China’s National New-Style Urbanization Plan

Introduction

The National New-Style Urbanization Plan is focused on coordinating the development of the urban system taking into account the changes in the economic and social spheres. The rapid economic development of the country is closely linked to and is the result of China’s active urbanization. Over the past decade, the urban population has increased dramatically. The transition from a rural to city life influenced the socio-economic level of the country, which is reflected in the fact that urbanization gave rise to an acceleration of the export-oriented industrialization (Zhang, LeGates, and Zhao 372). It contributed to the fact that the country has managed to raise the living standards significantly, improve the transport infrastructure as well as boost its human capital. However, the rapid growth of cities has led to a host of related problematic trends. The two most pressing of these are the conflict between the needs of agricultural and other land uses (residential, industrial, commercial), as well as the position of rural migrant workers in cities (the lack of access to the local social security system). In order to evaluate whether the proposed program will be as effective as planned, it is essential to assess it from different angles.

The Urbanization Plan

The problems related to the rapid growth of the city population have accumulated at a certain point and started to prevent the further improvement of the quality of life of the population (Johnson 32). The need for the new comprehensive strategy on issues related to urban development has emerged from the necessity to change the vector of economic development (gradual transition from the commodity-export model), to balance the level of development of different regions, and to level the imbalance between rural and urban populations. The essence of the plan is the reformation of urbanization at several levels simultaneously (Zhang, LeGates, and Zhao 372). The main changes are related to the conversion of the land policy. It was proposed to strengthen the farmers’ rights to property and to limit the influence of local authorities.

It should help to make cities more functional and less extended, and most importantly, to start using energy more efficiently. Moreover, this approach will allow introducing agricultural technologies that are more advanced. However, over the past decade, the land reforms were supposed to support the rural population; nevertheless, their rights remained vague (Zhang, LeGates, and Zhao 373). In addition, it was considered that the reformation would help to distribute wealth across the country. It was presumed that the prices of rural land would increase after the property rights of the rural population have grown. Regarding the reform of hukou registration system, it is believed to help solve the problem when the population was grounded to a specific territory (Johnson 33). Many villagers were not able to move to bigger cities due to the fact that they had limited access to public services. Accordingly, people were deprived of a real opportunity to work in big cities. If the problem is resolved, an increase in labor productivity is expected due to urbanization that will be more functional.

Issues

The implementation of the plan requires the stabilization of the country’s budget system. The reinforced property rights imply that city authorities would be limited in power execution (no income from selling the land). However, these state funds will be needed to provide public services to the population (Eggleston, Oi, and Wang 165). Given the fact that the public services would be in increased demand, the state will have difficulty in controlling the budget effectively. The situation would force the government to seek alternative sources of income. The introduction of such taxes as environmental fees, car taxation, or others will enable us to balance the budget. One of the aspects of the plan is that the city’s registration will be available for less than half the population (Dunford and Weidong 159). However, the acceleration of the socialization of migrants should contribute to the growth of their income due to the weakening of discrimination by employers, and an increase in the share of income that goes to consumption. For instance, when accommodating in the city, the former rural citizens will tend to spend more money for the resettlement of the housing, durable goods and services, and so on; thus, contributing to the budget (Levy 208). According to researchers, it will be necessary to promote the construction of infrastructure in areas such as communications, irrigation systems, energy, and utilities, which will mean attracting investments and expanding employment opportunities.

The increased rate of urbanization of the country would give an impetus to foreign capital to participate in projects for the development of social infrastructure. In particular, the investment would be required in such areas as health care and education (Eggleston, Oi and Wang 167). A significant increase in the urban population will create a new basis for consumer demand and cause the need to expand existing energy facilities, transportation systems, infrastructure, water supplies and recycling. This implies that the government will have to modernize the utility systems to eliminate the deficiencies in the capacities in the future.

Conclusion

The proposed plan of the state entails several aspects including the intensification of economic processes (taking into account the specificity of agriculture and regional development) and active participation of the state in the procurement of the main types of agricultural products. In addition, the plan implies the infrastructure development of rural settlements and their gradual transition to a new innovative type of the economy management (Fang and Yu 183). The improvement of production processes in agriculture while increasing migration of the qualified personnel, which will generate sustainable growth, is among the targeted goals of the urbanization of the new type. The government has planned an active introduction of innovations and technology together with attracting the valuable human resources to the development of agriculture and the comprehensive development of community services.

