicates not only that they have learned their lessons well regarding bigotry but also that being Black is associated with inferiority. The association of inferiority is also present in the family that discourages their daughter from an interracial relationship with the biracial Vietnamese boy and by the mother’s discouraging her daughter from even playing with someone of a different race. “The second sight” is acquired when a person feels “an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps it from being torn asunder” [vi].

Whites believe that minorities are doing better than they really are in contradiction to standards-of-living data and the social-psychological costs of discrimination experienced by persons of color. It is possible to say that everyone can develop it if he/she feels his unique origin but belong to the American community.

It is possible to reject the idea that ‘the color line’ exists in American society and influences the lives of millions of people. Much depends upon the perception and self-identification of black people themselves and their self-consciousness. Blacks think they are treated far worse than Whites and worse than other minority groups when it comes to getting equal treatment in applying for mortgages, in the media, and in job promotions. Thus, the state laws protect the black population from discrimination and oppression.

In sum, DuBois underlines that unless the society can resolve these differences peacefully through shared collaboration and allow for equal access and opportunity for all groups in society, the nation will not survive the inevitable turmoil. To speak against racial prejudice and discrimination may result in ostracism or lack of support from significant others. Those in the fraternity who might not harbor racial prejudice said nothing and even chuckled at the racial slurs being.

Footnotes

• [i] DuBois, W.E.B. The Souls of Black Folk. n.d. Web.
• [ii] ibid.
• [iii] Ibid.
• [iv] ibid.
• [v] ibid.
• [vi] ibid.

Bibliography

DuBois, W.E.B. The Souls of Black Folk. n.d. Web.

The task of comparison will be to discover differences in political programs that ideologically comprehend the role of black people and their destinies in the world. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois is an African American human rights activist and social philosopher. Du Bois was the first African American to receive a philosophy degree. His philosophical views come from the social position expressed by Booker Washington, which was based on the premise that black people should be immediately liberated. Washington believed that only by giving the oppressed peoples equality, did they have a chance for liberation, but Du Bois did not share his views. According to him, privileges should appear to the liberated people gradually and in such a way that they can feel them and manage them (Amber, 2020). It is Du Bois who owns the indication of the “talented tenth” of African Americans who are eligible for higher education in comparison with the less gifted majority.

Far less patient with the surrounding white-dominated order was the popular Jamaican political activist Marcus Garvey. This politician owns the words of the Jamaican struggle for equality before the white man, and his early death made Garvey a cult figure among black activists around the world. Garvey’s speeches are largely associated with the religious aspects of African American cultures, in particular, with the Christian version of Rastafarianism, in which at the moment he is considered a prophet. Starting as a church organ player and preacher, Garvey quickly captured the attention of parishioners with his fiery speeches. The image of Ethiopia as a promised and lost land for wandering but chosen African people played an important role in them. Garvey’s philosophy at its center contains the idea of ​​the black people chosen by the Ethiopian god, the first Christian people in Africa. The greatness of the black race is fundamental to the philosophical concepts of the Garvents. Marcus Garvey’s utopian visionary ideas include new territories that will have gone to African Americans, who will have built a better society on them (Amber, 2020). Moreover, Garvey is Afrocentric, and separates the Western and African worlds, even promoting the idea of ​​expatriating African Americans around the world to return them to their home continent. Garvey believes in African American selections so strongly that he distrusts Western society and encourages the African community to separate from it and exist completely independently.

The obvious difference between Garvey’s movement and Du Bois’ concepts is the caution with which Du Bois demanded the liberation of oppressed African Americans. The philosopher-sociologist proceeded not from the fact of social injustice, but from some original abilities of African Americans. The non-compliance of most of them with the Western intellectual standard was for him, not a reason for a radical revision of the existing system but a reason for its consolidation. By giving only the most gifted African Americans the right to an education, Du Bois maintained the sharply restrictive nature of the inverted pyramid hierarchy that had become dominant in the 19th century. Garvey’s ideas, on the contrary, do not seek any peace and mutual balance with the Western world, calling with pride to completely abandon it. Thus, Du Bois’ ideas turn out to be tragically insufficient for oppressed African Americans, while Garvey’s rebellious concepts turn out to be, on the contrary, incompatible with integration with Western society.

Reference

Amber, L. A. (2020). Black history matters: Civil rights movement heroes. Independently published.

Dark Princess, written by sociologist W. B. Du Bois in 1928, is one of his five historical novels. This work is aimed primarily at exploring the positive aspects of the black race. The author used the rules of fiction to make the lives of each character as vivid and clear as possible. Although the novel was criticized after publication, it thoroughly explores the cultural richness and identity of the black population. Those who were dissatisfied with the novel tried to accuse the author of failing to use social realism in the book and of excessive eroticism.

The book is divided into four large chapters, Exile, Pullman Porter, Chicago Politician, and Maharaja of Bvodfur. Each section of the work aims to explore the life of the main character, which should occur in stages. Thus, for example, the voluntary exile to another country or the first job on the railroad are treated as separate themes in different parts of the novel. It is important to note that the plots are not connected, even though they allow us to trace the personal growth of a character who is increasingly becoming a revolutionary.

Matthew Townes is the main character of the work, and it is he who the reader follows throughout the novel. As an obstetrician student, the protagonist is informed that he has no opportunity to finish university or work in his desired profession (Du Bois, 42). This depicts the disadvantages and injustices of racism, which are at the heart of the prohibitions described above. It is because of his African-American background that the young man will not be allowed to treat or care for white patients.

After his dreams are shattered, he becomes disillusioned with his life and decides to go into exile in Germany. Here the character meets Kautilya, who is an Indian princess who will play a very important role in building Matthew’s revolutionary spirit (Du Bois, 256). The princess adds color and emotion to a young man’s life, changing the gray world and explaining the importance and value of people of color to humanity. The girl sounds objective as she explains to him not only the positive facts of the struggles but also some of the negative consequences of their actions, for example, for black people in the United States (Du Bois, 277), when she introduces him to the history of colored leaders. The love line of the characters develops, after a while a child appears who is the Maharaja of Bvodpur and Matthew is his father (Du Bois, 277). It was very disturbing for the hero that a person of African-American descent could become a member of the royal family.

From the analysis of the piece, it can be concluded that the author is trying to show racial solidarity through internationalism. In addition, Du Bois exposes the corruption and violent radicalism that denigrate the African American culture, which allows us to look at the issue in a more objective way. It is important to emphasize that the subtitle Dark Princess, Romance, suggests that this is not only a love novel, but also an ideological one. In other words, the book challenges the self-confidence of Americans in the belief that America is the land of opportunity, equality, and freedom for all. This is especially evident in the line of the protagonist’s careful attitude toward the United States, which evolves over the course of the work and, in the end, is lost. Du Bois’ last novel, Dark Princess, is no less significant than Silver Fleece. Artistic, realistic pictures of black life are replaced here by a romantic story of the love of an American Negro for a Hindu princess. This turn from realism to romanticism is undoubtedly connected with the strengthening of conservative elements in his ideology and with the displacement of the Negro intellectuals he represents by the more determined, including communist, strata.

Work Cited

Du Bois, W. E. B. (1976). Dark princess. Kraus-Thomson.