Category: Vaccination

Matthew F. Daley and Jason M. Glanz created an article named “Straight Talk about Vaccination”, and by analyzing the article, I agree with it a hundred percent on the importance of child vaccination. Vaccination is primarily important for the lifespan of children and babies. Medical officials consider vaccines to be safe and effective, because it is a way to prevent future diseases and protect the adolescence from encountering them. This article gives factual information in regard to diseases that children have encountered because of the parental decisions to deny vaccination.

The article not only explains the importance of vaccination but also discusses why anti-vaxxers are against it. It gives leading information and facts towards the importance of vaccination in today’s society and gives real world situations that have happened due to the lack of vaccines. Many adults choose not to get their children vaccinated because they believe that it has some major side effects towards their children and the possibility of life-long term problems. However, because of social media many adults believe that vaccines are dangerously poisoning because of what they read on the internet towards vaccination which in the end turns out to be misleading information.

As advised in the article, “In 2015 a large multistate measles outbreak started at a California amusement park, and many of those infected were unvaccinated children” (Daley, Glanz 2, 2). It stated a real-life situation that had actually happened on how the health of children could be easily be endangered and how contagious measles is. Not being vaccinated also puts premature babies’ life on the line because they are the most vulnerable to infection. We could be put in jeopardy by not being vaccinated, which also could cause harm to our infant children with just a touch or a kiss which in the end could be deadly. This outbreak that was mentioned should be an eyeopener and a movement to get children vaccinated because other children could be at risk.

A very good point was made by Daley and Glanz, because they conducted a study in the state of Colorado in regard to unvaccinated and vaccinated children. They stated that their investigations “… compared the risk of various vaccine-preventable diseases in children whose parents had refused or delayed vaccines with the risk in children whose parents had them vaccinated” (Daley, Glanz 5, 5). And by looking at their results they argued that unvaccinated children were more prone to catch common diseases rather than vaccinated children that were from the same communities. And obviously it is the parent’s decision to have their children vaccinated but most parents are misinformed. And since the antivaccine movement that occurred in 1998 a lot of parents still today believe that there is a lot of potential risks due to vaccinations.

A major argument stated in the article came from the anti-vaccine movement proposed by Andrew J. Wakefield and advised, “… measles vaccine could cause autism in susceptible children” (Daley, Glanz 7, 7). Daley and Glanz opinions advised, “In the years since, more than a dozen studies have convincingly shown that vaccines do not cause autism”. This is very convincing and should be researched thoroughly by anti-vaxxers before jumping to conclusions that vaccines can cause disorders. I agree that vaccines don’t cause autism because there are many theories that speculate that autism does not result from vaccines. Also, believing non reliable sources such as social media causes a major speculation that vaccines cause much more than autism. I have social media such as Facebook and most of the articles that are presented regarding health issues don’t include actual facts and are based off personal beliefs. If we are concerned whether it’s about vaccinations or other health problems, it is important to sit and talk to a doctor or a physician and ask questions so that we can get reliable answers.

This article supports the importance of vaccinations which I agree that vaccines should be mandatory. It gives various reasons that vaccines should be condoned because it can result to serious diseases such as measles. The authors provide evidence that give readers factual information in regard to their investigations. They show the lack of vaccines in a community and the comparisons between vaccinated and non-vaccinated children. What was most convincing was that autism is not actually caused by vaccines, the authors gave reasons that society shouldn’t embrace these speculations because it was found falsifying. Ultimately, one thing that should’ve been mentioned in this article was that no vaccine is a hundred percent curable. But understanding the causes and effects of non-vaccinations as this article had mentioned, there could be ways to keep children and communities safe and prevent disease outbreaks.

There has been a huge achievement in eradicating communicable diseases due to healthy and proper food, sanitization but the major factor are the vaccination programs that are introduced as aDue to vaccination programs, major infectious diseases such as smallpox, tetanus are eradicated (Schlipkoter & Flahault, 2010). However, sometimes vaccination cannot help people with impaired immune systems as it depends on a person’s immunity to handle the vaccine.

As the immune system varies from person to person based on age factor (Ogbogu & Robinson, 2019).Vaccinations should be mandatory as there are many diseases that affect the body and leads to death and these deaths are preventative as the prior vaccination can be doneafter childbirth or at the early stages in childhood.If we do not consider such serious immunization practices there can be a flow of disease as one non-vaccinated person suffering from the disease can harm other populations as Vaccination should be taken seriously as there are some consequences, where poor people cannot get access to proper health services and may die due to common infectious diseases that can The need for vaccination also protects the child’s right, sometimes a child wants to get vaccinated but the parents refuse, but when it’s mandatory it can be added asa positive decision taken towards child protection (Ogbogu & Robinson, 2019).

According to the estimated proportion made by Schlipkoter and Flahault (2010) 2.4 million children meet to death due to communicable diseases, whose solution is vaccination.Moreover, these can affect the country’s overall economy too.Mandatory vaccination can also prevent consequences like, in March 2016 over 100 people at Stollery ChildrenHospital in Edmonton got infected due to measles which is an easily preventable disease if vaccination is taken by an individual.When inspected it came to light that the infection was spread from a child who was not vaccinated and was admitted at the hospital for overnight evaluation if suchpolicies of mandatory vaccination are made then these can of population who is at risk of such diseases, can get help and many lives can be saved(Ogbogu & Robinson, 2019).In Ogbogu and Robinson’s (2019) dialogue according to US Centers for disease control and prevention if proper vaccination was given then the children who were born between the year1994 to 2013 will not encounter or will prevent 322 million illness cases, 21 million hospitalizations, and 732,000 death ratios in Canada.

The positive outcomes of the vaccination can be seen and taken into consideration making it mandatory, there are studies proving it such as vaccine of Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib)is proven to be cost-benefit and was linked to past economic benefits less ratio of death that is health care gains, reduction in the cost of healthcare, whereas no onenoticed that it has got some more important and amazing advantages, that is overall economy is elevated as the number of mental disabilities and physical disabilities got reduced, peoples’ behaviorgot better or we can say mental health became good as the vaccine gave boost to economic productivity in terms of fertility reduction as the vaccination gives better growth to According to the study, there were 66 out of 100,00 children among the age of 5 years suffering from Hib disease one year before being vaccinated, which reduced to47 out 100,000 after one year of getting vaccination and further it declined to 7.6 out of 100,000 after 3 years of getting vaccination (Cowgill et al., 2006).

Although if vaccination is taken seriously there are some negative aspects such as vaccination program for smallpox did great work and eradicated it but raised the new largest infectious disease, known as a major death-causing disease in infants till date.Another aspect we got to see from the same study is that although the campaign carried out by the World Health Organization (WHO) to eradicate the infection of poliomyelitishas gone through great success it was unable to eradicate completely. In their study, another thing that showed up was that due to delay in inventing new and better vaccines the time taken to make vaccines better was the timethat caused numerous preventable deaths, there were achievements in destroying tropical diseases but some diseases like malaria and tuberculosis are still threat to the entire world (Schlipkoter & Flahault, 2010).However, vaccines are the most basic and effective health tools for the people as they protect not only one or two people but the protect the whole communities by.