Despite the large scale of the plan, the evidence suggests a number of future challenges. Interestingly enough, despite the projected complexity of financing, the state seeks for higher urbanization. Instead of setting such goals and building cities for the future migrants, the authorities should start investing in the urban infrastructure increasing the attractiveness of cities. An effective measure would be, for instance, to program the delivery of clean water to the population of China, which it is currently lacking. In addition, the government should reform the outdated licensing system that infringes the rights of the villagers. None of these reforms will add to the attractiveness of the city life. Nevertheless, they will encourage villagers to rush to the bigger cities.

Works Cited

Dunford, Michael, and Liu Weidong. The Geographical Transformation of China, Abingdon: Routledge, 2014. Print.

Eggleston, Karen, Jean Oi, and Yiming Wang. Challenges in the Process of China’s Urbanization, Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2016. Print.

Fang, Chuanglin, and Danlin Yu. China’s New Urbanization, New York: Springer, 2016. Print.

Johnson, Donald. “China Rethinks Urbanization.” Planning (2014): 30-35. Print.

Levy, John. Contemporary Urban Planning, Abingdon: Routledge, 2016. Print.

Zhang, Li, Richard LeGates, and Min Zhao. Understanding China’s Urbanization, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2016. Print.

Urbanization and Technological Development in the Philippines

Abstract

This work is devoted to the Philippines, namely considering such phenomena as urbanization and technological development on its territory. In the study, previous hypotheses were confirmed, and new ones were put forward that made this topic relevant. The article additionally reveals such a phenomenon as poverty and its impact on the phenomena mentioned above. In the course of writing the material, not only data from previous works were used, but also static data that allowed us to track the dynamics of the development of Philippine in the last 15-20 years. Urbanization and technological development undoubtedly affect the lives of people in the Philippines. On the one hand, fast-growing cities, high innovative development, economic and labor growth. On the other hand, the increase in financial inequality between urban and rural residents and the rapid consumption of natural resources.

Previous Research

Recent studies have revealed that the Philippines is one of the most dynamically developing countries in East Asia and the Pacific. With increasing urbanization, a growing middle-income class, and a large and young population, the economic dynamism of the Philippines is based on strong consumer demand. Business activity is brisk, with notable performance in the services sector, including business process outsourcing, real estate, and the finance and insurance industries (Montes and Cruz, 2020, p. 17). Good economic fundamentals and a globally recognized competitive workforce consisting exclusively of the local population strengthen growth dynamics. One study shows that between 2000 and 2009, the average annual growth was 6.4% at an average of 4.5% (Montes and Cruz, 2020, p. 18). The country is ready to leap from a lower-income country with a gross national income per capita of $3,660 to a country with an above-average income per capita income of $3,896 in the medium term (Montes and Cruz, 2020, p. 20). Another study shows that private consumption growth decreased slightly against the background of rising inflation but remained stable given the stable labor market and steady inflow of remittances.

Exploring the issues of poverty, scientists unanimously affirm that in recent years the Philippine economy has made progress in ensuring inclusive growth, as evidenced by the reduction in poverty. Poverty decreased from 26.6% in 2006 to 21.6% in 2015 (Chen et al., 2019, p. 4). Unemployment has reached historic lows, but the underemployment rate remains high, about 18-20% of the average decade. Most of the Filipino workers moved from agriculture, and most of them ended up in low-maintenance jobs. Scientists say that although employment increased from 2006 to 2015, average wages remained at the same level. Measures to create good jobs and raise wages are necessary to achieve common prosperity. Researchers will especially emphasize that the Government of the Philippines received the first World Bank loan only in 1957. The Bank has financed development projects that have yielded significant results for its people. Over the past three decades, the Bank’s assistance has expanded to various projects and analytical work, policy advice, and technological development. In previous studies, scientists have shown that the Philippines is one of the most urbanized and populated countries in Southeast Asia, with about 60% of its population (Chen et al., 2019, p. 5). The level of urbanization in the country greatly impacted the country’s natural resources and increased the adverse impact on the environment.

There are many cities with high industry in the Philippines, which contributes to the development of the country’s economy. At the same time, this level of urbanization has also cost the environment dearly. Manila is among the most polluted cities in the world. It is primarily due to its large automotive sector, which is often exposed to low-quality air (Cudia, Rivera and Tullao, 2019, p. 122). On the one hand, the Philippines is one of the most densely populated countries in the world (this means that more and more people live on no less territory), and on the other hand, more and more people live on less land, which complicates the balance of population growth with the sustainability of natural resources (Cudia, Rivera and Tullao, 2019, p. 123). Experts assure us that many ways can be taken to help preserve the Philippine ecosystem for future generations. For example, they recommend using everything from recycling garbage at home, using public transport instead of driving, and ending with supporting local businesses.

