Category: Vitamins

Introduction

The new vitamin-enriched bottled water to be launched in the market requires a critical environmental analysis to guarantee its success in the realms of sales and market penetration. Since the target market segment includes athletes aged between 10 and 30, the PEST (political, economic, social, and technological factors) analysis will facilitate the study of the markets external environment (Birkholz 43). Fundamentally, any product, which intends to succeed in the market, must observe numerous micro and macro environmental forces so as to stay competitive. Evidently, numerous businesses globally have identified, scrutinized, and adopted their respective environmental forces capable of affecting their endeavors. These signify the aspects and provisions of PEST in a business venture, which relates to the aspects of identifying, studying, and ceasing opportunities in virgin markets with creativity, risk taking tendencies, and novelty.

Political Factors

Political factors affect businesses considerably. It is a critical necessity in setting up and operating a new venture. The prospected product must consider the political factors within the intended locality, region, or internationally in order to offer a relevant, legal, and meaningful business. Government policies and political forces tend to affect the nature and orientation of any product in the marketplace (Wiegel 163). A new product must consider what provisions the territorial government intends to offer for the businessmen and to what extent. Considering such provisions will ensure that the intended product (vitamin-enriched bottled water) thrives within the market and the industry at large.

Considering such provisions will ensure that the concerned organization understands its environment better; hence, can make critical business decisions in regard to business trends and political requirements. Evidently, this factor considers the degree of intervention that respective governments allow within the market. Concurrently, this will allow the concerned business to know what business is legalized within a given territory and which ones cannot perform. These issues will help a new venture in making critical business decisions before investing massively in a business and introducing the new product (vitamin-enriched bottled water) in the market. As a macro environmental factor, political factors thrive to provide the market with the business frameworks and the recommended stipulations. Political factors can affect numerous business provisions and sales of certain products as indicated before. This includes infrastructure, the nature of the workforce, education within the territory and other social factors that are necessary for a new venture. A new product in the market requires viable infrastructural provision, which is a key factor in any meaningful business. The way the product will perform in the market is a subject of political influences.

Economic Factors

New products require considerable economic provisions for their survival. Precisely, economic factor is a key issue required in setting up and operating new businesses and promoting new products. Evidently, the organization will have to consider the aspects of interest rates charged by the immediate financial institutions. Such interest scale might influence the nature of businesses to be operated within a given environment. It will also affect the price of the vitamin-enriched bottled water. Additionally, it is crucial to consider how the government policies will influence the economic factors within a business territory. It is the mandate of every business to observe the interest rates charged by the financial institutions. This might influence the aspects of borrowing critical capitals for running businesses and manufacturing the new product in large quantities to meet the growing market demands. Higher interest rate might disfavor the new business hence will affect the growth and sales of the new product.

Another requirement worth consideration in the economic factors incorporates the general economic growth of a country/region as it influences the buying trends of the targeted customers. For instance, economic crisis will affect the sales of the new product if not properly managed. Additionally, economic factors influence the business trends and the market nature. Precisely, the economy of the nation will obviously affect the expenses, revenues, and other business provisions (Birkholz 65). From this argument, new products in the market must consider the economic aspects of the targeted country. An important provision in this context relates to the aspects of economic growth and other viable opportunities in the economic realms. Precisely, viable economic growth translates to higher incomes of the citizens with subsequent increase in demands of the companys products. This will eventually increase the revenues and profitability of the concerned business. Thus, it is crucial for a new venture to consider the economic aspects of a given country before investing heavily in the vitamin-enriched bottled water.

Another important economic consideration is the inflation rates of a country. New businesses require stable economic progresses with limited inflation cases. Higher inflation rates mean that employees of any organization will demand escalated wages and cost of operations will also be higher. Additionally, the demands for the vitamin-enriched bottled water will diminish leading to massive losses to the business. Another factor worth consideration is the exchange rates of a given currency when compared to the rest. Loose and fluctuating currency value might affect the sales of vitamin-enriched bottled water tremendously especially when it is marketed and sold internationally. The conversion rates might reduce the net income of the business. Precisely, economic factors are important considerations to make before the set up and operation of any new venture since the factor can either favor or disfavor the concerned business.

Social Factors

It is vital for any new business venture to consider the social aspects of any given market before establishing, marketing, and selling its products in such territories. Evidently, the social trends of a given country might affect its economic trends, business orientation, workforce composition, and the nature of pays. New products require viable social factors. Some social aspects discriminate the sale of some products. This can be evident with the vitamin-enriched bottled water (Morden 86). It is decisive to consider such provisions before trading discriminated products. Studying and understanding the social aspects of a given locality will obviously help the business to make critical decisions on how to establish and operate its business provisions. The sale of products depends on the social beliefs of a given community upon a given commodity. The targeted market segment (athletes aged between 10 and 30) might discriminate the product on social grounds. If prejudicial beliefs disfavor the vitamin-enriched bottled water, its sales will reduce significantly compared to the rest. Before the start up of any business, the owners must consider numerous factors with regard to social provisions. Additionally, the living trends in a given country or locality can also affect the business factors with regard to operations and business ventures.

The consumers attitude towards the vitamin-enriched bottled water is a subject of social factors. This might affect the sales of the product as it favors others. Thus, it is crucial for the business to consider the consumer perceptions/behaviors before venturing into the business. Such consideration will help the business to know the products to sell, where, and when. Determining the nature of business will also dictate the social provisions necessary for the establishment and operation of a new venture. As a macro environmental factor, social provisions are important in any business following their vitality, applicability, and relevancy in various businesses and territories. The demographic variability will affect the buying trends of customers, and the nature of goods to avail in the market. This signifies the need to consider the social factors of a given environments before introducing the vitamin-enriched bottled water in the market.

Technological Factors

The emergence and ratification of technology has helped numerous businesses to explore varying markets globally. A new venture requires a viable technological provision in the realms of its operations and production of commodities. Technology is critical since it dictates the nature and trend of any business. It will also dictate the marketing and sales of vitamin-enriched bottled water. It is the mandate of the business to consider the aspects of technology since it is relevant to the current competitive markets. Introduction of the vitamin-enriched bottled water into the market demands the technology in the contexts of its production and promotion. Additionally, the worlds market has become quite competitive that conventional products can hardly survive in the current market trends. It is crucial to consider such aspects in the business realms especially in the new venture (Wiegel 142).

Technological approaches in the business realms have simplified the business aspects in varied contexts. The mode of transaction, production, and communication among the business stakeholders has improved considerably due to the emergence and embracement of technology. Hence, any business venture and new products require the aspects of technology as a macro environmental factor in the corporate realms. Recognition and ratification of technology is a contributor to the competitive advantages that the business might consider in its endeavors. Precisely, technology is required in order to create novel commodities into the market and emerge with fresh business processes. The business must outdo other industry players by introducing the ne vitamin-enriched bottled water, which is technologically and nutritiously advanced. Conclusively, new technological trends will benefit the business and its customers with profitability and satisfaction respectively.

The Firms Strategy

The organization intends to consider and handle the external environmental factors critically to ensure that the new vitamin-enriched bottled water thrives in the market. Considering the PEST provisions will front varying requirements in this context. As indicated before, PEST will provide 4 critical macro environmental forces required by this organization in order to understand the market trends and other business provisions for the new product (Morden 123). Strategically, the business intends to address the political issues comprehensively since they can be a major barrier to the establishment and marketing of the new vitamin-enriched bottled water. Concurrently, the firm prospects to establish its economic aspects, social provisions, and technological advancements.

Conclusion

PEST signifies environmental forces that every new business must consider before venturing into an industry. This provision is necessary for any business to understand the market and factors that would affect the business if not managed properly. It is crucial to consider various business factors, which will determine the fate of the new vitamin-enriched bottled water in the market. Importantly, considering and observing the macro environmental factors will ensure that the new product meets what the market requires.

Works Cited

Birkholz, Andreas. Business Analysis of Web.de Ag. Munchen: GRIN Verlag GmbH, 2007. Print.

Morden, Tony. Principles of Strategic Management. Aldershot: ASHGATE, 2007. Print.

Wiegel, Wladimir. Survival Factors of Newly Founded Firms: Theoretical Frameworks and Empirical Evidence. Munchen: GRIN Verlag GmbH, 2011. Print.