Therefore vaccines cannot be blamed for side effects that sometimes can be diagnosed, as the vaccine is not only responsible but there are many more factors responsible for itlike sometimes even the illness itself induces side effects that can be fatal (Pasquale et al., 2016).In a nutshell, vaccination can be considered as the short easy treatment that does not involve a long process for a person to get immunized or to be prepared forfighting with the disease that may encounter in the future.Vaccines should be done better to fight with the diseases that are till date not curable like malaria, tuberculosis.Development should be made for the communities that are unaware of vaccination programs by carrying out campaigns that involve free vaccination, due to these poor people will also getgreat help as well as resistance to some of the vaccine-preventable diseases.

Every year, the World Health Organization lists their top ten threats to world health. In 2019, the WHO yearly list included air pollution and climate change, noncommunicable diseases, influenza, antimicrobial resistance, and vaccine hesitancy (Ten health issues WHO will tackle this year).Vaccine hesitancy is defined as “a delay in acceptance or refusal of vaccines despite availability of vaccination services” (The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health). The beliefs behind vaccine opposition are that vaccines are infective, vaccination is a patriarchal, governmental invention, they are unnatural and other natural ways should be used to fight against diseases, and their danger is being undermined by health systems and government institutions (Rossen, Hurlstone, Dunlop, & Lawrence, 2019). Around 90% of countries in the world are affected by vaccine hesitancy, such as developing economies of India and China, in growing economies such as Greece, Vietnam, and Saudi Arabia, and high-income countries such as the United States (Shukla, 2019). There are many offered solutions to combat vaccine hesitancy, but the most effective solution is done with the combination of the physician level and community level. A combination of informed physicians and tailored community programs could help address the global health threat.

While the history of vaccination started began as early as 10th century B.C. in China where inoculations were first recorded, vaccination became mandatory in 1853 when England implemented an act ordering mandatory vaccination (Kate, et al., 2019). Vaccines are among the greatest public health achievements in health and medicine (Edwards & Hackell, 2016) “Anti-vaxxers”, the colloquial term for those who refuse vaccines, have been in existence since The Vaccination Act of 1853. The issue of vaccine hesitancy is nothing new, but it has become a global pandemic in recent years, with its appearance on the World Health Organization’s list of top threats worldwide. In Canada, there is about 3% of parents who refused vaccinations for their children but more than three times of parents consider themselves vaccine hesitant (Shen & Dubey, 2019). A study was conducted in 15 countries to assess responses regarding vaccine hesitancy, among them being Panama, Zimbabwe, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Armenia, Belgium, India, Japan, Malaysia, and the Philippines. The study does not name each country specifically to their perspective but common perspectives of vaccine hesitancy in these countries were: vaccine hesitancy is linked to particular geographic groups rather than an issue for the whole country, the there is a lack of perceived benefit of vaccination, the influence of “Internet stories”, and religious groups who do not believe in the benefit of vaccines (Dubé, Gagnon, Nickels, Jeram, & Shuster, 2014). These mentioned subgroups are not uniform across the entire world, therefore appropriate intervention to combat vaccine hesitancy should be individualized to areas. The most effective solutions include a trusting and educated physician, as well as community wide programs that address specific questions and concerns (Leask, Willaby, & Kaufman, 2014).

The prevalence of vaccine hesitancy in the world shows that public acceptance of anything, even those scientifically proven over the course of many decades, isn’t automatically a given. There are multiple solutions to combat vaccine hesitancy, but the safest and most effective way include emphasizing the importance of healthcare rpvodiers, as well as implementing immunization programs that are tailored to the specific demographic. Parents reject or accept a vaccine depending on provider interaction. Physicians should be available and able to address specific questions from parents regarding vaccines, whether it be about its composition or production (Edwards & Hackell, 2016). Nurses and alternative medicine practitioners are also crucial voices in vaccine decision making as well and should also able to ask any questions that concerned parents have. There are online vaccination sources that can be utilized by health care providers in order to provide update to date data (Shen & Dubey, 2019). Physician-patient communication is a vital and relatively cost-effective way to combat vaccine hesitancy, though it is not a fool proof solution. Physicians are generally only available during doctors’ appointments and the hesitancy to vaccines could mean that people are already hesitant to go to the doctor. This is best combined with a community-based intervention.

Social interactions are just as important to addressing vaccine hesitancy as provider interactions. Vaccine hesitancy or rejection is often specified to clusters in communities with alternative or religious views. Solutions and programs should be specifically tailored to these specific clusters. These community-based interventions are used to “build try and increase community participation in populations that are difficult to reach with mass media or standard health services” (Leask, Willaby, & Kaufman, 2014). In 2011, the European Technical Advisory Group of Experts on Immunization pushed for a program, called Tailoring Immunization Programmes (TIP) in order to develop strategies to promote infant and child vaccination to increase immunizations and decreasing the risk of diseases in that region. TIP has been applied to Bulgaria, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. When a serious measles outbreak occurred in Bulgaria between 2009 and 2011 resulting in 24 deaths and almost 25,000 cases, TIP was utilized to develop three strategic solutions to address hesitancy. These strategies were to strengthen the role of health mediators and support medical practitioners, promote trustworthy information and sources regarding child vaccination, and improve relations between medical practitioner and parent/guardian (Butler & Macdonald, 2015). If TIP were implemented on a global level, it must be developed specifically to regions; training, supplies, and lessons should all be individualized. The World Health Organization already supports the implementation of TIP globally but its specifics have not been developed. This solution combines the utilization of community participation and physician/patient relationships.

Vaccine hesitancy is not a modern problem, but its prevalence in the 21st century has had modern causes. Webpages and social media have been a source of false information and travels quicker than in previous generations. This questionable information is being shared between families and friends, with personal beliefs and lack of knowledge affecting the trust of vaccines in a negative way. The social media age has had a significant affect on the lack of confidence in vaccines, one of the reasons why people choose not to vaccinate. In middle-to-lower-income countries also have the issue of the inconvenience in accessing vaccines. In order to combat the many issues causing vaccine hesitancy, solutions must be specific to the area where vaccine hesitancy is being addressed. There is no cookie cutter way to solve this global issue, especially because of the various economies and societies where vaccine hesitancy needs to be addressed. Vaccine hesitancy is threatening to reverse the historical scientific achievements spanning centuries in reducing the spread of diseases, as well as eradicating sicknesses that were once prevalent. The collaborative solutions between highlighting the importance of provider and patient as well as community-based interventions would hopefully keep the scientific advancements of vaccination going. Failing to do so would continue to greatly affect the future health of children, immunocompromised people, and even simply healthy adults.

