Category: Violent Crime

Have you ever wondered where the safest state to live in is? Situated in the New England area at the north tip of the United States, Vermont is a lovely, tiny, and wealthy state with the second smallest population in this nation and one of the lowest violent crime rates. Vermont has a violent crime rate of 1.2 per 1,000 people compared to the 4.02 of California.

Thousands of crimes are committed everyday but what causes these crimes to happen can not be explained by any single factor. There are many factors that can cause a crime to happen, one of these being poverty, which affects everyone in a society. In California there are more than 100,000 homeless people living in shelters or on the street. They have been known to commit crimes such as robbery, burglary, and murder. If it wasn’t for poverty, then why would a person need to steal? People who live in poverty do not have enough money to buy food, clothes, or provide necessities for their families which can lead them to steal from relatives, friends, local stores and in some cases from a strangers property. While in California we see such high amounts of people living in homelessness, Vermont had 1,291 homeless people in 2018 which is not only a huge difference but could be a reason California has many more crimes.

Another reason there could be a difference in the amount of violent crimes between the states could be the general population, California has 39.56 million people living there, compared to Vermont who only has 626,299. Some believe that as a population grows so does the crime rate, but according to research that is not necessarily the case. Between 2011-2018 the population in Vermont went from 626,979 to 626,299 while in California it rose from 37.64 million to 39.56 million, meanwhile the violent crimes being committed between those years in Vermont went from 891 to 1,034 and in California from 160,944 to 177,627. Even though in California we see crimes increasing as the population rises, in Vermont the population decreases while the violent crimes happening increase, showing us the idea of population increase brining more crime is not the case in this situation.

Furthermore, as the years have gone by the amount affected by the usage of opioids and other illegal substances have also risen dramatically, and it is known that drug abuse and poverty go hand in hand. In Vermont the amount of people being treated for drug abuse between 2012-2018 went from 3,500 people to almost 7000, and that’s just the number of people being treated. Between those same years there was also a 35% increase in mental health distress, it is very likely the rising number of drug abuse played a role in the increase. No person who is experiencing mental distress and using illegal drugs is going to make smart decisions, and sometimes children are witnesses to the crimes their parents commit without even knowing it. In Vermont the number of children in foster care due to parents having a drug addiction between 2014-2017 went from 765 to 927, in those same years there was also a 42% increase in drug related deaths. Meanwhile in California 79% of the children that are in foster care due to maltreatment had a parent that suffered from substance abuse. The mental health of these children is bound to see negative effects, a child cannot comprehend the death of a parent due to an illegal substance or understand why their parents don’t take care of them or mistreat them and this is something that will affect a child forever, how can anyone expect children who have grown up in these situations to conform to society’s norms when they never had anyone to teach them even the most basic tasks.

One other factor that some believe takes part in the rising crime levels is guns, as time passes guns become a bigger problem in America. In Vermont there are almost no gun laws, even someone with a past of domestic abuse can get a gun, no application necessary. Meanwhile in California there is a ban on assault rifles and .50 caliber rifles, anyone who is interested must apply for a firearm safety certificate and pass a written test, and all gun sales require a background check. Even though Vermont has little laws to protect its people against gun violence it is one of the safest states to live in, this information shows that gun laws do not play a big part in stopping violent crimes from happening, the guns are just the weapon of choice.

In the end there is no single factor mentioned here that is for sure the cause of crime, from what the records show many of these things play a small role unless combined. In California there is a much larger population than Vermont which leads to higher amount of homeless people and a higher amount of drug abuse and mental distress, if you put all those things together it would explain why California has a higher crime rate than Vermont but that does not mean there are more criminals in California. Even though there is no single factor in the cause of crime the government could still find ways to regulate what users can see on social media and television, the school systems should introduce programs that teach children how to handle peer pressure starting at a young age, and maybe if our laws had harder consequences more people would think twice before committing a crime.

Citation Page

1. ‌“Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) – Race/Ethnicity.” Bjs.Gov, 2013, www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=tp&tid=922.
2. “National Data.” FBI, 2015, ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2015/crime-in-the-u.s.-2015/persons-arrested/national-data.
3. “Section I: Gun Violence in the United States.” Ojjdp.Gov, 2019, www.ojjdp.gov/pubs/gun_violence/sect01.html.
4. ‌ “SAMHDA.” Samhsa.Gov, 2019, pdas.samhsa.gov/#/.
5. “State Statistics Information.” National Institute of Corrections, 17 July 2019, nicic.gov/state-statistics-information?location=Vermont.
6. “Crime Statistics | Vermont Crime Information Center.” Vermont.Gov, 2019, vcic.vermont.gov/ch-information/statistics.
7. “Crime Data.” State of California – Department of Justice – Office of the Attorney General, 9 July 2018, oag.ca.gov/crime.
8. “QuickFacts: California.” Census Bureau QuickFacts, United States Census Bureau, 2018, www.census.gov/quickfacts/ca.
9. “Homeless in California Statistics 2018. Homeless Estimation by State | US Interagency Council on Homelessness.” Usich.Gov, 2018, www.usich.gov/homelessness-statistics/ca/.

The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original theories: classical or positivist, have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question. One modern-day theory, stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why people commit violent crimes is strain theory. There are two takes on strain theory, Merton’s classic strain theory, and Agnew’s general strain theory, that have been developed in order to solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.

Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive crimes are not committed for an individual to benefit or gain from the act but instead are committed out of rage, anger, or frustration (Siegel, 2017). Whereas instrumental crime has more of a purpose to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crime to improve his/her financial or social status (Siegel, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon when discussing the cause of a violent crime, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure to violence, substance abuse, and culture and national values (Siegel, 2017). The four main violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning these crimes are only four of the most serious offenses. Rape is non-consensual sexual intercourse inflicted by another on either male or female and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siegel, 2017). Murder is the unlawful killing of a person or people with intention and is considered the most serious crime (Siegel, 2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve physical contact, but rather intention or threat of harming the victim (Siegel, 2017). Lastly, robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, threat, or violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton’s and Agnew’s strain theories.