Introduction

Vitamin A has for a long time been considered to play a crucial role in the normal biological and metabolic functions of the human body. It can be introduced into the body in form of supplements such as cod liver oil which contains the cis form of vitamin A, vegetable sources such as carrots, squashes, and most dark green leafy vegetables and animal sources, such as eggs, meat, fish and milk. Vitamin A is fat-soluble and is readily absorbed in the body, though the supplement form is more soluble and easily degenerated (USDA, 2008). Biological estimation of vitamin A is the method most frequently used in the curative analysis of vitamin A assay and live test subjects are commonly used. In 2006-2009, curative analyses of vitamin A assay were carried out by several laboratories in a series of tests to discern the major functions of vitamin A.

Procedure

The test subjects which were usually rats or primates were deprived of Vitamin A and allowed to exhaust all the vitamin A stored in the fatty tissues of their body. The deficiency of the vitamin was then ascertained by the stunted growth of the younger test subjects, though the rest of the dietary supplements were included in their daily diets (Nelson, 2008). A specific dosage of vitamin A was then administered daily for seven weeks and the findings were documented. It was determined that the test subjects recorded an increase in body mass, body weight, and an accelerated rate of growth after being administered vitamin A for four weeks (Master john, 2006). There was however irregularity in the findings because there were different rates of growth and the increase in body mass and weight. Researchers in an attempt to control such irregularities deemed it necessary in 2006 to adhere to strictly using younger test subjects with similar genetic markups to obtain more accurate results. In 2007, test subjects were crossed to produce a high breed litter which was the main focus of the experiment for by comparing test results on animals from a similar litter could the results of the curative analysis in vitamin A assay be more precise. Stunted growth was also not highly regarded as an indication of Vitamin deficiency; rather scientists determined the depletion of vitamins through the manifestation of avitaminosis-A or vitamin A deficient conditions like xerophthalmia (Nelson, 2008).

The incongruity of the assay

A critical analysis of the curative assay of vitamin A reveals fundamental inconsistencies that are more likely than not, capable of totally altering the results and conclusive findings. In 2007, it was determined that the analysis of vitamin A was entirely based on growth, mass, and weight, but ignored the holistic function of the vitamin on the organism (Nelson, 2008).

Stunted growth was being considered the standard for determining the deficient conditions of vitamin A and the commencement of growth in the presence of vitamin A. Other important microbiological and metabolical conditions were not taken into account and consequently, this analysis became flawed. In 2008, scientists started to consider more adverse conditions like diseases and organ failure as linked to a deficiency of vitamin A (Takita, et al, 2006). These conditions had previously been ignored and considering they appeared differently on different test subjects, the introduction of vitamin A on previous subjects also gave different results. The current consideration of ailment onset is working positively in helping scientists better identify the adverse effects of vitamin A depletion.

Medical application of vitamin A assay

By thoroughly scrutinizing the effects of vitamin A deficiency, scientists have been able to come up with substantial theories of the function of vitamin A in the body. Apart from maintaining good eyesight, vitamin A has also been discovered to perform curative functions among individuals with certain diseases. Scientists and researchers had come up with concepts to support the key roles of vitamin A through the study of test subjects and these functions were integrated into the medical and pharmaceutical fields (McGuire & Kathy, 2007).

Immune system booster

A recent study has revealed that vitamin a plays an important role in constantly upgrading the immune system by increasing the number of white blood cells. Studies have shown that vitamin A is absorbed into the lymphatic system through the intestines since it is fat-soluble (McGuire & Kathy, 2007). Once in the lymphatic system, it acts on the white cell deposits by inducing cell regeneration and multiplication consequently increasing the number of white blood cells in the body (Nelson, 2008). Supplements containing vitamin A were therefore used together with other medication in treatment or slowing the progression of diseases such as HIV and AIDS, tuberculosis, and asthma. For example, a recent study by WHO carried out in Burkina Faso revealed that young children were more likely to respond faster to malaria medication if they had previously consumed supplements of vitamin A.

Lung cancer

Vitamin A has also been found to drastically reduce the number of cells that cause lung cancer in former smokers. A recent study has shown that former smokers are still at risk of contracting lung cancer since mutant cells damaged by the tar in cigarette smoke could still be able to grow in the lungs. Vitamin A is suspected to act on these mutant cells by reducing their growth and consequently reducing the chances of getting the disease. A report by Medical News Today on research carried out by the University of Texas on 200 former smokers revealed that the retinoic acid form of vitamin A was highly potent in negating the effects of tobacco on lung cells (McGuire & Kathy, 2007)

Autism

According to (Schulz et al, 2007), vitamin A has also been recently discovered to produce positive effects on children suffering from autism. Carotenoids administered to children suffering from autism with a recommended daily dosage of 6000 IU showed that the children improved in terms of concentration, memory, communication, and social skills.

Infertility

A study was done in the year 2007 on rats that were deprived of any intake of vitamin A for a prolonged period. The rats exhibited signs of low libido and eventually infertility. However, the re-introduction of vitamin A into their diet enabled the rats to gradually gain fertility. (Takita et al, 2006). Humans are also likely to suffer from infertility through the deficiency of vitamin A in their diet. The primary deficiency of vitamin A is the lack of sufficient quantities of vitamin A in the body, but this deficiency can easily be corrected by the introduction of nutritional values and a balanced diet. Secondary deficiency occurs when an individuals body fails to absorb vitamin A even though it is consumed regularly (Schulz et al, 2007). This could either be due to zinc deficiency, low fats in the body, disease, or a malfunctioning organ in the body like the liver or the pancreases (Masterjohn, 2006). Here, medical attention is necessary and vitamin A can be taken in form of supplements. According to the world health organization (WHO), a global organization that studies and provides adequate nutrition, Vitamin A deficiency is a major cause of infertility among adults in developing countries. Research has gone into finding a permanent cure for infertility through the use of vitamin A.

Child blindness

Vitamin A deficiency mostly affects young children and there are currently more than three million children globally suffering from vitamin A deficiency blindness. Children in developing nations especially those in the Asian and African continents are at a high exposure to chronic immune malfunction and total blindness due to the lack of this vitamin (USDA, 2008). Supplements and distribution models are still being put together and according to Takita et al (2006), plans are underway to use vitamin A to produce drugs to fight the persistent blindness in these third world countries.

Conclusion

Vitamin A has gained increased medical interest especially for its ability to strengthen the immune system which is one of the major problems the medical field endures to control. This has led to the discovery of its antibiotic qualities such as being antibacterial. The cell regeneration qualities of vitamin A have also led scientists to believe it has anti-aging properties and several dermatological creams from 2006 have been based on vitamin A. There is still a lot of research going into this vital resource but scientists are expressing optimism that a lot more medical value will be derived from vitamin A.

References

Masterjohn, C (2006).

Vitamin D toxicity redefined: vitamin K and the molecular mechanism. Web.

McGuire, M and Kathy A (2007). Nutritional sciences: from fundamentals to food. Belmont: Thomson/Wadsworth.

Nelson, A. (2008). Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin mediates 13-cis retinoic acid-induced apoptosis of human sebaceous gland cells. Journal of Clinical Investigation 118 (4)

Schulz C, Engel U, Kreienberg R and Biesalski H (2007). Vitamin A and beta-carotene supply of women with Gemini or short birth intervals: a pilot study. Mongolia: Flixd publishers.

Takita Y, Ichimiya M, Hamamoto Y, and Muto M (2006). A case of carotenemia associated with ingestion of nutrient supplements. London: beeline publishers.

United States Department of Agriculture USDA (2008). Composition of Foods Raw, Processed, Prepared. Chicago: Kniff.

The word vitamin was initially referred to elements that are soluble in water and essential in the nutrition of babies and they were separated from milk, yeasts, and wheat germ. The word vitamin was taken from the initial invention of the anti-beriberi factor in 1912 by a well-known scientist called Casimir Funk. The first type of vitamin to be discovered was vitamin B1 by Funk and was extorted from the part of the plant called police rice husk (John, 2000, p.4). Both vitamins and minerals are elements that are present in food that people consume and they are needed by the body to operate normally. The number of minerals and vitamins in the body should be maintained to avoid any shortage which may lead to ill health. All types of the vitamin have different important roles in the human body. There are various types of vitamin B; vitamin B1, B2, B3, B6, and B12.