References

1. Butler, R., & Macdonald, N. E. (2015). Diagnosing the determinants of vaccine hesitancy in specific subgroups: The Guide to Tailoring Immunization Programmes (TIP). Vaccine, 33(34), 4176–4179. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.04.038
2. Dubé, E., Gagnon, D., Nickels, E., Jeram, S., & Schuster, M. (2014). Mapping vaccine hesitancy—Country-specific characteristics of a global phenomenon. Vaccine, 32(49), 6649–6654. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.09.039
3. Edwards, K. M., & Hackell, J. M. (2016, September 1). Countering Vaccine Hesitancy. Retrieved from https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2016/08/25/peds.2016-2146.
4. Kate, Ozkurt, I., Evan, Than, B., Dobson, P., Pendse, M. B., … Brookings Institution. (2019, September 11). The anti-vaccination movement. Retrieved from https://measlesrubellainitiative.org/anti-vaccination-movement/.
5. Leask, J., Willaby, H. W., & Kaufman, J. (2014). The big picture in addressing vaccine hesitancy. Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics, 10(9), 2600–2602. doi: 10.4161/hv.29725
6. Rossen, I., Hurlstone, M., Dunlop, P., & Lawrence, C. (2019). Accepters, fence sitters, or rejecters: Moral profiles of vaccination attitudes. Social Science & Medicine, 224, 23–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.01.038
7. Shen, S. C., & Dubey, V. (2019, March). Addressing vaccine hesitancy: Clinical guidance for primary care physicians working with parents. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6515949/.
8. Shukla, M. (2019, March 12). The Global Threat of Vaccine Hesitancy. Retrieved from https://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/global-threat-vaccine-hesitancy.
9. Ten health issues WHO will tackle this year. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.who.int/emergencies/ten-threats-to-global-health-in-2019.
10. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health. (2019). Vaccine hesitancy: a generation at risk. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 3(5), 281. doi: 10.1016/s2352-4642(19)30092-6

Introduction

Anti vaccine movement is a social movement where anti vaccine activists dissent over the use of vaccine and vaccine activists protest and create awareness about why it’s a threat to the society. The problems arising from the anti-vaccine movement, where people protest against the use of vaccines and how this movement can result in critical health diseases. For instance, numerous parents are preventing their children from getting vaccinated due to the concern that it could become risky, like, it “causes” autism or due to their personal or philosophical reason.

This social movement demonstrates the problems anti-vaccine activists are going for and the health issues non-vaccinated individuals could face which has to be overseen. Measles is a harmful disease which resulted in numerous death in Europe. The project suggests that people or children are refraining from being vaccinated has the risk of outbreaks and health issues, and is claimed to be one of the global threats.

Objectives

The anti-vaccine movement has been circulating often, mostly on the internet, regarding people’s different beliefs of the cause of vaccination. People have been debating which method is safe and ethical. Generally, social and political issues consistently keep me curious, so I wanted to discover more insights about vaccination and the entire issue.

Moreover, there are ways to investigate and document the issue by acknowledging and contrasting unvaccinated people with vaccinated people, and to seek for scientifically-proven theories. This project shall allow the readers to grasp and gain further knowledge of this specific cultural issue in a clear and organized idea and interpretation.

Approach

In essence, I will have to research further regarding the topic, investigate and utilize authentic scientific informations and inquire doctors’ opinions, though, I have ensured to have plenty of knowledge by reading books, articles and videos about the significance and the other aspects of vaccination and the anti-vaccine movement, yet, I think it requires more research for better. In addition, a great idea would be is to seek for people’s opinions and awareness in their own perspective, especially the two sides of the issue. Necessarily, using technical disciplines is a great way to showcase the project, overall.

First and foremost, it will be a splendid idea to go with literature considering writing is a great opportunity to help readers comprehend the subject matters and issues.

Secondly, using illustration will be beneficial for this project since digital art has its uniqueness to illustrate ideas and messages.

Lastly, I would love to take the approach to go with web production by combining all of the technical discipline above with creating a website to form a final adept project.

Conclusion

Taking everything into consideration, it’s crucial to point out why the anti-vaccine movement is one of the global threats in the world and the fact that it’s prompting people to believe that vaccination is harmful or problematic.

From my point of view, this project will be able to enable readers to have a grasp on this particular social movement, the dark sides of prevention and the perspective of anti-vaccine activists further. Nonetheless, there are more reasons and stories behind this movement which implies that there is so much more to discover and to comprehend both sides regarding this topic.

Introduction:

Throughout history many outbreaks of diseases occurred to leave behind them millions of dead bodies, some even went so far to taint the health of most of the population. Fear and agony were spreading alongside it, stealing children and loved ones and forcing people to immigrate out of this thought-to-be-cursed land …. I will be discussing the major, and most devastating epidemics across history, their causes, what lead to the spread of the disease in the first place, and what effects did each epidemic had brought with it.

Overview:

All huge outbreaks of lethal diseases in human history have been called plagues to emphasize how unpleasant and frustrating these outbreaks were. However, whenever actual bubonic plague makes its grand appearance, quarantine measures are issued, panic and stress spreads alongside the epidemic, and people flee the area. With its unfortunately high mortality rate and sadly rapid spread, bubonic plague remains one of the most severe outbreaks of disease the history has ever witnessed. Although plague is primarily a disease of rats and other tiny animals(zoonosis), especially fleas found on top of rodents, its effects on humans are significant and severe. Moreover, it has been spread widely by humans through the accidental transport of rats and their fleas. Finally, it has been intentionally exploited as a form of biowarfare since the first appearance of the Black Death in the Crimea, through World War II, and it may be used again in the future.

Symptoms:

Nowadays named bubonic plague because of the painful, swelled, abscessed lymph nodes (buboes), it produces, bubonic plague was also called the Black Death during a catastrophic pandemic in the mid-fourteenth century. The name most likely originated because patients with severe form of the disease developed septicemia, which is a widespread(systemic) contamination of the blood. This, in turn, leads to a syndrome formally known as disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), in which multiple hemorrhages and patches of gangrene develop in the skin, turning large areas of the body black.

Transmission and spread:

Bubonic Plague does not normally spread directly from person to person; its spread caused by small animal hosts, most of which rats and their fleas. Hungry fleas feed on diseased or rather infected rats, when these rats die, those fleas can hop on to a human host. Bubonic Plague can be spread directly from person to person when it leads to pneumonia(pneumonic plague) and, although the same little creatures that cause the bubonic form of the disease can result in pneumonia, severe lung disease does not occur often enough to rely on airborne pathogens to purposely spread the disease. If these bacteria-containing droplets are breathed in by another person they can cause pneumonic plague. Human-to-human transmission is rare and typically requires direct and close contact with the person with pneumonic plague. The septicemia that is found in tremendously sick patients can spread the disease without the assistance of rats. A flea directly feeding on the septic blood of a plague patient could pick up enough numbers of microorganisms to infect another human with its bite. Although primarily a disease of rats and other small mammals, and their fleas, bubonic plague is spread from location to other by human travel and commerce, a perfect route for the migration of the animal causatives of the disease.

Dr. Shibasaburo Kitasato apparently was the first to observe the bubonic plague up-close but published his findings in Japanese and English. Dr. Alexandre Yersin found the same microorganism and recognized its role, but he published his findings in French through a leading scientific journal of the time that quickly published short reports. hence, his work appeared first. Yersin’s priority of publication made him claim the credit of this amazing finding, and in 1970, the organism was named Yersinia pestis.

Even though the success of rat-catching campaigns, it is worth noting that reducing the rat numbers could have significantly increased the wide spread of plague, at least for a short time. eradicating rats minimizes the reservoir of infection, but leaves starving fleas looking for a brand-new source for their delicious bloody meal. Humans are the perfect alternate source of nutritious blood. Thus, humans are more prone to get infected by fleas bites as a result of the elimination of the rat population, at least until the population of infected fleas dies off. In many Middle Ages epidemics, the documents show that the finding of many dead rats in a community was almost immediately followed by outbreak of human cases of plague. (The New Mexican couple who recently became ill with plague in New York City had found a dead rat on their property just before leaving for New York, but they were not aware that they had been bitten by its fleas.