The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work “Social Structure and Anomie” in 1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which helps to explain why individuals or groups are more likely to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019). Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunities for success (Akers & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton goes on to explain in “Social Structure and Anomie” that there are five ways an individual can adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accepts the strain and still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013). Stability and continuity of a society are still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019). Innovation is when a person still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or her to take advantage of illegal means in order to reach his/her goal (Akers & Sellers, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there is limited opportunities for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accepts the institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Sellers, 2013). This adaptation, being the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severely mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers, 2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).

Merton’s classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. If an individual experiences more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained by Merton’s classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain as well. If one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achieving wealth because some view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).

Merton’s classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community differences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a strain. In this case, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another weakness to Merton’s theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019).

After Merton’s classic strain theory came Agnew’s general strain theory, which is micro level as well. Agnew approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of society by arguing there are several sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnew’s strain theory perspective arose during a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal pressures. Within Agnew’s “Pressured into Crime: General Strain Theory,” he discusses how people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three negative relationships. These include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019).

The first relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Merton’s classic strain theory, however, Agnew expanded this idea (Akers & Sellers, 2013). Agnew not only included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only due to blocked opportunities (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The second subtype includes the strain an individual feels when he/she believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may feel from this disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she deserves more than the outcome he/she received (Akers & Sellers, 2013). An example of this could be when one person feels as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other person, therefore, feeling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.

The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses “something or someone of great worth” (Akers & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing something can consist of getting fired from a job or being suspended from school.

The third relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valued stimuli, includes events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sellers, 2013). An individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents so they may be lead to use illegitimate means in order to escape said events. Although strains may develop from these three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categories: objective and subjective.

Objective strains are events that most people would find stressful. These events include being physically assaulted or deprived of food and shelter (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Messerschmidt (1993) also states that questioning a male’s masculine status can cause stress to most men. Objective strains can be measured by interviewing a sample of people.

Subjective strains pertain to how different people evaluate the same events. Although an event may be objectively stressful, an individual might only mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual’s personality traits, goals, values, and prior experiences (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).). An example of a subjective strain is a divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of the poor quality of their prior marriage.

Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and anticipated. Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain should “bear the strongest relationship to crime” (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her, specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth, 2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressor(s) may continue into the future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).

General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude, unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). If an individual views a stressor as “unjust,” meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she feels, then it can cause the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the “extent to which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person’s behavior, and sanction violations” (Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not an individual cares what others think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional behaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional behaviors, then he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual’s attitude towards the laws and whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity, rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime, but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together in time (Toth, 2019).

Agnew’s general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew’s theory can be used to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an individual endures sexual assault, which can be categorized as an objective strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people, himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault and battery can also be explained by Agnew’s general strain theory. This can be seen when one experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into seeking revenge, which can include physically harming or threatening to physically harm, the person negatively affecting his/her family member or friend.

Agnew’s general strain theory has both strengths and weakness when referencing the explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may lead to violent criminal actions. It has also been supported that delinquency, which can lead to violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of the three negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019). However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not mean they will utilize illegal means to overcome it. If one has the ability to cope in a legal manner, such as having the verbal skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking illegal means, such as violent crimes, in order to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).

Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an individual’s social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counseling, mediation, and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013).

To conclude, although Merton’s classic strain theory and Agnew’s general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain. Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes that can be best explained by strain theory.

References

1. Akers, R. L., & Sellers, C. S. (2013). Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Application (6th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
2. Cullen, F. T., Agnew, R., & Wilcox, P. (2014). Criminological Theory: Past to Present Essential Readings (5th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
3. Messerschmidt, James W. 1993. Masculinities and Crime: Critique and Reconceptualization of Theory. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
4. Siegel, L. J. (2017). Criminology: The core (7th ed.). Lowell, MA: Cengage.
5. Toth, A. (2019). Criminological Theory: Annomie & Strain Theories Part II. Criminological Theory, The University of Tampa.
6. Wheaton, B. (1990). Where Work and Family Meet. Stress Between Work and Family, 153-174.

Abstract

This paper discusses concerns surrounding violent crime in society. It compares statistics about violent crimes such as Burglary, homicide, kidnapping/abduction, and Assault/sexual assault in comparison with each other reflecting the low rate of victimization; Followed by a comparison of these statistics with the victimization rates of property crime and concluding that violent crime be less of a concern whereas property crime is more likely to occur.

Violent Crime Can Be A Source Of Concern But Is It The Most Frequent Occurring Type Of Crime In Society?

Violent crime can indeed be a constant concern for society as it is the most frequently reported crime in the news; however, is it really the most frequent occurring crime in society? A majority of acts that fall under the violent crime category are in fact not as frequently occurring as many have been led to believe. Some may think that violent crime was indeed more frequent and could happen at any time based on what friends and family members constantly say such as ‘don’t travel late at night’ or ‘lock your doors at night’.

Once one begins going through statistics, reading text books on the subject matter, and delving into research papers that the majority of what you have been told to be concerned about in regards to violent crimes is something anyone needn’t worry about to such an extent as the most frequently committed crimes are revolving around property crimes.

The acts that fall under violent crimes differ from place to place, violent crime may include: Harassment, abduction (kidnapping), rape, negligence, robbery, sexual assault, assault, and homicide. The crime rates in Australia are in a constant state of fluctuation. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, the rate for victims of burglary decreased by 5% across Australia in the last few years, has been in decline for the past 7 years, and has reached an all-time low at 0.039%; where as the number of sexual assault victims continues to increase, the rate rose by 2% and is currently sitting at 0.101% of the population having been victimized by this type of horrible crime in recent years. The numbers for victimization in homicide and kidnapping were stagnant with no increases in recent findings and were both less than 0.002% and the lowest percentage out of all the violent crimes (Australian Bureau of statistics 2019). When it came to physical assault’s across the different age groups the results varied with people aged between 15-24 years old having a victimisation rate of 3.7% and those over the age of 65 years old being at a much lower rate of 0.5%(Australia Bureau of Statistics 2018). Physical assault had the highest numbers for victimisation in relation to violent crimes, with physical assault for unmarried persons at 3.6% and unemployed persons at 4.3%, the chances of victimisation varied depending on age and lifestyle circumstances.