Vitamin B1 is essential for the correct metabolism of starch and sugar to offer energy to the body and also keeps the nervous system fit along with supporting the proper operation of the heart and other body muscles. Stress raises the requirement of vitamin B1 and other vitamin B types. They are mostly present in whole wheat, meat, oatmeal, soybeans, among others. Vitamin B2 is essential in the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats and they are important in the maintenance of hair, skin, and nails. Vitamin B1 is an important nutrient in the production of energy (Shier, Butler, & Lewis, 2009). They are commonly found in milk, cheese, whole grains, and green vegetables.

Vitamin B3 is needed by the body for the synthesis of human sex hormones along with being essential to the nervous system. They are mainly found in chicken and fish as natural sources. Vitamin B6 supports the metabolism of fats, particularly the unsaturated fatty acids, and is needed for metabolism as well as supporting the creation of hydrochloric acid. Vitamin B12 helps in the formation of red blood cells and permits nerve cells to build up appropriately (Elliot, 2008, p.13).

Iron has been present since 3000 BC, but nobody has confirmed or knows the person who discovered iron and remains unknown despite its benefits to the body functioning (Fink, 2008, p.34). Several hypotheses have been considered but none of them can be confirmed. Iron (Fe) is an element of red blood cells along with the muscles which support the movement of oxygen all over the body, women are more vulnerable to loss of iron than men and are probable to have a shortage of iron, especially during pregnancy (Whitney & Noss, 2010).

Iron is an important mineral that is present in the human body. Its role is to produce hemoglobin and also myoglobin which is essential in transporting oxygen all over the body (Insel & Turner, 2009, p.317). Iron is found in different types of food but most people do not get a sufficient quantity of iron needed by the body, partially due to the way the body absorbs several kinds of iron in the food. Iron contributes to the change of sugar into energy. Metabolic energy is important for athletes because it permits muscles to function at their optimal level while doing exercise or in competition. Iron supports the formation of connective tissues in the body, several neurotransmitters are found in the brain to protect the immune system.

References

Elliot, C. (2008). Vitamin B: New Research. New York: Nova Science Publishers.

Fink, H. (2008). Practical Applications in Sports Nutrition. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Insel, P., & Turner, E. (2009). Discovering Nutrition. New York: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

John, C. (2000). Beriberi, white rice, and vitamin B: a disease, a cause, and a cure. California: University of California Press.

Shier, D., Butler, J., & Lewis, R. (2009). Holes Human Anatomy and Physiology, 12th Ed. New Jersey: McGraw-Hill.

Whitney, E., & Noss, E. (2010). Understanding Nutrition. Florence, KY: Cengage Learning.

Antioxidants functions

Different kinds of antioxidants act as defensive organism against oxidative-stress. Antioxidants are classified by function into four categories; Preventive antioxidants; radical scavenging antioxidants; repair and de novo antioxidants; and adaptation antioxidants (Noguchi, Watanabe & Shi, p809).

Their functions are as follows:

• Antioxidants protect against cell injury
• They are involved in the prevention of aging, cancer and a variety of diseases.
• They act as hunters for the free radicals and help in reducing the toxicity of oxygen in the body (Noguchi, Watanabe & Shi, p809)
• Radical scavenging antioxidants have been explored to have a novel function by which they regulate gene expression.

Examples of antioxidants are vitamin C, vitamin E, superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and ceruloplasmin. Also uric acid and bilirubin are known agents that act as antioxidants to aid in neutralizing a few specific free radicals. (Noguchi, Watanabe & Shi, p809)

Free radicals: How they affects the body

Free radicals in simple terms are just ions, atoms or groups of atoms with unpaired electrons in their last shell. These extremely reactive species start of autocatalytic reactions in which the molecules convert themselves into free radicals, and thus start a chain of further reactions. Free radical derivatives of oxygen  Reactive oxygen species or ROS, are of particular importance because of the use of oxygen to generate energy in the body. These include superoxide anions, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radicals. (Krogh, 506-540)

Free radicals are emerging as the final common pathway of cell injury in oxygen and other gaseous toxicity, chemical and radiation injury, inflammatory damage, tumor destruction by macrophages, cellular aging, killing of microorganisms by phagocytic cells and many others. (Krogh, 506-540)

Free radicals can cause:

1. extensive damage to plasma and organellar membranes by their lipid peroxidation
2. loss of mitochondrial function
3. Lesions in DNA resulting in cell death or malignant transformation.

In addition free radicals are known to cause some problems with Parkinsons disease, liver damage, senile and drug-induced deafness, schizophrenia, and also Alzheimers. Radicals in cigarette smoke have been implicated in inactivation of alpha 1-antitrypsin in the lung which promotes the development of emphysema. (Krogh, 506-540)

Sources of Vitamin C

Many fruits and vegetables, including citrus fruits and berries, are rich in vitamin C. Foods that tend to be the highest sources of vitamin C include green peppers, guava, citrus fruits and juices, black currants, strawberries, tomatoes, broccoli, turnip greens and other leafy greens, sweet and white potatoes, melon and cantaloupe. Papaya, mango, watermelon, cauliflower, cabbage, winter squash, red peppers, raspberries, blueberries, cranberries, and pineapples are also good sources. Fresh vegetables and raw fruits have the most vitamins in them thus are considered as an easy source of vitamin. When they are cooked or even storage improperly, heat and light reduces the vitamin content thus provisions should be made to protect them.

Optimal delivery system for Vitamin C

The preferred delivery system for vitamin C comprises a slow release of the vitamin, providing a high, constant plasma concentration of the vitamin that is surprisingly effective for oxidative resistance. The delivery system may comprise of dosage units formulated for oral administration such as a hard or chewable tablet, capsule, granulates or powders.

RDA -recommends the following daily allowance for vitamin C. Men can take upto 90 mg while women can take upto 75 mg. However if these people smoke occasionally, then the recommendation allowance goes up by 35mg. (OHC, 2007)

Precautions for the use of Vitamin C

People are advised to use Vitamin C with caution in the following situations:

• People with kidney stones or a history of kidney stones should avoid doses of higher than 200mg. Kidney stone formation is likely if large doses are taken over long periods of time. It is further advised to consult the doctor before starting with a dose of vitamin C supplementation. (OHC, 2007)
• Lab test interference can be caught as false-positive for tests of diabetes if large dosages of vitamin C are consumed (OHC, 2007). Also, its use before certain types of tests for blood in the stool may cause false-negative results. (OHC, 2007)
• In pregnancy it is advised only when the potential benefits of vitamin C outweighs the possible hazards to the fetus. (OHC, 2007)
• Breastfeeding can be dangerous for the baby as traces of vitamin C can start to appear in the breast milk. (OHC, 2007)
• Over dosage of vitamin C can cause nausea, diarrhea, stomach cramps, skin rashes, and excessive urination. (OHC, 2007)
• Individuals taking anticoagulant, contraceptives and sulfonamides should consult their doctor before taking vitamin C supplements, as large doses of vitamin C may impact their efficacy. (Ford & Frey)

Works Cited

David Krogh, Biology: A Guide to the Natural World. Benjamin Cummings. (2008)

Ford-Martin, Paula; Frey, Rebecca. Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine. Gale, Cengage Learning. (2005). Web.

Noguchi, N; Watanabe, A and Shi, H. Diverse functions of antioxidants.PubMed. Free Radical Research. December Vol. 33(6) p. 809-17. (2000)

OHC. Vitamin C  Drug Interactions, Side Effects and Precautions of Use. Online Health Care. (2007). Web.

Introduction

Vitamin D3, which is referred to as cholecaciferol is the form of vitamin D that is gotten when the human skin is exposed to direct sunlight (Adams & Hewison, 2010). This form of vitamin D is thought to be superior to the other form of vitamin D referred to as Vitamin D2 or ergocalciferol.

There has been so much progress in research studies concerning the medical importance of vitamin D3. Several disorders have been directly linked to vitamin D3 deficiency.