Vaccinations:

Catching the microorganism Yersinia pestis can be prevented in individuals through vaccination. However, vaccination can’t eradicate plague completely. Because of its rodent reservoir, the infection can rise again whenever unvaccinated individuals appear in a given vaccinated area. To prevent any cases of the disease One hundred percent of a population must be vaccinated. The vaccination of American troops in Vietnam stopped the spread of infection in the troops, but it did occur in the native population.

• Smallpox:
• Cholera:
• Coronavirus:

malaria and yellow fever:

overview:

At the time of the 1878 Memphis epidemic, the germ theory of disease was becoming accepted and the science of bacteriology established. However, the possibility of insect transmission of an infectious agent had not yet been demonstrated, and the concept was ridiculed. Malaria and yellow fever are two devastating diseases spread by the bite of specific species of mosquitoes.

malaria

even so treatment and prevention methods has been discovered since 1633, malaria cases are still showing worldwide and are a significant cause of death, mostly in youth. For along time, malaria was thought to have been the result of harmful emissions from decaying organic substance(miasmas). The observation that the most harmful emissions arose from swampy regions was based on the frequent occurrence of the disease near those areas. Because another name for such airborne toxic emissions were mal–aria or bad air, the term malaria used to refer to all diseases thought to be a result of miasmas.

Origin:

The first clue of malaria parasites was found in mosquitoes preserved inside an amber from the Paleogene period that are approximately 30 million years old. The malaria parasite is similar to one that affects Old World apes. The disease is thought to have widely advanced from the rain forest of tropical Africa, migrating slowly into the Nile Valley and the Fertile Crescent, and then to the northern shore of the Mediterranean. Despite that the evidence for the presence of malaria in Greece after 500 BCE is convincing, it is uncertain when it first appeared in that area. Evidence for malaria in ancient Egypt is much less abundant, but one very interesting possible example is the mummy of a weaver named Nacht, who was a servant of the Pharaoh Setnakht, first ruler of the twentieth dynasty.

Cause and symptoms:

The time the symptoms start to show up is based on the time it takes for the causative organisms to fully mature and breed in the red blood cells. Hence, once mature they cause the red cells to rupture, releasing huge number of tiny organisms into the blood, leading to fever and chills, therefore, permitting the organisms to enter other red blood cells and restart the cycle again. Statistically, the most common organism, Plasmodium vivax, takes about 48 hours to complete the cycle, and thus the fever and chills take place every other day (relapsing fever). This loop or cycle was called “tertian” by the Ancient Greeks. Thus, the following chill/fever took place on the third day of the new cycle.

Malaria today:

Malaria is still the most relevant parasitic disease affecting humans. Unfortunately, it is known to be present in ninety countries, with more than 300 million cases occurring each year, most of which are children. Factors unrelated to human activities can extend the disease, mostly wet climates, which greatly affects the breeding regions for the mosquito. Global warming may be a factor in proliferating the range of insect vectors and increasing the areas in which the vector can remain.

Yellow fever:

Although yellow fever has probably always existed in tropical areas of the ancient World, it did not appear in the Newspapers until the middle of the seventeenth century, it has probably originated across the Atlantic from Africa by the slave trade. Yellow fever lasted as an endemic in tropical areas of the Western Hemisphere and, away of those regions, it often led to problematic and severe summertime epidemics extended primarily by travelers.

Cause and symptoms:

Yellow fever is a widely spread infection, some form of viral hepatitis that causes massive death of the liver tissues and results in severe jaundice (which causes yellowish skin and mucus membranes), hence the name. The disease is propagated by a mosquito that can survive a whole year in tropical areas.

The observations of Dr. Carlos Finlay of Cuba had a great influence on the Reed Commission. Finlay, a native of Havana, had graduated from Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia in 1855, then returned to Havana to practice. He was much loved and respected as a person and a physician, and despite his busy practice, he found time to study the problem of yellow fever and its transmission. He knew of the suggested vector role of mosquitoes and undertook an in-depth study of the mosquitoes of Havana. He recognized that only the female sucks blood from mammals. He showed that this occurred after fertilization by the male and that the warmth of the blood stimulated the female to ovulate. He postulated that the mosquito would prefer a patient with fever, since the warmer the blood, the sooner ovulation occurred. Thus, mosquitoes would be most attracted to patients with yellow fever, thus enhancing spread of the disease.

The patients suffer severe headaches, kidney abnormalities, and gastrointestinal hemorrhage that leads to vomiting of black material.

impact on modern medicine:

The control of yellow fever (and malaria) required proof of the mosquito’s role in the spread of disease, and the studies that established this role lead to some of the most dramatic and important episodes in the history of preventive medicine. The mortality rates for yellow fever were 30 to 50 percent, similar to the outbreaks of other deadly diseases such as smallpox, cholera, and even bubonic plague.

Every year millions die from vaccine-preventable diseases, the majority of which are children. Vaccinations have been around for centuries and as society ages, vaccines improve. There have been increases in the development of new vaccinations and the number of modifications being made on older vaccines. There are seventeen highly recommended vaccines from the CDC, who is in charge of creating the immunization schedule and determining which vaccines should be on that list. However, there are only six mandated vaccines for entering public school in the United States. Additionally, the use of large scale vaccinations in the United States has allowed for the eradication of smallpox and the near eradication of polio. The low number of cases of preventable diseases is misleading since the reduction of vaccinations would lead to a large increase in outbreaks. Vaccinations are vital for the common good and must be mandated by the government disallowing any form of nonmedical excuses even if bodily autonomy is infringed upon.

The allowance of individual wants being placed above the needs of the whole can be detrimental, as such vaccine mandates are crucial. Paul Scanlan who has been involved in healthcare for four decades, and a nurse for twenty-eight of those years, remarks, “Society cannot pay the price for infectious disease” (Scanlan). Both economically and socially communities cannot afford the repercussions of viruses. As seen with COVID-19 the entire world shut down for one infectious disease, people lost their loved ones, jobs, and sometimes both. Yet, COVID-19 is not an isolated instance, this is true of most infectious diseases. Stephanie Awanyai, an associate at Sheppard, Mullin, Richter, and Hamiliton LLP where her practices are corporate and healthcare, states, “While the U.S. Supreme Court acknowledged that individual liberty rights may prevent state intrusion in some instances, the Court made clear that when the health concerns of the larger community are at stake, the state has the authority to infringe upon individual rights” (Awanyai 406). The health of the whole community is far more important than the comfort of one. Additionally, for most vaccines to cause herd immunity ninety percent of the community or more must be immunized against that disease. Thus, opting out isn’t a viable option specifically due to vaccinations being ineffective on certain individuals and others are allergic to ingredients in the vaccine. Vaccine mandates are vital and crucial to the continuation of society.