Based on these numbers the trends seem to be very low and on a downwards trend for Theft, Unlawful entry and Motor vehicle theft (Australian Institute of crime 2017). The chances of being victimised in one of these situations is somewhat low but also depends on the other factors that needs to be taken into consideration when discussing lifestyle and if falling victim to these crimes was age, sex, location and personal circumstances; such as marriage status and employment status. For instance, Males were more likely to fall victim to Homicide and physical Assault whereas women were more likely to fall victim to sexual assault. With physical assault for unmarried persons at 3.6% and unemployed persons at 4.3%(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2018).

Not amongst these numbers are of course the dark figures of crime which go undetected or unreported for many reasons, one being due to jurisdictional fragmentation; However, with these results we can see that these crimes are not the most frequently carried out offences.

Property crime made up ‘approximately 80%'(Australian Bureau of statistics 2012 as cited by Hayes and Prenzler) when compared against other types of crime. In the following 5 years the trends have followed suit, Of that approximate 80% there were 3 categories that fell under this umbrella; Other theft(i.e. shop lifting, pick pocketing, bag snatching and bicycle theft) was the highest for of property crime, Unlawful entry with intent came in second and Motor vehicle theft was the lowest of property crimes committed between 2010 and 2017(Australian Bureau of statistics 2019)

When reviewing offenders by principle offence, theft was the second highest offence next to illicit drug offences (Australian Bureau of statistics 2018). In recent times despite the high volumes of property crime there have been minor decreases according to the Australian Bureau of statistics which is a positive finding.

Violent crimes may be a concern in people’s minds but when reviewing the numbers and researching the matter, it is clear that theft should be more so at the for front of people’s minds. People within our society are more likely to become victim to some form of property crime rather than a violent crime. In other words, one would be more likely to have their bicycle stolen from their front yard rather than be physically assaulted at a pub.

References

1. Australian Institute of Criminology (2016). Victims of Crime | Crime Statistics Australia. [online] Aic.gov.au. Available at: https://www.crimestats.aic.gov.au/facts_figures/1_victims/.
2. Australian Institute of Criminology (2010). Victims of violent crime | Crime Statistics Australia. [online] Aic.gov.au. Available at: https://www.crimestats.aic.gov.au/facts_figures/1_victims/A1/.
3. Australian institute of Criminology (2018). OFFENDERS BY PRINCIPAL OFFENCE. [online] https://www.aic.gov.au/. Available at: https://www.crimestats.aic.gov.au/facts_figures/2_offenders/A3/ [Accessed 20 Oct. 2019].
4. Abs.gov.au. (2018). Physical assault. [online] Available at: https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/4530.0~2016-17~Main%20Features~Physical%20assault%20~10000
5. Hayes and Prenzler, (2014). An Introduction to Crime and Criminology. 4th edition ed. Melbourne, Vic: Pearson Australia. pp.66

Night after night on the news, there is always a new violent crime that is being reported on. It seems like as a society we can’t get away from the trend of violent crime. Most people relate violent crimes to only shootings, but violent crimes are actually and crimes that involve an aggressive acts such as; rape, aggravated assault, and shootings. The media has brought much attention to these crimes, especially the ones that involve massive death tolls from a single shooter. These mass shootings have brought much attention to guns, even making it a big part of many 2020 candidates’ campaigns when talking about gun control. Many people believe that removing guns, in general, would resolve the issue. On the other hand, putting more guns in good people’s hands is a potential fix that is trying to be implemented to stop these crimes.

Violent crimes can be defined as any crime that causes direct harm to another person. This can very over a wide range of crimes. The obvious type here would be a crime like assault where one or more people directly attack another person with physical abuse. This can be something as minimal as someone hitting another person just one time, all the way to someone beating another to death which would lead into another category. Another kind of crime that can be considered a violent crime are sexual crime. As said on justia “Both state and federal laws typically categorize offensive sexual crimes as violent crimes. These include rape and sexual assault. Rape is a form of battery that involves sexual contact with another person without his or her consent. It may involve violent physical contact, or it may be accomplished by means of emotional manipulation or a victim’s inability to consent. In any of these circumstances, it is considered a violent crime because of the highly offensive violations that the victim experiences. Statutory rape is a special category of rape that occurs when an adult individual has sexual contact with another person who is below the age of consent, which varies from state to state. Since the younger participant is statutorily unable to consent, the action is categorized as criminal rape even if the minor gave his or her actual consent.” (Violent Crimes) Another form of violent crime that is often forgotten by many people is high property damage. This is mainly a violent crime at times because arson is an obvious act of causing harm to another individual. Lastly, we have robbery as another violent crime. Robbery is defined as using force and or fear to permanently take something of value. Robbery differs from the lower level theft, in that assault is included in robbery thus making it a violent crime.

Out of all violent crimes aggravated assault and robberies occur at a much higher rate than the more extreme violent crimes such as rape and murder. The other factor that is brought into these crimes is a gun. A gun is shown to have been used in a very large percent of murders compared to a less than 50 percent of robberies and aggravated assaults. As the FBI has reported “Data from the FBI program indicate that there were approximately 1.2 million violent crimes in the United States in 2015, including 764,449 aggravated assaults, 327,374 robberies, 124,047 rapes, and 15,696 instances of murder or non-negligent manslaughter (FBI, 2016e). The overall violent crime rate was 372.6 per 100,000 people, with the highest rate for aggravated assault (237.8 per 100,000), followed by robbery (101.9 per 100,000), rape (38.6 per 100,000), and murder or non-negligent manslaughter (4.9 per 100,000). Nationwide, firearms were used in 71.5 percent of all instances of murder or non-negligent manslaughter, 40.8 percent of robberies, and 24.2 percent of aggravated assaults in 2015.” (How Gun Policies Affect Violent Crime) When it comes to violent crimes guns aren’t as prevalent as many may think. Their biggest presence comes with murder, which is the lowest committed crime out of the group. Aggravated assault makes up close to 70 percent of all violent crimes committed and a gun is only used in those crimes about 25 percent of the time.