This paper seeks to establish the importance of vitamin D3, specifically regarding its relationship with such diseases as cancer, HIV and AIDS, depression among others.

Vitamin D3 and Cancer

Research carried out mainly in the last year has led to some useful revelations in regard to Vitamin D3s possible role in the prevention and treatment of cancer. Studies are currently being conducted to establish how vitamin D3 can reduce the risk of more than 17 different types of cancer (Holick, Binkley, Bischoff, & Gordon, 2011).

A recent study conducted by the Harvard School of Public Health has shown that Vitamin D3 can prolong the life of a prostate cancerpatient or even help fight the cancer (Lichtenstein, Patel, Raman, & Tatsioni, 2009). It is worth noting that those men who have enough amount of vitamin D in the organism are less exposed to a prostate cancer disease. The mechanism of action, as shown through experimentation, is the reduction of proliferation and boosting of apoptosis (Lichtenstein, Patel, Raman, & Tatsioni, 2009). According to the study, increased concentration of vitamin D3 caused lower levels of specific antigen at diagnosis (Marin, 2011). Thus, the researchers concluded that when a patient is exposed to higher levels of the vitamin gotten from sunshine then cancer cells become less active.

Its well thought proper intake of vitamin D3 can lower deaths caused by prostate cancer since the vitamin will attach itself to cancerous cells and inhibit the cell division process (Marin, 2011).

Invitro studies have shown that when vitamin D is added to a culture of cancerous cells, it causes the cancer cells to cease growth and begin to return to their normal state, more studies are required to confirm whether this can take place in the human body (Marin, 2011).

Studies have also been carried out regarding colorectal cancer. This type of cancer causes the second highest cancer-related deaths in the United States. Epidemiological studies carried out by Harvard Medical School have shown that cancer patients, who have higher levels of vitamin D at the time of diagnosis, have a better chance of survival. It has also been revealed that the dietary intake of vitamin D, 200-400 IU per day is not sufficient to adequately prevent or stop cancer growth.

Other studies have shown that vitamin D3 is also vital in the treatment and prevention of other forms of cancer, such as breast cancer where high levels of vitamin D3 metabolites are associated with a non-significantly lower risk (Lichtenstein, Patel, Raman, & Tatsioni, 2009).

Vitamin D3 and Fibromyalgia

Research that was begun a few years ago seems to have pinpointed the relationship between fibromyalgia, chronic pain and lower levels of vitamin D (Marin, 2011, pp. 4). Most outstanding is the study that was carried out in Mayo Clinic in 2009 showed that vitamin D deficiency was directly related to narcotic pain medication (Adams & Hewison, 2010).

Fibromyalgia is often diagnosed with concurrent symptoms. The most important symptoms that are required to confirm a diagnosis are as follows: anxiety and/or depression, widespread chronic pain, chronic fatigue, and a significantly reduced pain threshold (Marin, 2011).

Studies have appeared to provide a link between these symptoms, which are often described as fibromyalgia syndrome and vitamin D insufficiency.

There is still no consensus as to whether vitamin D3 deficiency is the real cause of fibromyalgia syndrome. Studies are still being carried out and to date there are few scientific findings that can settle the debate.

Its common knowledge that vitamin D promotes bone and muscle strength, new findings have linked it to increase in pain and impairment of neuromuscular functioning. By recognizing this, physicians can effectively reduce their patients suffering and improve the quality of their lives.

These findings are preliminary, but they should be adopted to ensure that the quality of healthcare is improved. Patients who suffer from chronic pain and often use narcotics, should have their vitamin D checked due to the fact that inadequate levels may play a leading role in the creation and sustenance of the pain (Marin, 2011). Similarly, physicians who offer care to patients who have been diagnosed with chronic pain that appears to be musculoskeletal and is accompanied by several tenders and palpate areas should contemplate checking the level of vitamin D (Marin, 2011).

Vitamin D3 and Allergies

Studies carried out over the past few years have tended to draw a relationship between vitamin D3 deficiency and the prevalence of allergies in children.

A study carried out in February at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine at Yeshiva University in New York, indicated that children who had low levels of vitamin D3, had a very high chance of developing sensitivity allergens (Marin, 2011). Many people were diagnosed and it became clear that those ones who did not have enough vitamin D in the organism were at risk of getting some form of the allergy.

Another study carried out by Scholars at Harvard University showed that an increase in exposure to sunlight was able to assist in the prevention of asthma and allergies in children (Marin, 2011).

A study conducted in New Zealand in 2006 also showed that vitamin D deficiency was directly related to a respiratory infection susceptibility. The follow-up study conducted by the researchers at Massachusetts General Hospital confirmed the findings and went further to identify that asthma was the respiratory ailment mostly observed (Adams & Hewison, 2010).

Vitamin D Deficiency and AIDS

A more recent study that was done by a network of scientists referred to as EuroSIDA found out that vitamin D deficiency is very common for patients suffering from HIV and AIDS (Lichtenstein, Patel, Raman, & Tatsioni, 2009). The deficiency was further linked to the progression of the AIDS disease. The more advanced the AIDS condition, the lower the level of vitamin D. This study was not the first one to come up with these findings, however, it was the first to establish a direct relationship between vitamin D deficiency and the overall mortality as well as the progression of the disease that can lead to AIDS (Marin, 2011).

After identifying that low levels of Vitamin D were prevalent in patients diseased with HIV, the study was modified to identify how the nutritional insufficiency was related to the progression of the disease (Marin, 2011).

The results indicated that the group that had been diagnosed with the lowest level of vitamin D in their blood turned out to contribute the biggest percentage (10%) of individuals who had developed AIDS. The middle group had an average figure (6%) while the group whose blood had highest level of vitamin D contributed only a small percentage (5%) of individuals who had developed AIDS (Marin, 2011). The results indicate that people who have the HIV virus and are deficient in vitamin D are more likely to develop AIDS compared to people with the virus but with sufficient levels of vitamin D. Furthermore, this patient are more likely to die due to AIDS, according to the results of the same study (Marin, 2011).

The same study showed that mortality chances were much higher in vitamin D deficient patients. The mortality ratios were directly proportional to the level of vitamin D deficiency (Marin, 2011).

These findings reveal that HIV-infected patients should take measures to reverse or prevent vitamin D deficiency. The differentiation of the two types of vitamins is also vital for their survival. Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) is superior to vitamin D2 and thus patients should ensure that they get vitamin D3 to boost chances of their survival.

Conclusion

This paper sought to identify the medical importance of vitamin 3D. It has been established that Vitamin D, especially vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) deficiency is associated with many disease conditions such as HIV and AIDS, cancer and allergies. Research is currently underway to establish or confirm the particular mechanisms involved. There are ongoing works to establish whether there are other conditions that are associated with the disease and if so how.

References

Adams, J., & Hewison, M. (2010). Update in Vitamin D. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 95(2): 471-8.

Holick, M., Binkley, N., Bischoff, H., & Gordon, C. (2011). Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol , 96(7):1911-30.

Lichtenstein, A., Patel, K., Raman, G., & Tatsioni, A. (2009). Vitamin D and calcium: a systematic review of health outcomes. Evidence report/technology assessment , (183): 1-420.

Marin, L. (2011). Seattle Residents May Be More Susceptible to Seasonal Depression. Web.

Introduction

In order to stay healthy, one needs to make sure they have a daily dose of vitamins. However, many individuals are not able to follow this medical advice due to their busy schedule that does not allow them to plan well-balanced meals that would contain all necessary nutrients. In order to rectify this problem, people resort to taking vitamin supplements that promise certain doses of the minerals one needs to stay healthy. This practice can significantly simplify the process of choosing which foods to include in ones daily meals. Additionally, vitamin supplements seemingly help an individual lead a healthier lifestyle. However, while there are advantages to taking such edibles, there are possible disadvantages as well if one does not take the time to research what they are ingesting and the effect it will have on their body. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the pros and cons of consuming vitamin supplements.

The Healthy Benefit of Vitamins

The benefit of following a diet that is rich in vitamins is indisputable. Each nutrient serves a particular role in improving an individuals health and helping the body function. For instance, vitamin A maintains a bodys natural defenses by supporting ones immune system (West). Vitamin C can reduce ones risk of chronic disease, including those related to high blood pressure and the heart (Raman). In general, if one does not intake their daily dose of even a single vital nutrient, it can have a significant negative effect on their health.