Just as vaccine mandates are crucial, nonmedical exemptions are crippling. Kevin Malone, professor at the University College Dublin in the department of psychiatry and mental health research, and Alan Hinman, former Director of Immunization Division in the CDC and ranked Assistant Surgeon General, posit, “Challenges to mandatory vaccination laws based on religion or philosophic belief have led various courts to hold that no constitutional right exists to either religious or philosophic exemptions” (Malone and Hinman 274). Church and state are meant to be separated under the United States Constitution. Additionally, most nonmedical exemptions are made by the individual school districts thus not by laws but rather by the optional policy. Katie Attwell, a senior lecturer and academic researcher at the University of Western Australia School of Social Sciences, and Mark Navin, a professor and chair in the Philosophy Department at Oakland University, argue, “Exemption application processes that rely on the burdensomeness of exemption application procedures to limit the number of exemptions do not directly enforce vaccination” (Attwell and Navin 996). There is no quantifiable argument about what constitutes a religion or a philosophic view. As such, there are countless ways to get out of the ‘mandatory’ vaccinations. Malone and Hinman state, “Whether judged under the neutral law of general applicability test of Smith or the compelling interest test of Sherbert, it is reasonable to conclude that there is no First Amendment free exercise right to an exemption from mandatory vaccination requirements” (Malone and Hinman 276). The First Amendment secures people’s ability to practice their religion without Congress’ interference. The Sherbet and Smith tests are used to determine whether a mandate, such as vaccinations, are Constitutional. The many states and national Supreme Court cases dealing with the mandating of vaccinations have passed the Sherbert test, Smith test, or both. While some exemptions can be made, there must be only medical based exceptions otherwise too many may be made.

Roland Pierik, an associate professor of legal theory at the University of Amsterdam Law School, posits that there are two primary reasons why mandating vaccinations may prove ineffective. The first of which is, “The more vaccinations are presented as a given by the paediatrician, and the less as a choice, the more hesitant parents are inclined to vaccinate” (Pierik 394). When pressured people tend to become defensive. By removing the choice of vaccinations parents, who were on the sidelines of the vaccination argument, could become vocal and increase the amounts of protests there are against mandated vaccines. Additionally, Pierik posits, “The emergence of the current anti-vaccination movement in terms of parents who are disappointed with mainstream medicine, when they experience that their alternative views on vaccinations are not taken seriously” (Pierik 383). A risk of mandating vaccines is that it might encourage parents to stray away from getting traditional healthcare altogether. This will lead to a further increase in vaccine preventable deaths.

Although there may be difficulty implementing mandatory vaccines the consequences are far too high. Roland Pierik counters the argument against mandating vaccination by positing, “When vaccination becomes a legal obligation, steadfast denialists might stick to their opposition – and might even accept criminal prosecution. Hesitant parents, on the other hand, might either be convinced by the message that not vaccinating is too dangerous or might not be willing to risk criminal prosecution and accept the option of vaccination reluctantly” (Pierik 394). While some parents may not be deterred by laws there are still some that will be which will lead to an increase in vaccinations. Additionally, Katie Attwell and Mark Navin add, “It also has different expressive/symbolic content since it places vaccine refusal alongside other everyday activities— driving a car, operating a business—that are permitted by society, but for whose negative consequences one can be held responsible” (Attwell and Navin 990). EXPLAIN. Crucially, Pierik explains, “Infectious diseases are special in that the patient is not only the victim of a disease, but also (consciously or unconsciously) a vector in its further spreading” (Pierik 387). EXPLAIN. CLOSING STATEMENT.

Nonmedical excuses cannot be allowed if the common good is to be preserved through mandated vaccinations, even if bodily autonomy is infringed upon. Millions are dying needlessly and the introduction of a vaccination mandate could prevent those losses of lives as seen with the smallpox and polio vaccine mandates. The constitution does not protect individuals to the point that others are harmed from those freedoms, which often occurs in the case of religious and philosophical vaccination exemptions. While it may be difficult to sway and convince parents of the benefits of vaccination it is far too dangerous to not try. There is no other viable and lasting option when millions hang in the balance; vaccines must be mandated.

Yellow fever is a staggering malady spread by the mosquito’s bites (and primates!) is as yet pervasive in Africa, the Caribbean, and Central and South America. The yellow fever infection has most likely existed in some form for a large number of years and is believed to have begun in Africa from other similar infections. Anybody planning a trip to the previously mentioned areas should take all prescribed and essential vaccinations and in any event, get a yellow fever immunization. Or on the other hand, would it be a good idea for them too?

Venturing out to these geological areas where the ailment is as yet widespread is hazardous without an immunization, of that there is no uncertainty. Nobody would consider a vacation a success if they got back home with a potentially hazardous disease in their circulatory systems. However, any individual who might surge out to get an immunization without doing his or her research on the impacts and dangers would be imprudent. So here are the certainties with respect to the vaccine.

The yellow fever vaccine has been regulated for a very long while. It is a live-however safe infection vaccine and only a single dosage secures for barely ten years. A booster shot is prescribed after 10 years. The immunization can be administered to most anybody beyond nine years old months. It is suggested that pregnant ladies or people experiencing any type of immune system choking should consult with an expert. This doctor can enable you to measure the dangers of presentation against the dangers of vaccination. Right now a non-live infection vaccine is examined by the Federal Drug Administration and expected to be available at the earliest possible.

With everything taken into account, it appears to be certain that anybody making a trip to the previously mentioned regions would profit by getting a yellow fever inoculation. It is somewhat easy to express that the benefits totally exceed the cons with regards to whether to get travel inoculation or not. No, it doesn’t take an Einstein to realize that the expressions “stubbly tongue’ and ‘gastrointestinal dying’ are nothing to be laughed at.

When you choose to get this vaccine and really do as such you will get a declaration from your travel professional that will express that you have, indeed, gotten the drug. This testament is expected to enter numerous nations still tormented by the scourge of yellow fever. The declaration will be legitimate for ten days after the genuine shot and will stay substantial for ten entire years, making future travel to such places somewhat less confounded.

So in the event that you looking for Yellow Fever Vaccine in Enfield, London, visit Barnet travel clinic London; they are profoundly regarded and proficient medical center that is certified to manage the yellow fever immunization, along with numerous other travel-related vaccinations.

Vaccination is one of human history’s most significant medical achievements, offering unparalleled protection against many infectious diseases. This essay explores the multifaceted aspects of vaccination, tracing its history from early developments to its indispensable role in modern healthcare. Vaccines have been pivotal in combating infectious diseases, leading to a dramatic decline in morbidity and mortality rates globally. This journey into the science behind vaccines encompasses their development, the rigorous testing they undergo, the ethical considerations in their distribution, and their profound impact on public health.

The evolution of vaccines is a testament to human ingenuity and perseverance, marking a remarkable journey of scientific endeavor against the backdrop of societal challenges and the relentless battle against ever-emerging infectious diseases. From Edward Jenner’s pioneering work with smallpox to the swift development of COVID-19 vaccines, the history of vaccination is replete with milestones that have significantly altered the course of public health.

This essay aims to provide an insightful, comprehensive analysis of vaccination, emphasizing its critical role in safeguarding individual and community health, shaping health policies, and continuing the relentless pursuit of advancements in medical science. Through this exploration, we aim to illuminate the intricate balance between scientific progress, ethical considerations, and the collective responsibility of societies to embrace vaccination for the greater good.

100 Words Essay on Vaccination

Vaccination works by introducing a vaccine, typically a weakened or inactive form of a pathogen, into the body. This exposure prompts the immune system to develop antibodies, equipping it to combat the actual disease more effectively. This method has drastically curtailed the prevalence of numerous diseases, such as polio and measles, saving millions of lives worldwide. Widespread immunization can lead to herd immunity, a phenomenon where the majority of a population becomes immune, thereby offering indirect protection to those who cannot be vaccinated for medical reasons. This collective immunity is essential in controlling the spread of infectious diseases and is a key strategy in public health initiatives.