The reasons a gun is used in a violent crime varies over a wide number of reasons. With robberies involving force and fear, a gun is capable of doing both of those. When fear is needed, a gun could be used as a way to instill fear into a large group with ease while gaining control of the situation at hand. If no one else that is present has a gun the robber with the gun is able to put the fear of death into people involve in the incident, which could stop anyone that is there from possibly calling the police or stopping the robbery themselves. When it is used for force in a robbery it could be being used in two ways. The robber may use it right away to kill the person they are robbing or use it in the case that someone is trying to stop them so they shoot them to punish or stop them. One effect that guns have on a robbery, that most people wouldn’t expect, is that when a gun is present people are less likely to get hurt in the event. This is because the control the gun provides over the situation leads less people to rebel against the robber making them less hostile and less likely to use the weapon for force. Guns are also used because of their ability as a weapon. A gun is essentially unstoppable unless another person is countering with a gun. A gun’s ability to kill is what makes it the most common weapon and why it is used in about 70 percent of all murders. Guns have the potential to kill or harm someone from a distance. This can be beneficial to the person using it for a number of reasons. They can stop the person they are firing at without being identified and be able to shoot them without putting themselves at any kind of risk by getting in a close encounter where they could be disarmed or even harmed themselves. Another reason guns are often chosen by someone who plans to harm someone else is that they are used without a very personal interaction. By being able to kill the person they are meaning to harm without getting close to them they feel that they are able to disconnect themselves from what they are doing. The versatility is major as Cook says “A gun is usually superior to other weapons readily available for use in violent crime; even in the hands of a weak and unskilled assailant, a gun poses a credible threat and can be used to kill quickly, from a distance, and in a relatively ‘impersonal’ fashion. Guns are particularly valuable against relatively invulnerable targets.” (The Influence of Gun Availability on Violent Crime Patterns)

The day that two students decided to walk into Columbine High School and open fire on the school the world was forever changed. Since that day mass shootings have become a fear in the back of many Americans’ head. As these mass shootings continue the idea of controlled has been a major topic in today’s society. But does gun control actually reduce the number of gun-related violent crimes or is better to have more people armed to protect against the next potential mass shooting. When it comes to gun control it is important that it is looked at from both sides. There is regulating what guns people have access to and regulating what people have access to guns. It would be wrong for society if access to guns were taken away, removing the only stop to an ill intent person with a gun in taking away guns from a person who would take action in stopping a bad guy with a gun. The main focus should be keeping guns out of the hands of people who should not have access to guns due to known mental health problems. California is known for having some of the strictest gun laws in the nation. They do not just have laws that say who should and should not have guns, but they have strict laws regulating the access to guns in general. Swearer states “Strict gun control may be the go-to response of many, but it’s simply not the answer to the problem of mass public shootings. In fact, since 2000, 17 percent of mass public shootings have occurred in California, even though the state accounts for only 12 percent of the nation’s population.” (Swearer, 2018). A ban on guns should be looked at the same way anything else that is banned is looked at. Marijuana is illegal in many states across the country yet it is still accessed by many people. A ban on guns would remove guns from law-abiding citizens how would use them the way the law says, as self-defense. Swearer adds “Texas, meanwhile, has an ‘F’ gun control rating, yet has seen only 6.6 percent of total mass public shootings since 2000 — below its expected share, given that it holds 8.6 percent of the national population. On the other hand, Washington state — with a ‘B’ rating — accounts for 2.2 percent of the population but 8 percent of mass public shootings since 2000.” (Swearer, 2018). Just as marijuana is accessed illegally, a criminal who has a desire to use a gun would find a way to get their hands on one. The best way to stop a mass shooting is to prevent the person with the ill intent from getting their hand on a gun. The Sandy Hook elementary shooting was carried out by the son of one of the teachers at the school. The shooter had a known history of mental but had access to his mother’s fire arms. This could have been stopped simply through the better protection of these guns for the shooter.

Violent crimes as a whole are terrible incidents that affect the lives of many people across the country. As a society, it is important that these crimes are reduced in numbers. Guns play a role, that some believe is bigger than it is, in these violent crimes mainly through the murder of an individual person. They are used as a way to bring fear into another person and to control a situation. Finding a way to reduce violent crimes can be started with guns through a form of gun control. It is essential that through reducing the gun-related violent crimes, people with a gun, are not prevented from possibly being able to turn the outcome of a situation where a bad person with a gun into a situation where a bad person was stopped by a good guy with a gun.

1. Connors, K., Dale, Cruse, T. L., Mikhail, M., Venado, J., Weingarten, D., … Marsh, M. (2019, August 6). State Gun Laws That Actually Reduce Gun Deaths. Retrieved from http://www.bu.edu/articles/2019/state-gun-laws-that-reduce-gun-deaths/.
2. How Gun Policies Affect Violent Crime. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.rand.org/research/gun-policy/analysis/violent-crime.html.
3. Swearer, A. (2018, November 16). Broad Gun-Control Restrictions Are Not the Answer. Retrieved from https://www.heritage.org/firearms/commentary/broad-gun-control-restrictions-are-not-the-answer.
4. The Influence of Gun Availability on Violent Crime Patterns. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/449086?journalCode=cj.
5. Violent Crimes. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.justia.com/criminal/offenses/violent-crimes/.

The new evil: Understanding the emergence of modern violent crime is written by two authors; Michael H. Stone and Brucato. Michael Stone is an American psychiatrist and teaches clinical psychiatry (‘Michael H. Stone’, 2019). This author has received recognition for his refining of the concept of psychopathy and has also provided support to the need for flexibility in the therapeutic approach for the treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder. Stone also received an award from the American Academy of Psychoanalysis in 2017, for his paper which described treatment recommendations for individuals with borderline personality disorder (‘Michael H. Stone’, 2019). Furthermore, Stone developed 22-point gradations of the Evil scale which is structured for the examination of the acts of violence involved in the provocation of the emotional reaction associated referred to as ‘evil’ (‘Michael H. Stone’, 2019). He has authored 12 other books and 250 articles in professional journals. Based on his experience and training, Stone presents valuable insight within this book (‘Michael H. Stone’, 2019).