Vitamin Supplements

Vitamin supplements are advertised as pills that combine many different nutrients that can help one maintain their health. In general, there is no standard for what constitutes a multivitamin, so their nutrient composition varies by brand and product (Palsdottir). This practice is relatively popular and people consider it an important part of their daily routine. However, multivitamins have both their advantages and disadvantages which will now be analyzed.

The Advantages of Taking Vitamin Supplements

The main advantage was already mentioned in a previous section. Most people do not have time to extensively plan their meals so that they include all the vital vitamins. A single multivitamin contains all the necessary nutrients one needs to maintain their health. So not only do the individuals, taking such supplements, get the benefits of a well-balanced diet, but they save time that can be used for other purposes. Additionally, there are certain vitamins that are hard to include in ones meal plan. With supplements, this problem is easily ratified. However, it is important to note that these benefits take effect only if the multivitamins actually work, which is a rarity due to the number of their disadvantages.

The Disadvantages of Taking Vitamin Supplements

The main problem that vitamin supplements have is that they do not consider which nutrients go together. The reality is that many such compounds cancel each other out. For instance, many supplements contain both vitamin C and calcium which have opposite effects on ones body as one helps and the other one stops the absorption of iron and folic acid (Squires 13). This means that a person is paying for multivitamins which will have no actual result.

However, a bigger problem with taking supplements is the possibility of getting addicted to vitamins. While this may seem like an unlikely outcome it is more common than people think. If an individual takes a look at a multivitamins composition, they can notice what percentage of ones daily dose each vitamin contains. It often happens that supplements can include up to six times the daily dose of any particular vitamin. This can result in a person getting accustomed to in-taking more nutrients than they need in reality, which will make stopping the consumption of multivitamins almost impossible. Apart from that, supplements can cause hypervitaminosis which can hinder ones everyday life. Many people with this affliction experience drowsiness and a general lack of energy which is not the effect of taking vitamins one expects. Additionally, hypervitaminosis can lead to its own array of diseases. For instance, in-taking a large amount of vitamin A can cause liver or kidney damage (Wilson). Consuming a big dose of vitamin D can lead to the calcification of arteries and soft tissues (Wilson). All of these medical issues could be avoided if a person does not resort to consuming vitamin supplements.

Conclusion

Vitamin supplements are popular all over the world with people in-taking them in order to get their daily dose of vitamins and saving some time along the way. While not everyone believes in the benefits of this practice, most individuals do not consider it to be harmful. However, typically multivitamins cause more damage than one might think. Taking supplements can lead to an addiction which will prevent an individuals body from functioning correctly unless it received the said pill. Additionally, multivitamins can cause hypervitaminosis due to the large amounts of compounds present in them. This, in turn, can lead to illnesses one was trying to prevent by taking these supplements in the first place.

References

Raman, Ryan. 7 Impressive Ways Vitamin C Benefits Your Body. Healthline, 2020, Web.

Squires, Sally, Vita-mania. The Washington Post, 1999, p. 13.

West, Helen 6 Health Benefits of Vitamin A, Backed by Science. Healthline, 2018, Web.

Wilson, Debra Rose. Hypervitaminosis D. Medical News Today, 2017, Web.

Wilson, D.R. (2018). Hypervitaminosis A. Healthline. 2020, Web.

Vitamin D is important for the human body as it fulfills many functions. One of the most significant roles of this component is contributing to the absorption of calcium and phosphor. This element strengthens bones and helps the brain functioning which is especially important for children during their growth period. Shortage of vitamin D leads to the breakdown, slackening of immunity, predisposition to colds, bone and teeth illnesses. According to Meenakshi, vitamin D exhibits a pleiotropic effect in the skin with its role as antiproliferative, prodifferentiative, antiapoptotic, and immunomodulator (82). However, the absorption of vitamin D from the sun in unlimited amounts will not have a positive outcome.

Unrestricted amounts of solar radiation can provoke many diseases such as psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, and melanoma. Therefore, it is important to find the right balance between these two contradicting facts. Kevin Burchell states that little and often is the best approach to vitamin D production through sunlight exposure (6). The normal amount of sunlight exposure differs subject to the lightness of the persons skin. For example, for people with light skin, 1015 minutes daily during the summer and spring periods will be enough to gain the needed amount of this vitamin for a year (Burchell 6). At the same time, people with darker skin demand 25 to 40 minutes of sun exposure to avoid vitamin D deficiency. The most preferable conditions for sunbathing are in the middle of the day, with uncovered arms and legs for the maximum size of absorption.

The growth hormone is one of the most important hormones in the human body. GH is albumen produced by the hypophysis that consists of amino acids. According to Wasinski, growth hormone secretion is controlled by negative feedback loops meditated by GH-releasing hormone (GHRH) or somatostatin-expressing neurons (4309). Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) lowers the level of GH in blood plasma owing to the negative feedback loop which leads to a decreasing impact of the growth hormone on the liver functioning. GH is important for me because it fastens putting on the muscle mass, and strengthens the potential of such electrolytes as calcium and potassium by activating the processes of burning fat. Recently I started going to the gym to bring myself in shape, therefore, the growth hormone is important for me.

The so-called fight-or-flight response is one of the most significant reactions that helped ancient people survive. According to Prasanna Tadi, the parasympathetic nervous system predominates in quiet rest and digest conditions while the sympathetic nervous system drives the fight or flight response in stressful situations. This response is a physiological reaction of the human body under stress which involves an overproduction of adrenalin and noradrenalin that strengthens the body, increases the reaction speed, pain threshold, and endurance. The perception is not usually involved, therefore, the only way to stop the fight or flight response is to calm down and implement logical thinking before acting.

Obesity is one of the most urgent problems of the 21^st century. The most common thought is that it is caused by the so-called food addiction, however scientists still argue if this type of illness really exists. For example, the characteristics of chocolate such as its macronutrient composition, sensory properties, and ingredients such as caffeine and theobromine were discussed as contributors to addictive-like nature (Meule 6). The preliminary addiction to chocolate might reside in its unique sensory properties that is including the potential craving but bingeing of the same is due to the brains neuropharmocological activities (Can Chocolate Be Addictive? 2). Regardless of chocolates drug-like nature chocolate cannot yet be counted as an addictive substance as there is no actual proof of it.

Works Cited

Burchell, Kevin, et al. Sunlight Exposure and Vitamin D: Getting the Balance Right: Sunlight Exposure Advice that Ensures Adequate Vitamin D while Minimising the Risk of Sunburn and Cancer. Manchester Research Explorer, vol. 5, no. 1, 2019.

Can Chocolate Be Addictive? Food and Agriculture Spectrum Journal, vol. 1, no. 2, 2020, pp. 1-8.

Meenakshi, Umar, et al. Vitamin D the Pathophysiology of Inflammatory Skin Diseases. Skin Pharmacology and Physiology, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 74-86.

Meule, Adrian. Compulsive Eating Behaviour and Food Addiction. Elsevier. 2019.

Tadi, Prasanna, and Tindle, Jacob. Neuroanatomy, Parasympathetic Nervous System. NCBI.

Wasinski, Frederick, et al. Tyrosine Hydroxylase Neurons Regulate Growth Hormone Secretion via Short-Loot Negative Feedback. The Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 40, no. 22, pp. 4309-4322.

Macronutrients

Macronutrients are inorganic substances that are found in the cells of living organisms in large quantities. The difference from micro elements is in the amount needed by the body, this threshold is 200 mg (Tórtora et al., 2019). The substance from the periodic table that a person needs at a dose of more than 200 mg per day is called a macronutrient (Schiff & Keck, 2022). It was macronutrients that were initially identified by scientists in the blood, lymph and other fluids of mammals. In total, science has identified eleven substances classified in this group: among them there are both metals and gases. Macronutrients, according to the classification of the periodic table, mainly include alkaline and alkaline-earth metals; they enter the human body with food and water.