250 Words Essay on Vaccination

Vaccination is a cornerstone of public health, crucial in controlling and eradicating infectious diseases. It works by stimulating the body’s immune system to recognize and combat pathogens, such as bacteria or viruses, without causing the actual disease. This protective process shields the vaccinated individual and contributes to the broader health of the community through herd immunity. Herd immunity is achieved when a significant portion of a population becomes immune to a disease, reducing its ability to spread from person to person. This is particularly vital in protecting individuals who cannot be vaccinated due to medical reasons, such as allergies, immune system disorders, or age restrictions.

The historical journey of vaccines begins with Edward Jenner’s pioneering work in the late 18th century, leading to the development of the smallpox vaccine. This milestone marked the beginning of vaccine science, which has evolved tremendously over the centuries. Modern technology and medical research have enabled the creation of vaccines for various diseases, including influenza, measles, human papillomavirus (HPV), and hepatitis. Implementing vaccination programs worldwide has led to the eradication of smallpox and significantly reduced the incidence of debilitating diseases like polio and measles.

Before their public release, vaccines undergo rigorous testing in clinical trials to ensure their safety and efficacy. Despite persistent misconceptions and misinformation, the scientific consensus supports vaccines as safe and effective tools in disease prevention. The success of vaccines in preventing widespread disease outbreaks and managing public health threats demonstrates their profound impact as a medical innovation.

400 Words Essay on Vaccination

Vaccination is one of the most effective public health measures, crucial in preventing infectious diseases and saving countless lives. The principle behind vaccination is to trigger an immune response by introducing a vaccine, which typically contains components resembling a disease-causing microorganism. This process trains the immune system to recognize and combat the pathogen, providing immunity without causing the actual disease.

The rich history of vaccine development dates back to Edward Jenner’s pioneering work with the smallpox vaccine in the late 18th century. Since then, the field has seen tremendous advancements, with vaccines now available for various diseases, significantly reducing illness and death rates globally. Vaccination campaigns have eradicated smallpox and brought diseases like polio to the brink of eradication. Routine childhood vaccinations protect against common and potentially serious infections like measles, mumps, rubella, and whooping cough.

Developing a vaccine involves intricate processes, including initial research, clinical trials, and stringent regulatory approvals, with safety and efficacy paramount. Post-approval, vaccines are continuously monitored to ensure ongoing safety and effectiveness. The rapid development and distribution of COVID-19 vaccines exemplify the critical role of vaccination in addressing emerging health crises.

Despite vaccines’ success, vaccine hesitancy and access disparities persist. Misinformation and skepticism can reduce vaccination rates, potentially undermining herd immunity and public health. Educational initiatives and transparent communication are vital in addressing these issues. Additionally, global disparities in vaccine access remain a significant hurdle, particularly in low-income countries, which often struggle to secure and distribute vaccines.

The impact of vaccination goes beyond individual health benefits, extending to economic advantages by reducing healthcare costs and preventing productivity loss due to illness. During the COVID-19 pandemic, vaccines have been instrumental in allowing the resumption of social and economic activities, highlighting their essential role in modern society. Vaccines also play a crucial part in global health security, helping to prevent the spread of infectious diseases across borders.

Vaccination’s role in public health is multifaceted, encompassing disease prevention and contributing to the overall well-being and stability of societies. The continuous evolution and advancement of vaccine technology underscore the importance of supporting and investing in vaccination programs. These efforts are vital for the ongoing battle against infectious diseases, ensuring a healthier and more secure future for all.

Vaccination protects individuals and strengthens communities by establishing herd immunity. It is a testament to human ingenuity and collective effort in advancing healthcare. Vaccination remains a key pillar in pursuing a healthier, more resilient world.

500 Words Essay on Vaccination

Vaccination, a triumph of modern medicine, has significantly altered the landscape of public health. By providing immunity against infectious diseases, vaccinations have saved countless lives and improved the quality of life worldwide. Vaccination involves introducing a vaccine into the body to stimulate the immune system to recognize and combat pathogens. This exposure prepares the immune system to respond more effectively if it encounters the actual pathogen.

The roots of vaccination can be traced back to Edward Jenner’s work in the late 18th century, with the development of the smallpox vaccine. This groundbreaking achievement set the stage for developing vaccines against various diseases, including polio, measles, hepatitis, and influenza. The 21st century has seen remarkable advancements in vaccine technology, including mRNA vaccines, which have been pivotal in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic.

The process of vaccine development is rigorous, involving extensive research, clinical trials, and regulatory reviews to ensure safety and efficacy. Vaccines undergo a meticulous evaluation process before they are approved for public use, and they continue to be monitored for safety post-approval. The widespread use of vaccines has led to the eradication of smallpox, the near-eradication of polio, and significant reductions in the incidence of numerous other diseases.

Despite these achievements, vaccination faces challenges such as vaccine hesitancy, fueled by misinformation and skepticism about vaccine safety. This hesitancy poses a significant threat to public health, as it can lead to decreased vaccination rates and outbreaks of preventable diseases. Education and transparent communication are essential in addressing these concerns and maintaining public trust in vaccines.

Another challenge is the inequity in vaccine access globally. While high-income countries have achieved high vaccination rates, many low- and middle-income countries struggle with vaccine access. This disparity affects individual countries and poses a risk to global health, as unvaccinated populations can become reservoirs for disease transmission.

The impact of vaccination extends beyond individual health benefits. Vaccines contribute to economic stability by reducing healthcare costs associated with treating infectious diseases and preventing loss of productivity due to illness. During the COVID-19 pandemic, vaccines have played a crucial role in mitigating the health crisis and enabling the resumption of normal social and economic activities.

Vaccines also play a vital role in protecting vulnerable populations, such as infants, the elderly, and those with compromised immune systems. By achieving high vaccination rates, communities can establish herd immunity, indirectly protecting those who cannot be vaccinated.

Vaccination stands as a monumental achievement in medicine, offering protection against various infectious diseases and significantly improving public health. The journey from the development of the smallpox vaccine to the rapid response to COVID-19 vaccines highlights the importance and versatility of vaccination in addressing health challenges. While challenges such as vaccine hesitancy and global access disparities remain, the benefits of vaccination in terms of saved lives, reduced disease burden, and economic stability are undeniable.

Argumentative Essay

Topic:

Vaccinations

General Purpose:

To argue

Specific Purpose:

I want to argue why vaccinations should be mandatory for everybody of all ages.

Thesis Statement:

The Federal Government should make vaccinations mandatory for everybody because: (1) vaccines are designed to protect us and others from certain diseases; (2) vaccines are one of the easiest ways to protect our health; and (3) despite my opposition’s claim, vaccines are not unsafe.

Introduction

Attention Getter: Did you get your flu shot this year?

• Vaccines are used worldwide to prevent illnesses and death caused by diseases.
• Whether you believe in vaccines or not, vaccines have been proven to help eliminate certain diseases from the population over time.

Establish Controversy: Today I will argue that the Federal Government should make vaccinations mandatory for everybody of all ages.