The second author alongside Stone is Dr. Gary Brucato. Brucato is a clinical psychologist, a researcher, and an author who has specialized in psychotic illness, and violent crime with the inclusion of mass, spree, and serial murder (‘Gary Brucato, Ph.D.’, 2019). He is involved in the clinical evaluation and grant-funded research of individuals who experience early psychotic symptoms (‘Gary Brucato, Ph.D.’, 2019). Brucato has been known for his development of novel screening measures for violence and his analysis of different motivations for acts of mass murder. Hence, his skills and expertise in psychopathology, personality assessment, and psychological assessment have been critical for the presentation of ideas within the book.

Background Information

The New Evil provides insightful discussions regarding the gradation of evil, the different categories of murder, and their historical increase. Without exception, facts and figures indicate an increase in the level of violent crime across the country. There has been a steady elevation in violent crime with an expectation that this trend will only increase in the future. This is mainly linked to issues such as an increase in personality disorders such as anxiety, elevated drug abuse, and an inability to properly treat any development disorder that may act as a base for violent crime. Murder rates are far higher than they have been in the last two decades along with a significant rise in the level of rape incidents, robberies, and assaults (Walker, 2017). As violence appears to become a part of the national mythology, there exists a need for an understanding of the base behind violent crime within the country. America has become more dangerous with higher rates of violent crimes than observed in neighboring countries. These high levels of violent crimes have compromised the physical safety and psychological well-being of individuals.

There is no single way that exists or the definition, classification, and measurement of the domain of violent behavior and violent crimes. Despite the apparent trend of an increase in the level of violent crimes across the year, determining which behaviors can be regarded as violent is viewed as difficult (Walby et al., 2015). This is because what is considered a violent crime highly depends on the social determinants of what is viewed as constituting violence. These social perspectives of violent behavior shift constantly and experience changes both on a temporal and organizational basis. Social constructions of violent behavior that have undergone institutionalization within the criminal law are viewed differently in other systems. Hence, a need exists for the provision of credible information that a professional can relate to while being simple enough for outsiders to read and enjoy.

More than ever, people have gained an interest in understanding personality disorders, their differences and how they affect the people around them (Walker, 2017). There is also a need for awareness of how changes in culture across time affect the behaviors of individuals and impact the existence of violent crime. The book fills this gap by providing comprehensive information regarding personality disorders and presenting distinctions between psychosis, psychopathy, sadism, and narcissism.

Book Organization

Within the book, each chapter is structured to stand alone while also complementing another chapter before and after it. The structure of the book mainly flows around the Stone’s created classification system referred to as Gradients of Evil. This is a measure used for the definition and classification of different serious violent offenders based on significant attributes. As with the 22-point continuum within the scale, there are twenty categories of violent crime discussed within the book. Hence, the book is organized around the morality of the main motivations of different crimes or repeated criminal acts. This involves a start with criminal motivations that can be justified to criminal motivations that have no basis for the level of cruelty that is involved. The content is structured to present violent crimes from least severe to most severe. As the authors follow the scale, they begin with a discussion of crime that exists within the lower limits on the scale and move to the upper limits of the scale. For instance, there is variance indicated between homicides based on self-defense, or feeling helpless in the face of abuse and those who commit crimes as a way to conceal crimes that have already been committed. As the book comes to an end, there is a detailed evaluation of violent crimes at the end of the scale which is violent behaviors based on sadistic desires to inflict prolonged pain on several victims.

Book Summary

General Summary

The New Evil provides a detailed hierarchy of evil behavior with the use of several cases as examples of categories along the continuum. This involves the presentation of well-based evidence, that for almost seventy years, there has been an emergence of specific types of violent crime that were not as prevalent before. The authors engage in the examination of the biological and psychiatric aspects that act as a platform for violent crimes such as serial murders, rape incidents, tortures, mass and spree murders, and other severe forms of violence. The book engages in an assessment of the impact of various environmental factors such as new technology, sociological aspects, cultural factors, and historical factors since the 1960s which may have created a solid base for ‘The New Evil’. This complemented by an explanation of how personality, psychosis, and other qualities significantly contributive to specific crimes, resulting in varying motives by different individuals involved. While based on Stone’s Gradient of Evil classification system, the book presents a clear definition of different violent crimes with the inclusion of distinct examples to enhance the understanding of each definition.

Chapter summaries

1st Chapter

The first chapter engages in the introduction to the gradation of the evil scale. There is a brief breakdown of the 22-point scale which ranges from justified homicide to torture. This chapter acts as a brief overview of what the rest of the chapters will look like. The reader is introduced to the scale and how it is used. There is also a presentation of ideas and beliefs regarding what happens within the mind of a serial killer. There is a further statement of the value of Dr. Stone’s scale in the comprehension of murderers. Lastly, the chapter makes it clear that the scale can only be applied in peaceful environments.

2nd Chapter

The second chapter assesses the first six categories within the evil scale. The first category is based on justifiable homicide or killing in self-defense and involves the assessment of the different motivations of these crimes. The next five categories involve an exploration of impulsive murders in individuals that do not have psychopathic characteristics. In this case, the second chapter involves jealous lovers, and immature individuals who commit crimes of passion, while the third category assesses those who have antisocial characteristics and display a willingness to assist other killers. Those who kill in self-defense but also display extreme provocation towards their victims are covered within the fourth category. The fifth category addresses desperate individuals who have been exposed to trauma and who kill other individuals but are remorseful. The authors explore impetuous murderers who do not possess psychopathic features.

3rd Chapter

The third chapter involves an assessment of the seventh and eighth categories within the scale. This chapter mainly covers violent crime is that of individuals with minimal psychopathic traits yet conduct highly sever murders. The seventh category covers individuals with high levels of narcissism who murder individuals next to them and mainly motivated by jealousy. The authors also demonstrate how narcissistic behaviors result in criminal actions. The eighth category, on the other hand, addresses non-psychopathic individuals with high levels of rage which also acts as their main motivation for killing. This also includes how rage is ignited. Hence, through a look at the middle level of the scale. The third chapter also shows the difference between psychopathic and narcissistic tendencies.