Macronutrients in the human body play an extremely important role. Without sufficient presence of potassium, blood clotting processes are disrupted. The macronutrient chlorine is extremely important in maintaining the acid-base balance of blood and cells. Due to sodium, the processes of cell excitation and transmission of impulses also occur. Phosphorus is the most important element of cell membranes; it regulates calcium metabolism in the body. Calcium is the building material of bones: muscle contraction is impossible without calcium, and with a lack of it, muscle spasms occur, especially at night (Pointke & Pawelzik, 2022). Calcium affects the permeability of blood vessels. Magnesium is an essential element of many physiological processes. With its lack, muscle spasms or disturbances in the normal functioning of the nervous system occur.

Based on the spreadsheet in Nutrition CalcPlus, most of the macronutrients are found in fruits and vegetables. Potassium can be obtained from beans and other legumes, dried fruits and all varieties of potatoes. The sources of magnesium are cabbage and nuts, bananas, cereals, legumes, nuts, dried fruits and dark green vegetables. Sodium enters the human body from greens, black or green olives and boiled or canned corn. Sulfur is found in gooseberries, white and purple onions, legumes and apples. Nuts and cabbage have a high phosphorus content, and greens have chlorine. Most likely, this is due to the fact that plants receive a large amount of macronutrients from the soil when they grow. Then, when eaten by humans, these trace elements enter the human body, since plants are consumed mainly in raw form and they are not destroyed during heat treatment.

Vitamins

Vitamins are lowmolecular, chemically diverse organic substances that take part in many reactions of cellular metabolism. Unlike proteins, fats and carbohydrates, vitamins are not structural components of the cell and are not used as an energy source. Most vitamins are not synthesized in humans and animals. However, some of them are synthesized by the intestinal microflora and tissues in minimal quantities, so the main source of vitamins is food. According to the chemical structure, vitamins are divided into vitamins of the aliphatic series, acyclic series, aromatic series, and heterocyclic series (Alagawany et al., 2021). Vitamins are unstable substances, they are easily destroyed by high temperature, the action of strong hydroxides, air oxygen, ionizing radiation and other factors.

Vitamins are biologically active substances with a small molecular weight. They are necessary for a person to maintain metabolic processes. Vitamins are involved in biochemical reactions occurring in cells and act as catalysts or coenzymes. Their role is to accelerate or maintain the reaction rate between other substances. Therefore, protein synthesis and the production of many cell components depend on their presence. The importance of vitamins in metabolism is enormous: without regular intake of vitamins into the human body, a full-fledged metabolism is impossible. Optimal metabolism is the main condition for the implementation of physiological processes and biochemical reactions. Among them are hematopoiesis, and optimal functioning of the nervous, immune, digestive, and cardiovascular systems. Vitamins also contribute to the synthesis of enzymes, hormones and protect the body from the destructive effects of toxins and radionuclides.

Vitamin A is found mainly in animal products such as liver, eggs, and butter. B vitamins are found in dairy products, buckwheat, oats, rye bread, and nuts. Vitamin C content is high in many fruits and berries, greens, and in winter a good source of it is sauerkraut. Vitamin E is found in avocado and olive oil (Alagawany et al., 2021). Thus, according to the spreadsheet in Nutrition CalcPlus, vegetables and fruits are primarily distinguished by their high vitamin content. As in the case of macronutrients, this is due to the possibility of consumption without heat treatment. Vitamins contained in animal products are most often responsible for the health of hair, bones or vision. This is due to the fact that their high content is necessary for wild life of animals that are consumed.

Minerals

Like vitamins, minerals are part of human body tissues, enzymes, and hormones. Minerals the participants of the synthesis of all components from proteins to fats, from enzymes to hormones; they enter the human body with food and water. The concentration of minerals in the body also varies. If minerals are contained in quantities measured in hundreds of milligrams per 100 g of living tissue or product, then they are called macronutrients (Tasie & Gebreyes, 2020). If the concentration is 1:100,000 or lower, then they are called trace elements (Tasie & Gebreyes, 2020). Their distribution in the body is uneven, mainly chemical elements are found in human bones.

The role of mineral substances is most clearly seen in the example of blood composition analysis. In the process of metabolism, substances are formed, acidic in their reaction, and harmful to the body. Mineral compounds are involved in their neutralization, and these same substances are part of various secrets of the body. For example, hydrochloric acid containing chlorine is the main part of gastric juice. Blood clotting is impossible without the presence of calcium. Minerals coming from food, unlike proteins, carbohydrates and fats, are not chemically processed during digestion, entering directly into the blood. Their absence in food can lead to illness and even death. At the same time, it does not matter how nutritious such food is, that is, whether proteins, carbohydrates and fats are present in it in the proper ratio. Without minerals, it will not ensure the maintenance of the vital activity of the human body.

According to the spreadsheet in Nutrition CalcPlus, nuts and seeds contain many minerals, but are especially rich in magnesium, zinc, manganese, copper, selenium and phosphorus. Most likely, such a high concentration of minerals in the fruits of the nut is caused by its wide territorial prevalence. This is connected with the need to accumulate substances of various kinds, including minerals. Shellfish, including oysters, edible clams and mussels, are concentrated sources of minerals and contain selenium, zinc, copper and iron. Such a concentration of minerals in seafood is probably due to the fact that they consume seaweed, which contains a large amount of useful substances.

References

Alagawany, M., Elnesr, S. S., Farag, M. R., Tiwari, R., Yatoo, M. I., Karthik, K., & Dhama, K. D. (2021). Nutritional significance of amino acids, vitamins and minerals as nutraceuticals in poultry production and health: A comprehensive review. Veterinary Quarterly, 41(1), 1-29.

Pointke, M., & Pawelzik, E. (2022). Plant-based alternative products: Are they healthy alternatives? Micro- and macronutrients and nutritional scoring. nutrients, 14(6), 1-22.

Schiff, W., & Keck, T. L. (2022). Nutrition for healthy living. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

Tasie, M. M., & Gebreyes, B. G. (2020). Characterization of nutritional, antinutritional, and mineral contents of thirty-five sorghum varieties grown in Ethiopia. International Journal of Food Science, 4(2), 58-66.

Tórtora, G., Machín, L., & Ares, G. (2019). Influence of nutritional warnings and other label features on consumers choice: Results from an eye-tracking study. Food Research International, 119(38), 605-611.

Introduction

Vitamins are necessary nutrients the system requires in small quantities to sustain several vital processes. Fat-soluble vitamins and water-soluble are categories into which vitamins fall. In contrast to water-soluble vitamins, which the body must refill regularly, fat-soluble vitamins are retained in fatty tissues and liver and are excreted significantly more gradually. The fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) are reserved for a lengthy time in the body and, when taken in excess, are more dangerous compared to water-soluble vitamins. A balanced diet will not make someone hazardous if they are otherwise healthy. However, mega doses of the fat-soluble vitamins found in some vitamin supplements may be harmful.

Vitamin A

The body uses vitamin A, commonly known as retinol, for various purposes. Vitamin A is crucial for skeletal and tooth formation, reproduction, cell divisions, genetic expression, and immune system control. Furthermore, vitamin A assists the eyes in adjusting to light variations. Vitamin A is essential for maintaining the moisture in the eyes, skin, and mucous membranes of the nose, throat, mouth, and lungs. Another significant antioxidant, retinol, may aid in the protection of several malignancies (Collen et al., 2019). The easiest method to ensure the system receives sufficient vitamin A is to consume a variety of foodstuffs. The primary sources of the retinal, retinoic and retinol acid types of vitamin A are foods of animal origin, like dairy goods, fish, and liver.

Vitamin D

Vitamin D greatly influences the usage of phosphorus and calcium by the body. It enhances calcium absorption from the small intestine, which aids in the formation and maintenance of bones. Vitamin D benefits the body because it aids in immunity, regulates cell formation, and may offer protection from cancer, osteoporosis, elevated blood pressure, and other illnesses. Vitamin D is essential for children because it helps them grow strong bones and pearly whites (Collen et al., 2019). Milk and dairy foods supplemented with vitamin D are the major sources of food of this vitamin. Additionally, oily fish like salmon, sardines, and cod liver oil contains vitamin D.