A. Controversy:

The anti-vaccine movement has always been around. I feel like it’s become a bigger controversy due to the internet and social media.

People have always feared vaccines due to the myths of vaccines cause death or serious side effects.

The anti-vaccine movement goes as far back as the 18th century when Reverend Edmund Massey of England considered vaccines as “diabolical operations” in his 1722 sermon. In his sermon, Reverend Edmund describes vaccines as an attempt to oppose God’s punishments upon man for his sins (Bazin, 2001).

B. Controversy.

You can easily see the debate between pro-vaccination vs. anti-vaccination on the internet and social media. Facebook groups are even created for people who prefer either movement to discuss their beliefs regarding vaccinations.

People who are against vaccinations are known as “anti-vaxxers”. Some reasons for the opposition of vaccines include religious beliefs, risks outweigh benefits, and autism (Boulanger & Gotter, 2016).

Groups like Voices for Vaccines, an organization led by parents with the help of health officials work to bring information supporting the need for vaccinations. Their goal is to offer parents reliable information regarding the safety and importance of vaccinations (Voices for Vaccines, 2015).

I stand with the pro-vaccination group. I think getting vaccinations is important and I will argue that the Federal Government should make it mandatory for everybody.

Credibility Statement:

I work in the medical field and am familiar with vaccinations. People are free to be pro-vaccination or anti-vaccination. I thought this would be a good controversial topic to discuss.

Preview/Thesis Statement:

Today I will present to you three reasons why the Federal Government should make vaccinations mandatory.

Body

Transition:

To start, I will first argue that the Federal Government should make vaccinations mandatory for everybody because vaccines protect us and others from certain diseases.

Constructive Argument:

Vaccines are designed to protect us and other people from contracting certain diseases.

• A. There is a current problem with people getting their vaccinations due to vaccination hesitancy. This makes tackling vaccine-preventable diseases hard on the population.

Vaccines currently prevent 2-3 million deaths a year and 1.5 million could be avoided if more people got their vaccinations. (World Health Organization, 2019).

Vaccine hesitancy includes the public distrust in vaccinations. This means the population is taking a step back in eliminating preventable diseases.

In some places, vaccine hesitancy has the power to hinder the progress we made in controlling vaccine-preventable diseases. (Roberts, 2019).

• B. [Solution] Making vaccinations mandatory for everybody can minimize an outbreak for vaccine-preventable diseases.

These vaccines were created to prevent certain diseases. The risk of these diseases increases when people don’t get their vaccinations.

Vaccines not only protect you, but it also protects the people around you such as those who don’t meet the age requirement for a certain vaccine or the immunosuppressed whose immune system can’t handle the vaccine itself.

Transition:

Making vaccinations mandatory for everybody will help minimize an outbreak of vaccine-preventable diseases by protecting yourself and others from contracting them. We have seen the United States measles outbreak due to low vaccination. Mandatory vaccinations will prevent this from happening further.

Constructive Argument:

The Federal Government should make vaccinations mandatory for everybody because vaccines are cost-effective.

• A. Vaccines save lives and they can save money too.

It’s cheaper to prevent a disease than to treat it. The routine childhood immunization in one child saves $13.6 billion in direct cost. Every dollar spent on childhood vaccinations has saved $18.40 (Colorado Children’s Immunization Coalition, 2019).

The public can also inquire about expenses from those who aren’t vaccinated. This is known as “indirect costs”.

It can cost our public health departments approximately $10,000 per day to contain an outbreak from a preventable disease (Naprawa, 2015).

The average outbreak control period is 18 days; that will cost the public $180,000 to control a disease that could have been prevented through vaccinations (Naprawa, 2015).

• B. [Solution] Making vaccinations mandatory for everybody will save public money.

Treating the disease will be costly due to doctor visits, hospitalizations, and deaths. It will cost the public less money on preventing the disease than it will cost treating the disease.

Treating someone who is sick is expensive, and the sicker they get, the worse those costs can become. Diseases that cause death or disability require lifelong treatment. Not only is the treatment for the disease expensive, but death and disability can reduce or eliminate the person’s lifetime earnings (Loria, 2014).

Transition:

The Federal Government making vaccinations mandatory for everybody can help minimize the cost of health expenses to the public. Diseases preventable by vaccinations will save the public money from hospitalizations and doctor visits.

Refutative Argument:

I will disprove the counterargument that vaccinations are unsafe and ineffective.

First, vaccines are held to a very high standard because they are given to millions of people to prevent serious diseases.

Vaccines go through years of safety testing. They are tested and evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration, known as the FDA. When they meet the safety standards then they are recommended for use by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, known as the CDC (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2017).

Before a vaccine is ever available for use to the public, it’s tested in labs. This process can take years. All safety concerns must be addressed before the FDA licenses a vaccine. After approval, it continues to be tested. The company needs to make sure the vaccine is potent meaning it’s working like it’s supposed to, pure meaning certain ingredients have been removed during production, and sterile meaning it doesn’t contain any outside germs. After it’s licensed and ready for use, it continues to be monitored (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2017).

Secondly, vaccines work to reduce the risk of infection by working with the body’s natural defenses to develop immunity.

Vaccines work by training the immune system to recognize and fight pathogens such as viruses or bacteria. For this to work, antigens from the pathogen must be introduced in the body to trigger a response (Public Health, 2019).

By injecting antigens into the body, the immune system can learn to recognize them as invaders, produce antibodies, and remember them for the future. If the bacteria or viruses appear again, the immune system will recognize these antigens and attack them aggressively before they can cause sickness. (Public Health, 2019).

• C. It is better for someone to get vaccinated than to not get vaccinated. Vaccinations are created to help our immune system become stronger and make us less prone to infections.
• D. Research has shown vaccinations are safe and effective. They are regulated and monitored even after the vaccine has been licensed. They are designed to protect us and others from diseases. (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2018).
• E. Vaccines are considered safe and effective. They are held to high standards by the FDA and CDC.

Transition:

It is clear the opposition of vaccines is based on misinformation regarding vaccinations and not the facts.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Federal Government should make vaccinations mandatory for everybody for three reasons.

• First, vaccines are designed to protect us and others from preventable-diseases.
• Second, vaccines are cost-effective by eliminating hospitalizations and doctor visits.
• Finally, vaccinations are considered safe and effective by the testing and monitoring they go through.

It’s time that vaccinations be completely mandatory and help decrease preventable-diseases from becoming outbreaks across the country.