4th Chapter

The fourth chapter covers category 9 to 14 within the evil scale. These six categories involve individuals with psychopathic features who commit violent crimes and show malicious thoughts after the act (Stone et al., 2019). The ninth category revolves around jealous lovers that have strong psychopathic traits or are full-blown psychopaths. This is followed by the tenth that discusses killers that are extremely egocentric and kill individuals they believe to be in the way. An example of this is provided in the form of Susan Smith, who drowned her two kids. The eleventh category explores killers that are full psychopaths and murder those they believe cause interference. Stone et al. (2019) also assess psychopaths focus on obtaining power who only murder when there is no other option. The last two categories within this chapter look at angry psychopaths who at times commit several murders and self-centered psychopaths who structure schemes when it comes to murders and killing others.

5th Chapter

The fifth chapter covers the fifteenth and sixteenth categories. This involves a look at multiple murders in which the killers are found to have psychopath traits. The fifteenth category defines killers who are psychopaths and commit several murders. This also includes the assessment of the psychopathic tendencies of these killers. This is illustrated through the example of the murder of Sharon Tate. On the other hand, the sixteenth category addresses psychopathic individuals who commit several vicious acts. Some examples of these extremely violent acts include murder.

6th Chapter

The sixth chapter mainly involves an assessment of serial murder. This mainly involves the definition of serial killers, torturers, and sadists. Dr. Stone gets involved in the discussion of the increase in the frequency of serial murders since the 1960s. This involves a highlight of the various cultural, psychological and philosophical factors which have been highly contributive to this trend. There are several examples of serial murders and factors that may have contributed to their actions. Serial killers are defined based on their different characteristics and the environments around them. In general, this chapter is mainly focused on the high rates of serial murders within the country and the factors behind them.

7th Chapter

The seventh chapter mainly assesses the seventeenth category. Within this category, the authors provide a look at serial killers with sexual perversions. However, these killers do not engage in the torturing of their victims (Stone et al., 2019). An example used within this chapter is that of the son of Sam. Rape is identified as being the main motivation for violent crimes. The killers then engage in the murder of their victims as a way to hide the evidence of their acts. Hence, this is an assessment of how sexual desires can affect violent tendencies in individuals.

8th Chapter

In this chapter, the reader gains a look at torture-murderers. In this case, the torture element is not prolonged. This is the eighteenth category and involves a discussion of torture-murderers with psychopathic behaviors. The authors illustrate how murder acts as the central motivation for their violent acts. Hence, due to their focus on murder, torture is not extensive. This is unlike torture murderers whose main motivation is torturing their victims. The authors also explore the specific psychopathic tendencies that result in this form of violent behavior.

9th Chapter

The ninth chapter takes a look at the 19th to 21st categories within the evil scale. This involves the discussion of psychopaths who are motivated toward terrorist and intimidating acts. It also assesses torture-murderers who have distinct psychosis disorders, such as schizophrenia. This involves a brief description and a clear explanation of these psychosis disorders. There is a further discussion of psychopaths who commit extreme torture. These types of individuals are placed within the 21st category as they only torture their victims but do not commit. Therefore, extreme torture is presented as the main motivation for their violent acts.

10th Chapter

In this chapter, the authors, discuss torture-murderers who also psychopaths. This involves a look at how torture is their main motivation. In a large number of cases, the crimes have a sexual motivating factor. However, there is a further statement that sexual desires are not necessarily always involved (Stone et al., 2019). This involves a look at murderers such as John Gacy (Clown) and Jeffry Dahmer (cannibal). An extensive assessment of the Black Dahlia case is also conducted. This was the murder of Elizabeth Short in 1947.

11th Chapter

Within this chapter, the authors present an algorithm that facilitates the utilization of the scale. This is algorithm is simplified for easy understanding by the reader. The authors clearly explain how the algorithm can be utilized. This involves a step-by-step proves for its application. It also highlights the significance of the algorithm in determining the appropriate ranking for offenders within the scale. This way, the authors emphasize the scale as a significant tool in criminal psychology. Readers are also provided with an opportunity to categorize violent crimes using the algorithm.

12th Chapter

There is an assessment of the cultural changes which impact the patterns of violence. This is mainly a look at how the cultural environment affects an individual psychological structure. This involves how shifts within the cultural environment can prompt a change in behavior within individuals. This way, basic questions are addressed as to ways in which some actions by individuals may be considered as evil. Cultural factors are presented as a motivating factor for violent crimes. Hence, based on the conclusion presented, the cultural environment can be structured to facilitate better psychological health. The

The New Evil Book Report Name of Author Name of Professor Course Name Date of Submission

The New Evil Book Report 1. About The Authors

The new evil: Understanding the emergence of modern violent crime is written by two authors; Michael H. Stone and Brucato. Michael Stone is an American psychiatrist ad professor of Clinical Psychiatry at the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York City (‘Michael H. Stone’, 2019). This author has received vast recognition for his refining of the concept of psychopathy and has also provided support to the need for flexibility in the therapeutic approach for the treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder. Stone also received an award from the American Academy of Psychoanalysis in 2017, for his paper which described treatment recommendations for individuals with borderline personality disorder (‘Michael H. Stone’, 2019). Furthermore, Stone developed 22-point gradations of the Evil scale which is structured for the examination of the acts of violence involved in the provocation of the emotional reaction associated referred to as ‘evil’. Stone also wrote another book on the same subject in 2009 titled ‘The Anatomy of Evil’ (‘Michael H. Stone’, 2019). He has authored 11 other books and 250 articles in professional journals. Based on his experience and training, Stone presents valuable insight within this book (‘Michael H. Stone’, 2019). The second author alongside Stone is Dr. Gary Brucato. Brucato is a clinical psychologist, researcher, and author who has specialized in psychotic illness, and violent crime with the inclusion of mass, spree, and serial murder. He is also an associate research scientist in the Department of Psychiatry at Columbia University Irving Medical Center (CUIMC) in New York City (‘Gary Brucato, Ph.D.’, 2019). Brucato acts as an assistant director of the center of prevention and evaluation at the CUIMC, where he is involved in the clinical evaluation and grant-funded research of individuals who experience early psychotic symptoms (‘Gary Brucato, Ph.D.’, 2019). Brucato has been known for his development of novel screening measures for violence and his analysis of different motivations for acts of mass murder. Hence, his skills and expertise in psychopathology, personality assessment, and psychological assessment have been critical for the presentation of ideas within the book.