Source Criticism

For this article, the most reliable sources have been selected to provide accurate and relevant data on the current situation in the Philippines. The selected sources provide extensive statistical data that the situation with resettlement from the village to the city was relevant in the 1980s and 2010s. Scientists in the article “Poverty, inequality, and development in the Philippines: official statistics and selected life stories” sharply criticize the official data on the level of poverty in the Philippines and reveals (San Juan and Agustin, 2019, p. 290). Based on knowledge of the theory of surplus value, labor exploitation, and economic dependence, the authors conclude that official statistics deliberately disguise the scale of poverty.

The data obtained made it possible to present accurate information about the level of poverty in the Philippines in this study. The source database of the source used allows us to conclude its reliability and the quality of statistical data. Developing the topic of poverty in the Philippines, the article “Encouraging poverty in the Philippines through entrepreneurship” offers one of the ways to solve the problem in the region (Cudia, Rivera and Tullao, 2019, p. 125). Researchers using the materials of the Economic department of the Philippines have concluded that the region needs economic reform with a bias toward entrepreneurship.

The authors prove the hypothesis put forward by the examples of Manila, where entrepreneurial activity was greatly facilitated, which led to a reduction in poverty and the development of the middle class. The authors note that the region has many resources that can and should be used for economic development. The source base allows us to consider the source reliable and use it in this study as one of the fundamental ones since it analyzes one of the options for solving the problem of poverty.

Studies on poverty and its impact on the level of urbanization in the Philippines contain valuable and practical information. The authors of the article “Urbanization patterns and poverty reduction: a new perspective to explore the countries along the belt and road,” using data from 1986 to 2018, give a clear idea of the impact of urbanization growth on poverty reduction (Chen et al., 2019, p. 13). This work is of indirect importance to the Philippines but examines the experience of other countries in Southeast Asia. The source base, consisting of statistical data and materials of scientists from the region under consideration, allows us to apply their experience to the Philippines to identify general development trends in the future. This fact indicates the reliability of the selected source and the relevance of its data.

The works devoted to technological development and economic growth mention fairly reliable sources that fully characterize the situation in the Philippines. A qualitative selection of sources from 1988 to 2017 indicates researchers’ deep understanding of the topic (Bahrini and Qaffas, 2019, p. 13). The authors compare the development of the Philippines over the past 15-20 years and draw a parallel between technological development and the economic growth of modern states. (Bahraini and Kaffas, 2019, p. 12). Therefore, this source was chosen as one of the key ones when considering this area, and based on its data; it became possible to predict the economic development of the Philippines in subsequent years.

Each of the articles contains reliable information related to this study. The inclusion of statistical data and the earliest and latest knowledge on this topic makes the work attractive for future scientists. The analysis and critical approach to the works demonstrated in the 1980s to the present day demonstrate a competent and qualitative approach to the study of urbanization and technological development in the Philippines.

Each of the selected studies has its own merits and contains a wide range of important information that has influenced the development of the Philippines over the past 15-20 years and other countries in the region. The ability to link this phenomenon with each other and competently assess similar aspects in other Southeast Asian countries indicates a high degree of depth in this problem. Urbanization and technological development are important issues not limited to the Philippines. However, scientists from local universities and others emphasize a special case in the Philippines that requires detailed consideration. Using sources from different periods and statistical data makes it possible to track better the dynamics of the region’s development and its prospects. It is worth noting that if data on the urbanization of poverty are disclosed widely enough, there will always be a shortage of data on technological development. The development of technology and the constant changes in the geopolitical situation will greatly impact the achievements of technological development.

Results

The results of previous scientific papers confirm the relevance of this problem: firstly, the study of this problem requires an integrated approach and comprehensive study. It is due to the interconnection of global problems with various aspects of human society, for example, urbanization and technological development (Chen et al., 2019, p. 8). It means that each country is interested in considering these problems and participating in their solution. High poverty levels, especially in developing countries, pose a serious threat to national and global sustainable development. Poverty is not just a lack of income and resources to ensure a sustainable livelihood.

It manifests in hunger and malnutrition, limited access to education and other basic services, social discrimination, and exclusion. In 2015, more than 736 million people lived below the poverty line (Chen et al., 2019, p. 4). More than 10% of the world’s population lives in extreme poverty and has virtually no access to health, education, and sanitation services (San Juan and Agustin, 2019, p. 290). For every 100 men aged 25 to 34 living in poverty, there are 122 women of the same age category. The results of previous scientific papers confirm the problem of such a phenomenon as poverty: firstly, the study of this phenomenon requires an integrated approach and comprehensive study. It is due to the interconnection of global problems with various aspects of human society, for example, urbanization and technological development.