Vitamin E

By functioning as an antioxidant and preventing the oxidation of critical fatty acids, red blood cells, vitamins A and C, vitamin E has positive effects on the body. Studies have revealed that consuming antioxidant supplements, including vitamin E, may aid in the prevention of heart disease and cancer. Recent research suggests that supplement consumers are not effectively protected against cancer and cardiac disease as non-users, despite taking antioxidants and vitamin E supplements. Numerous studies relate consuming a diet high in antioxidant-rich fresh vegetables on a routine basis to a reduced danger of cardiovascular illness, cancer, Alzheimers illness, and numerous other disorders (Collen et al., 2019). Vegetable oil, fruits, nuts, and fortified cereals are some food sources of vitamin E in the diet.

Vitamin K

The microorganisms in the intestine typically create vitamin K, which is crucial for healthy bone development, blood clotting, and the producing proteins for the bloodstream, kidneys, and bones. Fresh vegetables such as spinach, cabbage, turnip greens, cauliflower, and broccoli are excellent providers of vitamin K. Moreover, other vitamin K sources are vegetable oils including olive oil, soybean oil, canola oil, and cottonseed oil. Generally, vitamin K levels in animal meals are modest. Hemorrhaging can happen if vitamin K levels are insufficient. Infants, persons who take anticoagulants like Coumadin, or adults taking antibiotics may show signs of vitamin K shortage (Collen et al., 2019). Infants need a supplement for the first week after birth because they lack the intestinal flora necessary to manufacture vitamin K.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the fat-soluble vitamins are retained for a considerable time in the human body and are more hazardous compared to water-soluble vitamins. The quantity of fat-soluble vitamins required in the body system is minimal. In addition, mega doses of the fat-soluble vitamins found in some multivitamins, can be harmful. Fat-soluble vitamins must be taken in the right amounts for tissues to develop, operate normally, and be maintained. The vitamins also serve as antioxidants, which strengthen the immunity and delay the aging of tissues.

Reference

Collen, A., Wardlaw, G. M., Smith, A. M., & Spees, C. K. (2019). Wardlaws contemporary nutrition (11^th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

Introduction

Equine nutrition plays a central role in rearing of horses because they are non-ruminant herbivores. Horses rely on the fermentation processes to digest cellulose in their single stomach. Normally, horses feed on forages, concentrates, pellets, and supplements. Given that horses are non-ruminant herbivores, they take small portions of these types of feed several times a day to allow complete digestion of each portion. In this view, the understanding of nutritional requirements and metabolic mechanisms is essential in the formulation of equine nutrition. Horses require calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D as macronutrients that are important in the formation and the growth of bones.

The proportions of calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D in diet determine their respective nutritional importance because of metabolic interactions. Breidenbach, Revesz, and Harmeyer state that high doses of vitamin D increase excretion of calcium and phosphorus in horses (106). The statement implies that equine nutrition requires a delicate balance of calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D because their metabolism interrelates. Therefore, the essay examines nutritional and metabolic importance of calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D in equine nutrition.

Calcium

Metabolism and functions

Calcium is an essential mineral in the diet of horses because it is a major constituent of bones. Horses usually get calcium from forages and concentrates made from lucerne or manufactured supplements. When ingested, calcium undergoes absorption in the gastrointestinal system and the circulatory system distributes to diverse parts of the body, where bone formation and growth occur. The body distributes absorbed calcium into tissues and organs using blood and extracellular fluids, and removes excess calcium through intestinal secretion, kidneys, and skin (Schryver, Hintz, and Lowe 102).

Horses need calcium in abundance for they require strong bones for them to adapt to their functions. For example, racing horses require enough calcium in their bodies for the formation and maintenance of strong bones because their bones are prone to wear and tear during rigorous performances. Rourke, Kohn, Levine, Rosol, and Torobio state that calcium has structural importance in horses because it forms the skeletal system that supports horses against gravity, protects internal organs from physical damage, and hosts diverse structures in their respective positions (197). Hence, the structural importance of calcium enables horses to have stout bodies with the capacity to perform numerous functions such as racing and transportation.

Calcium also has physiological importance among horses because it causes muscle contraction, regulates locomotion, boosts cardiac functions, and facilitates gastrointestinal peristaltic movements. Regarding muscle contraction, calcium interacts with actin and myosin muscle fibers, which are responsible for the contraction and relaxation of skeletal muscles. Since horses perform strenuous physical activities such as running, they require calcium to aid in the contraction of muscles.

Horses with low levels of calcium in their bodies are usually very weak because skeletal muscles do not have sufficient amounts of calcium to cause contraction of muscles and bring about skeletal movement. In this view, calcium regulates locomotion among horses as high concentration of calcium in the body increases the potential of locomotion, while low concentration of calcium in the body reduces the potential of movement. As calcium causes contraction of muscles, it mediates the contraction of involuntary cardiac muscles, and thus, determines the rate of heart beat. In the gastrointestinal system, calcium facilitates peristaltic movement, which is central to the digestion process. Overall, calcium is important because it mediates contraction of different types of muscles as aforementioned.

In the body, calcium regulates physiological activities such as blood clotting process, functions of transmembrane channels, transmission of impulses, and enzymatic reactions. During the blood clotting process, calcium interacts with clotting factors in the cascade process, which eventually leads to the formation of a blood clot. The absence or low level of calcium causes the loss of blood when an injury occurs because blood takes unusually long period to clot (Rourke et al. 198).

Hence, horses require calcium to speed the blood clotting process and promote healing of wounds in case of injuries. Since transmembrane channels regulate the entry and exit of substances in and out of the cells, calcium takes part in regulating these channels. Primarily, calcium maintains integrity of cell membranes as it allows communication among cells via transmembrane channels. In conjunction with potassium and sodium, calcium also influences the transmission of nerve impulses in the body. Calcium acts as a cofactor, which regulates activity of enzymes in cellular processes, such as cell division, growth, and motility.

Homeostasis of calcium

Horses normally experience frequent instances of hypocalcemia and hypercalcemia when compared to other mammals. Homeostatic mechanism regulates the level of calcium in blood and tissues within a narrow range. According to Rourke et al., calcitonin, vitamin D, and parathyroid hormone are three hormones, which are responsible for homeostatic regulation of calcium in horses (176).

When calcium levels are very high, thyroid gland releases equine calcitonin, which causes the reduction of calcium levels in serum and stimulates storage of calcium in bones. In contrast, a low level of calcium induces the release of parathyroid hormone by the thyroid gland, which causes renal reabsorption, synthesis of vitamin D, and bone resorption (Matsuzaki and Dumont 232). Given that horses often experience imbalances in the levels of calcium, they utilize these hormones in restoring the imbalances and optimizing the functions of calcium in their bodies. Therefore, assessment of the nutrition and metabolism of calcium indicates that it has important structural and biochemical functions in horses.

Phosphorus

Metabolism and functions

Phosphorus is an important mineral that horses require for the growth and development of healthy bones and teeth. Calcium combines with phosphorus in the development of strong bones and teeth, which enable horses to adapt to their functions of racing and chewing forages respectively. Owing to the importance of phosphorus in the growth and development of horses, industries that manufacture feeds incorporate phosphorus as a macronutrient. Since horses need strong bones, they require supplements of calcium and phosphorus in their diets. Schryver, Hintz, and Craig recommend that mature horses need an average of 17g of phosphorus daily for maintaining physiological functions in their bodies (1257).

Hence, daily dietary intake of horses must contain appropriate amounts of phosphorus, which meet physiological functions. Horses that consume phosphorus in their diet regularly have strong skeletal structure because phosphorus is a constituent of bones and teeth (Lawrence 209). Evidently, phosphorus is an essential macronutrient for its deficiency leads to poor development of bones and teeth.

Phosphorus is an important constituent of biochemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The performance horses utilize ATP in the generation of the required horsepower. Lawrence asserts that horses require sufficient energy in form of ATP for muscle contraction, which they obtain from carbohydrates (206). ATP is a biochemical energy that contains phosphorus, and its function is to transfer energy from one cell to another cell during contraction of muscles. Additionally, phosphorus is an important component of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), a chemical messenger that mediates a number of cellular activities.