2. Background Information

The New Evil provides insightful discussions regarding the gradation of evil, the different sub-sets of murder, and their historical increase. Without exception, facts and figures indicate an increase in the level of violent crime across the country. There has been a steady elevation in violent crime with an expectation that this trend will only increase in the future. This is mainly linked to issues such as an increase in personality disorders such as anxiety, elevated drug abuse, and an inability to properly treat any development disorder that may act as a base for violent crime. Murder rates are far higher than they have been in the last two decades along with a significant rise in the level of rape incidents, robberies, and assaults (Walker, 2017). As violence appears to become a part of the national mythology, there exists a need for an understanding of the base behind violent crime within the country. America has become more dangerous with higher rates of violent crimes than observed in neighboring countries. These high levels of violent crime have compromised the physical safety and psychological well-being of individuals.

There is no single way that exists or the definition, classification, and measurement of the domain of violent behavior and violent crimes. Despite the apparent trend of an increase in the level of violent crimes across the year, determining which behaviors can be regarded as violent is viewed as difficult (Walby et al., 2015). This is because what is considered a violent crime highly depends on the social determinations of what is viewed as constituting violence. These social perspectives of violent behavior shift constantly and experience changes both on a temporal and organizational basis. Social constructions of violent behavior that have undergone institutionalization within the criminal law are viewed differently in other systems. Hence, a need exists for the provision of credible information that a professional can relate to while being simple enough for laypeople to read and enjoy. To enable an understanding of the different types of crimes based on varying social institutions and historical development, the book provides well-structured examples of the different types of offenders existent in each type of category.

More than ever, people have gained an interest in understanding personality disorders, their differences, and how they affect the people around them (Walker, 2017). There also exists a need for awareness of how changes in culture across time affect the behaviors of individuals and impact the existence of violent crime. The book fills this gap by providing comprehensive information regarding personality disorders and presenting distinctions between psychosis, psychopathy, sadism, and narcissism. This also involves a look at ways in which factors in society enhance the probability of violent crimes and violent behavior. By providing details of a criminal’s actions, the book addresses the social need that individuals possess to be aware of violent behaviors around them. Therefore, the book is not only significant within the sociological realm but also creates a well-defined historical map of the development of violent crimes across the years.

3. Book Organization

Within the book, each chapter is structured to stand alone while also complementing another chapter before and after it. The structure of the book mainly flows around the stone’s created classification system referred to as Gradients of Evil. This is a measure used for the definition and classification of different serious violent offenders based on significant attributes. As with the 22-point continuum within the scale, there are twenty categories of violent crime discussed within the book. Hence, the book is organized around the morality of the main motivations of different crimes or repeated criminal acts. This involves a start with criminal motivations that can be justified to criminal motivations that have no basis for the level of cruelty that is involved. Hence, the content is structured to present violent crimes from least severe to most severe. As the authors follow the scale, they begin with a discussion of crime that exists within the lower limits on the scale and move to the upper limits of the scale. For instance, there is variance indicated between homicides based on self-defense, or feeling helpless in the face of abuse and those who commit crimes as a way to conceal crimes that have already been committed. As the book comes to an end, there is a detailed evaluation of violent crimes at the end of the scale which is violent behaviors based on sadistic desires to inflict prolonged pain on several victims. This way the book provides a seamless distinction of the various categories of violent crime from its beginning to its end enabling the easy comprehension of the reader and a better comprehension of why violent crimes cannot simply b placed under one category. Book Summary

i) General Summary

The New Evil provides a detailed hierarchy of evil behavior with the use of several cases as examples of categories along the continuum. This involves the presentation of well-based evidence, that for almost seventy years, there has been an emergence of specific types of violent crime that were not as prevalent before. The authors engage in the examination of the biological and psychiatric aspects that act as a platform for violent crimes such as serial murders, serial rape incidents, tortures, mass and spree murders, and other severe forms of violence. An argument is presented that changes in the moral aspects of culture result in the development of violent behaviors, such that there should be a consideration of ‘evil’ as a validated area of inquiry. The book engages in an assessment of the impact of various environmental factors such as new technology, sociological aspects, cultural factors, and historical factors since the 1960s which may have created a solid base for ‘the new evil’. This complemented by an explanation of the ways in which personality, psychosis, and other qualities which as significantly contributive to specific crimes, resulting in varying motives by the different individuals involves. The book also takes part in the exploration of the potential ways in which violent crimes can be prevented. While based on Stone’s Gradient of Evil classification system, the book presents a clear definition of different violent crimes with the inclusion of distinct examples to enhance the understanding of each definition.

ii) Chapter summaries

As stated before, the book has 22 chapters based on the 22- continuum scale presented by Stone, who is one of the authors (Stone & Brucato, 2019). The first chapter is based on justifiable homicide or killing in self-defense and involves the assessment of the different motivations of these crimes. The next five chapters involve an exploration of impulsive murders in individuals that do not have psychopathic characteristics. In this case, the second chapter involves jealous lovers, and immature individuals who commit crimes of passion, while the third chapter assesses those who have antisocial characteristics and display a willingness to assist other killers. Those who kill in self-defense but also display extreme provocation towards their victims are covered within the fourth chapter and the following chapter address desperate individuals exposed to trauma who kill other individuals but are remorseful. Within the sixth chapter, the authors explore impetuous murderers who do not possess psychopathic features. The next category of violent crime is that of individuals with minimal psychopathic traits yet conduct highly sever murders and conducts two chapters. The seventh chapter covers individuals with high levels of narcissism who murder individuals next to them and mainly motivated by jealousy. The eighth chapter, on the other hand, addresses non-psychopathic individuals with high levels of rage which also acts as their main motivation for killing. The next six chapters involve individuals with psychopathic features who commit violent crimes and show malicious thoughts after the act (Stone et al., 2019). The ninth chapter revolves around jealous lovers that have strong psychopathic traits or are full-blown psychopaths. This is followed by a chapter that discusses killers that are extremely egocentric and kill individuals they believe to be in the way. The eleventh chapter explores killers that are full psychopaths and murder those they believe cause interference with the twelfth chapter assesses psychopaths’ focus on obtaining power who only murder when there is no other option. The last two chapters look at angry psychopaths who at times commit several murders and self-centered psychopaths who structure schemes when it comes to murders and killing others.