Work’s Cited

1. Bazin, H. (2001). The ethics of vaccine usage in society: lessons from the past. Endeavour, 25(3), 104-108.
2. Boulanger, A. & Gotter, A. (2016). Understanding opposition to vaccines. Healthline.
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). Understanding how vaccines work. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/conversations/downloads/vacsafe-understand-color-office.pdf
4. Colorado Children’s Immunization Coalition. (2019). Fact or fiction: Benefits vs. risks. Immunize for Good. Retrieved from http://www.immunizeforgood.com/fact-or-fiction/benefits-vs.-risks
5. Loria, K. (2014). 7 undeniable reasons opposition to vaccines is deadly and backwards. Business Insider. Retrieved from https://www.businessinsider.com/vaccines-save-millions-of-lives-and-billions-of-dollars-2014-9
6. Naprawa, A. Z. (2015). Vaccines save more than lives. University of California Berkeley Wellness. Retrieved from https://www.berkeleywellness.com/healthy-community/contagious-disease/health-care-policy/article/vaccines-save-more-lives
7. Public Health. (2019). How vaccines work. Retrieved from https://www.publichealth.org/public-awareness/understanding-vaccines/vaccines-work/
8. Roberts, M. (2019). Vaccines: Low trust in vaccination ‘a global crisis’. BCC News. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/health-48512923
9. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. (2017). Vaccine safety. Retrieved from https://www.vaccines.gov/basics/safety
10. Voices for Vaccines. (2015). Retrieved from https://www.voicesforvaccines.org/
11. World Health Organization. (2019). Ten threats to global health in 2019. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/emergencies/ten-threats-to-global-health-in-2019

In 2019, the WHO declared vaccine hesitancy as one of the world`s top ten global health threats (WHO, 2019). It was reported that vaccination rates, in Scotland that year, dropped in fourteen of the seventeen immunizations for children under six (Health Scotland, 2019). The reasons behind parental refusal are inherently complex, but many factors (such as misinformation about vaccinations, particularly religious and cultural beliefs, and historically fatal vaccination experiments) have created an ingrained stigma against vaccination (McKee et al., 2016). While a decision surrounding a medical intervention will usually revolve around an individual patient, vaccination is unique because of its implications on the wider society due to the communicability of infectious diseases. Herd immunity, a result of mass vaccination, is desirable as it results in resistance to a disease within a population and provides a measure of protection for immunologically vulnerable individuals (Rashid et al., 2012). This brings into question whether mandatory vaccination should be used to achieve sufficient vaccination levels. By first explaining the presence of a moral obligation to vaccinate, an ethical framework arises that strengthens the case for enforced vaccination. However, this essay will then present that this view is paternalistic as it fails to acknowledge the practice of autonomy and non-maleficence along with the complex reasons behind refusal. This essay will conclude therefore, that state coercion can only be justified when herd immunity is not achieved and otherwise, education and other public health strategies should be employed.

To explore the moral obligation to be vaccinated, the principle of justice can be applied. In public health, practicing justice involves an equal contribution to the control of communicable diseases through showing solidarity by giving up one`s own interests, in this case by being vaccinated, to serve the common good. Acting with beneficence and showing altruism in this way, is considered morally correct. Therefore, these notions suggest society has a prima facie obligation to protect the vulnerable, such as the young or immunosuppressed, who are unable to be vaccinated themselves, so rely on the collective responsibility of those who can be vaccinated to maintain herd immunity. Additionally, some argue that it is the duty of those who live in countries with free and accessible healthcare to ensure that their children are vaccinated, as many parents globally are not given this option. Beneficence also provides the basis of John Stuart Mill`s principle of utilitarianism. In the context of vaccination, herd immunity provides the maximization of utility as the costs of vaccination for an individual are generally low (because of high vaccine safety) and are outweighed by resulting gains in reductions in disease incidence and preventative health. These advantages contribute to the well-being of the population and, in the long term, conserve resources and money by reducing the need to care for those infected with the disease. Hence, under these frameworks of beneficence and utility maximization, it seems there exists a moral obligation to vaccinate and therefore, compulsory vaccination helps the lay population realize this duty.

Conversely, it can be argued that, particularly when herd immunity is realized, the difference a single vaccination makes is negligible and thus an individual refusing vaccination causes no additional risk to others which would suggest compulsory vaccination is unjustified. This interpretation would imply that utilitarianism is less relevant as causing pain or potential side effects to a healthy individual implies an ethical cost to that person greater than the benefit from their contribution. However, taking a deontological approach by using the generalization test, refusing vaccination is wrong because universal non-vaccination would have grave consequences as the disease could spread rapidly. Moreover, herd immunity is a collective effect: it requires the contribution of a sufficiently large number of individuals to be realized. The virtue of fairness requires that such burdens be distributed fairly across individuals and therefore if an individual recognizes that they benefit from some collective action then they have an obligation to accept their share of the burden. Hence, compulsory vaccination can act as a mode for agents to realize this duty and avoids the incidence of free-riding where individuals accept the benefits of others’ actions, i.e. herd immunity, while choosing to forego the small associated risk or disbenefit, of being vaccinated.

However, compulsory vaccinations often involve the infringement of bodily integrity and this leads to debates as to whether the state is justified in violating these rights for the sake of public health. Bodily integrity is predicated on the right to autonomy and self-determination over one`s own body which, in practice, is exercised through informed consent or informed refusal. Therefore, an unconsented physical intrusion, such as vaccination, can be considered a human rights violation. Democracies are built on freedom and hence, it is argued that people should be able to make choices about their healthcare. Many believe that violation of autonomy goes against the principles of non-maleficence and beneficence, degrading people`s trust in the healthcare system, which is necessary for a constructive patient-physician relationship. However, some argue that autonomy is not an absolute principle but should be balanced by other values, considering social responsibilities and communal goals. For example, the harm principle dictates that the actions of certain individuals can be limited to prevent harm to others which suggest compulsory vaccination can be justified. Moreover, under the parens patriae jurisdiction, the state has a duty in protecting vulnerable individuals and therefore should intervene if they are at risk. Arguably then, if the parental refusal is not acting in the best interests of a child, as it leaves them exposed to infectious diseases, the state should be able to override the parent’s decisions. However, some feel this argument is flawed as the government’s external judgment of the best outcome may be paternalistic, failing to recognize specific individual`s interests and therefore overlooking autonomy is not warranted.

Moreover, a blanket approach to increasing vaccination may ignore the subtleties of vaccine hesitancy and neglects to solve the many complex reasons why people refuse vaccination. People may oppose vaccination due to religious or moral based beliefs, for example, due to the use of materials from cell lines derived from aborted fetuses, and therefore forcing them to go against these values can cause suffering. Liberal and multiculturalist ideals demand that people be allowed to act upon their own beliefs, realize their values, and practice their customs whenever possible. Therefore, it is proposed that mandatory vaccination infringes on these liberties and the individual cost of being vaccinated would be so great as to outweigh the expected negative contribution of non-vaccination. Moreover, there may be cultural and social barriers against access and confidence in vaccines such as long-standing mistrust in the health systems and government and education or language barriers to understanding accurate health information. While a deontological argument would suggest it is acceptable to hold all groups to the same vaccine rules, it may be more effective in these communities to address the underlying cause of the problem. Through targeting low uptake groups with bottom-up education schemes that are culturally sensitive and delivered in native languages, voluntary uptake of vaccinations would hopefully improve and unease and mistrust towards future vaccinations would be mitigated.

Conclusion

To conclude, the debate surrounding compulsory vaccination is inherently complex due to conflicts between respect for autonomy, the child`s best interest, and just contribution to herd immunity. Therefore, only when herd immunity is not achieved and there is a high incidence of disease (e.g. in a pandemic) should the state coerce individuals to vaccinate when the public health perspective prevails over an individual-centered approach. Voluntary compliance with vaccination requirements is the most desirable as it achieves the benefits of herd immunity without infringing on autonomy and ensures groups feel listened to and supported by the medical profession. Therefore, to achieve adequate levels of responsibility, a trustful dialogue between healthcare providers and patients should be educated about the safety and community benefit of vaccination.