Adenyl cyclase is an enzyme that converts ATP into cAMP with the loss of pyrophosphate. Matsuzaki and Dumont state that cAMP regulates the activity of the parathyroid gland in the production of parathyroid hormone, which in turn regulates the level of calcium in the body (227). In this view, phosphorus indirectly regulates activity of the parathyroid gland and metabolism of calcium in the body.

Homeostasis of phosphorus

The metabolism of phosphorus occurs normally like calcium or any other mineral in the body of horses. The intake of phosphorus through diet or supplements increases the level of phosphorus in blood after absorption in the intestines. The blood transports phosphorus to bones, teeth, and tissues, where their metabolism occurs. Horses excrete excess phosphorus in urine and feces. Hence, diet, renal excretion, and fecal excretion provide homeostatic mechanisms that maintain the level of phosphorus in the body at the required level. The homeostatic mechanisms show that renal or urinary excretion of phosphate is proportional to dietary intake of phosphorus (Schryver, Hintz, and Craig 1261).

The direct relationship between renal excretion and dietary intake of phosphate indicates that kidneys play a central role in the homeostatic mechanisms. According to the findings of an experiment, the endogenous fecal excretion of phosphorus among horses is not proportional to the dietary intake of phosphorus (Schryver, Hintz, and Craig 1261). The findings show that endogenous fecal execration does not play a significant role in phosphorus homeostasis.

Vitamin D

Metabolism and functions

As one of the vitamins that horses utilize, metabolism of vitamin D is unique. Once ingested, vitamin D is inactive, and therefore, goes into the liver where hepatic enzymes convert it into an active form of vitamin D called 25-OH-D₃ through the process of hydroxylation. DeLuca and Schnoes report that 25-hydroxylase is a hepatic enzyme that activates vitamin D by hydroxylating its 25-crabon (625). Without hydroxylation in the liver, vitamin D remains inactive in the body, and thus, becomes physiologically deficient. In this view, the liver plays a central role in the metabolism and the use of vitamin D.

The active form of vitamin D, 25-OH-D_3, then circulates in the bloodstream and moves to the kidneys where further hydroxylation takes place. When the concentration of 25-OH-D₃ increases, parathyroid hormone induces the synthesis of 25-hydroxyvitamin-1α-OH hydroxylase in the kidneys, which catalyzes conversion of 25-OH-D₃ into 1α,25-(OH)_2-D₃. The hydroxylation of 25-OH-D₃ in the kidney gives an active form of vitamin D, 1α,25-(OH)_2-D₃, which performs diverse cellular and systemic functions. According to DeLuca and Schnoes, 24-hydroxylase degrades both 1α,25-(OH)_2-D₃ and 25-OH-D₃ into 1α,24,25-(OH)_2-D_3, and 24,25-OH-D₃ respectively (642). Therefore, horses excrete vitamin D in the form of 1α,24,25-(OH)_2-D_3, and 24,25-OH-D₃ through the kidneys under the control of parathyroid hormone.

Vitamin D is an important vitamin because it regulates metabolism of calcium and phosphorus. In its regulatory function, vitamin D enables intestines to absorb calcium and phosphorus from the consumed food. Given that concentration and electrical gradient prevent the absorption of calcium and phosphorus in the intestines, vitamin D alters the property of intestinal membranes and allows the movement of these minerals against the concentration and electrical gradient (Breidenbach, Revesz, and Harmeyer 105).

Thus, a deficiency of vitamin D causes physiological deficiency of calcium and phosphorus. Essentially, absorption of calcium and phosphorus would not take place despite their intake in the diet. Vitamin D also is important in the formation and development of bones because it promotes mineralization process. DeLuca and Schnoes explain that vitamin D has the capacity to alleviate osteomalacia and rickets because it avails calcium to mineralization sites in the skeletal system (649). In this view, vitamin D mediates deposition and resorption of bones, the processes that are central to the homeostasis. In tissues, vitamin D is very important because it regulates cell division by inhibiting proliferation of cells and enhancing differentiation.

Homeostasis of vitamin D

The level of vitamin D in the body is subject to homeostatic mechanism that is under the regulation of calcium, phosphorus, and parathyroid hormone. DeLuca and Schnoes explain that when the level of calcium in the body is low, parathyroid hormone elicits synthesis of vitamin D, which in turn elicits intestines to increase the absorption of calcium (632). Moreover, synergistic effect of vitamin D and parathyroid hormone increases plasma calcium by increasing bone resorption and reabsorption of calcium in the kidneys. When the level of phosphorus is low in the body, there is stimulation of vitamin D synthesis, which is independent of parathyroid hormone.

In contrast, when the levels of calcium and phosphorus are high, the level of parathyroid hormone goes down, and hence, no synthesis of vitamin D. The resultant effect is decreased reabsorption of calcium and phosphorus in the kidneys and increased mineralization of bones. DeLuca and Schnoes observe that vitamin D acts as a hormone that mobilizes calcium and transports phosphorus (632). Thus, the homeostatic mechanism shows that vitamin D plays a central role in the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus in horses.

Calcium, Phosphorus, and Vitamin D Interactions

The influence of calcium

The intake of calcium and phosphorus in various forms of diets leads to interactions that influence their respective metabolism. Calcium intake influences the metabolism of phosphorus in the body in terms of excretion and retention. Schryver, Hintz, and Craig report the findings that when ponies consume a diet with high calcium, the absorption of phosphorus increases (1260). The findings indicate that calcium increases the absorption of phosphorus, but decreases its excretion among ponies. Schryver, Hintz, and Lowe explain that renal excretion of phosphorus decreases because a high level of calcium stimulates bone formation, which increases the requirement of phosphorus (103). Therefore, it is evident that calcium influences the metabolism of phosphorus in terms of excretion, retention, and uses among ponies.

The influence of phosphorus

The level of phosphate in the diet influences the metabolism of calcium in horses. A study done among ponies fed with a diet that has high levels of phosphorus and adequate amounts of calcium shows that phosphorus inhibits absorption and decreases the retention of calcium (Schryver, Hintz, and Lowe 103). Assessment of each pony shows that the level of plasma phosphorus negatively correlates with the level of plasma calcium. High plasma phosphorus or high phosphorus diet increases turnover rate of bones as the processes of bone resorption and deposition hastens. Schryver, Hintz, and Lowe found out that an increase in plasma phosphorus increases the rate of bone resorption by 83% and increases the rate of calcium deposition by 40% (103).

The interaction of calcium and phosphorus causes secondary hyperparathyroidism among horses. The deficiency of calcium coupled with high plasma phosphorus predisposes horses to secondary hyperparathyroidism (Hintz and Cymbaluk 258). The finding implies that the diet with high phosphorus influences metabolism of calcium during bone resorption and calcium deposition. Overall, phosphorus decreases retention of calcium and hastens the turnover rate of bones.

The influence of vitamin D

In horses, the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus is under the influence of vitamin D. High dosage of vitamin D increases renal excretion of calcium and phosphorus in horses. The findings of a study show that toxic levels of vitamin D causes a twofold increase in the rate of renal excretion of calcium and a 20-fold increase in the rate of phosphorus excretion (Breidenbach, Revesz, and Harmeyer 106).

The findings imply that vitamin D has significant influence on the levels of calcium and phosphorus, and thus, an important factor to consider in equine nutrition. Despite the fact that vitamin D stimulates intestines to absorb calcium and phosphorus, high level of vitamin D is toxic because it increases excretion of calcium and phosphorus. Owing to the influence of toxic level of vitamin D, equine nutrition should have minimal amounts of vitamin D, which are only sufficient to promote absorption of calcium and phosphorus. The increased excretion of calcium and phosphorus in response to high concentration of vitamin D is under the influence of parathyroid hormone.

Conclusion

Calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D are equine macronutrients, which have important roles in the growth and development of horses. Calcium and phosphorus are major constituents of bones and teeth. Given that horses perform extraneous activities such as race performance and transportation, they require strong bones. The metabolism of calcium and phosphorus is under hormonal regulation of parathyroid hormone. Vitamin D also aids in the formation of bones because it mobilizes deposition and resorption of calcium and phosphorus. Homeostatic mechanisms of these minerals indicate that their levels in the body influence their metabolism. Overall, horses require a regulated dietary intake of calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D at the appropriate proportions for them to have optimal metabolism and functions.

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