In the category of multiple murders in which the killers are found to have psychopath traits, the fifteenth chapter defines killers who are psychopaths and commit several murders while the sixteenth chapter addresses psychopathic individuals who commit several vicious acts, such as murder. The last five chapters involve the definition of serial killers, torturers, and sadists. Within the seventeenth chapter, the authors provide a look at sexually perverse serial killers who kill to hide evidence and do not engage in the torturing of their victims (Stone et al., 2019). In the next chapter, the reader gains a look at torture- murderers in which the torture element is not prolonged. The nineteenth chapter involves the discussion of psychopaths who are motivated towards terrorist and intimidating acts while the twentieth chapter assesses torture-murderers who have distinct psychosis disorders, such as schizophrenia. There is a discussion of psychopaths who commit extreme torture but have not committed murder within the twenty-first chapter. Lastly, the authors- in the twenty-second chapter, discuss torture-murderers who also psychopaths, who have torture as their main motivation and are not necessarily sexualized (Stone et al., 2019). In each of these chapters, the authors provide in-depth details regarding related case histories of some individuals with relation to each category. The names and facts within cases are all exposed as these cases were prevalent and displayed in several media channels. Despite the distinctive nature of each chapter, there are still some insights that are integrated across these chapters.

4. Book Evaluation

i) Scholarship

The authors utilize research articles and police reports for the presentation of evidence of the distinct forms of violent behavior. There is an intricate integration of data obtained from the journals and research articles used for an examination of the biological and psychiatric factors which exist behind the violent crime conducted by specific individuals. Through the clear indication of specific incidents that are clear public knowledge, which includes specific names, acts, and dates, both authors clearly demonstrate the motivation behind the enhancement in the level of violent crime since the 1960s while also explaining how personalities, psychosis, and other qualities are contributive to specific crimes, but with differing motives. The authors also engage in the examination of writings and artwork by widely known serial killers and use this information to provide insights into the logic that acts as a driving factor for criminal behavior.

ii) Strengths and Weaknesses

• Tone and Style The book provides insightful discussions into the different subsets of murders such as stalkers and school shooters. The book has a professional tone yet is well-structured to enable laypeople to easily understand the information that is presented. However, the use of the term ‘evil’ may be highly disconcerting. This is because the term seems judgmental and moralistic while criminology-based data should have a more clinical and detached approach.
• Importance of the Book This book acts as an essential addition to the study of violent crime and the motivations behind them. By using their clinical expertise and skills, Brucato and Stone explore acts of violence to provide the research of psychopathy with an increased understanding of the ways in which psychosis and behavior disorders affect the ability of an individual to commit violent crimes. Based on the information provided, the book acts as an essential reference for the treatment of individuals based on an understanding of their motivations. However, applied psychologists may show more interest in behaviors or acts that can be statistically tested to obtain proof of existence and accurate definitions. Therefore, other than the provision of a scale for definition, the authors should engage in the development of a statistical measure for applied psychologists.
• Value of the Book for the intended audience The structure of the book is valuable to its audience by challenging them to increase their concern regarding the level of violence that exists. This also involves a reflection of the causes of violence and a recognition of the collective responsibility associated with the development of violent crime in the country.
• Presentation of Information Within the book, the authors provide a comprehensive and conceptually clear framework on the typology of the violence. Through the use of extensive case studies, there is an exploration and presentation of insights and differing motives and patterns of homicide and violent behavior. The process of classification used within the book provides a clear understanding of the information. The identification of important elements that things have in common for their classification of categories assists in creating an order on a miscomprehended aspect of human behavior. Through the division of motivations for murders and other significant crimes, the framework for the presentation of information is well-structured and properly organized for understanding by the audience.
• Soundness of Conclusions The conclusions made in each of the chapters present a clear base of the motivations which underlie violent crime. This enhances the comprehension of violence and the increase of the destructive and violent criminal behavior since the 1960s (Stone et al., 2019). Each conclusion is specifically structured to indicate a difference between psychosis, psychopathy, sadism, and narcissism. As each chapter starts with the definition of scales, and a provision of examples. The conclusion that is finally arrived at provides the reader with the ability to assign categories along the dozens of examples provided to assess their level of understanding.

5. Relation of the Book to the Class

The New Evil presents itself as an essential source of information within the fields of criminology and forensic psychology. The research presented within the book is in-depth and the format is unique and specialized in its way. This results in the provision of satisfying answers making at an essential reading in regards to the introspection into the overall study of criminal behavior. The profound depth of the book characterizes it as an essential reference book for psychologists interested in criminal behavior. The book provides a detailed example of the type of offender within each category and acts as the best source for reviewing information regarding personality disorders and the distinctions between psychological disorders such as psychosis and psychopathy. Through its methodical descent into the psychological features of individuals who conduct violent criminal acts and the motivations that exist behind their actions. Therefore, the book’s content and organization are highly relevant to the class through its presentation of ideas and evidence related to criminal psychology and psychopathy.

References

1. Gary Brucato, Ph.D. (2019). Retrieved 23 November 2019, from https://www.columbiapsychiatry.org/profile/gary-brucato- phd
2. Michael H. Stone. (2019). Retrieved 23 November 2019, from https://www.amazon.com/Michael-H.- Stone/e/B001HCVKXQ%3Fref=dbs_a_mng_rwt_scns_sha re
3. Stone, M. H., & Brucato, G. (2019). The New Evil: Understanding the Emergence of Modern Violent Crime. Rowman & Littlefield. Walby, S., Towers, J., & Francis, B. (2015).
4. Is violent crime increasing or decreasing? A new methodology to measure repeat attacks making visible the significance of gender and domestic relations. British Journal of Criminology, 56(6), 1203-1234. Walker, D. (2017).