High poverty levels, especially in developing countries, pose a serious threat to national and global sustainable development. The Philippines, with a population of 103.8 million, is one of the most populous countries in Southeast Asia. According to the World Bank, this is accompanied by a high proportion of poverty: in 2018, about a quarter of the population (25.2%) was considered poor (Cudia, Rivera and Tullao, 2019, p. 123). About 24 million Filipinos are below the national poverty line and are forced to live on less than 1.65 euros per day (Cudia, Rivera and Tullao, 2019, p. 124). In addition, it is noted that most of the population does not have enough income to live in suitable conditions and buy something besides basic things.

The population of underdeveloped states leaves much to be desired. Rich countries open factories and enterprises in developing countries, pay people pennies and harm the environment; South Asia and Africa are particularly difficult (Bahrini and Qaffas, 2019, p. 21). It is important to understand that the technologies themselves cause damage to third-world countries, but over the past 15-20 years, the authorities have allowed rich countries to open their production facilities (Montes and Cruz, 2020, p. 25). In technological development, the average labor productivity is significantly lower. High technology is designed to help people reduce the inequality between poor and rich countries.

The way developed countries exploit the labor of the population of underdeveloped States leaves much to be desired. Rich countries open factories and enterprises in developing countries, pay people pennies and harm the environment; South Asia and Africa are particularly difficult. It is important to understand that the technologies themselves cause damage to third-world countries, but over the past 15-20 years, the authorities have allowed rich countries to open their production facilities.

Reference List

Bahrini, R. and Qaffas, A. A. (2019) ‘Impact of information and communication technology on economic growth: evidence from developing countries’, Economies, 7(1), pp. 1–13.

Chen, M. et al. (2019) ‘Urbanization patterns and poverty reduction: a new perspective to explore the countries along the belt and road’, Habitat International, 84(1), pp. 1–14.

Cudia, C. P., Rivera, J. P. R. and Tullao, T. S. (2019) ‘Alleviating poverty in the Philippines through entrepreneurship’, DLSU Business & Economics Review, 28(3), pp. 121–130.

Montes, M. F. and Cruz, J. (2020) ‘The political economy of foreign investment and industrial development: the Philippines, Malaysia and Thailand in comparative perspective’, Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, 25(1), pp. 16–39.

San Juan, D. M. M. and Agustin, P. J. C. (2019) ‘Poverty, inequality, and development in the Philippines: official statistics and selected life stories’, European Journal of Sustainable Development, 8(1), pp. 290–304.

New Urbanism: The Problems of Urbanization

Abstract

Human intervention especially in the form of the built environment has devastated vast acres of natural reserve. What was formerly abundant with floral and faunal populations had been transformed into urban jungles all in the name of progress. However, recent developments in architecture and the built environment calls for designers and developers alike to become more conscientious when implementing development. Many emerging theories regarding sustainable architecture and urban development had sprouted throughout the years.

In urban planning standards, designers tend to designate private, public, semi-private, and semi-public spaces according to their spatial characteristics and functions. However, some critical aspects are overlooked like social context, psychological impact, and individual perceptions. The scales of differentiating private to public space include the following: spatial (body, home, neighborhood, city), degree of exclusivity and openness, and modes of social encounter (personal, interpersonal, impersonal) (Lawson).

The study will compare two selected cities in the United States that had recently undergone urban renewal as a response to the changing times. To support the study, a review of existing related literature is conducted. Finally, the two cities are compared using acceptable urban planning theories, Kevin Lynch’s mental maps of the city, and new urbanism as criteria.

Introduction

Human intervention especially in the form of the built environment has devastated vast acres of natural reserve. What was formerly abundant with floral and faunal populations had been transformed into urban jungles all in the name of progress. However, recent developments in architecture and the built environment calls for designers and developers alike to become more conscientious when implementing development. Many emerging theories regarding sustainable architecture and urban development had sprouted throughout the years.

Not all designers and developers were in a destructive mode as Aaron Betsky would put it. Many architects in the 20th century had already advocated measures to redress and perhaps re-direct the way man uses the environment for his survival. Some notable architects like Frank Lloyd Wright, Mies Van Der Rohe, and Le Corbusier viewed architecture differently. The precepts of organic architecture had been the forerunner of what is now referred to as sustainable or environmentally responsive architecture. Man-made structures are undeniably intruding into the natural course of nature. When creating environmentally responsive structures, the designer must aim for the least intrusive and most environmentally viable creations. The designer must find ways to synthesize man-made creations with that of the environment.

Aside from the complicated task of sustainability, the architect-planner must also consider other factors involved in the inception and completion of a planning project. The key actors involved have varying opinions on how things must proceed. The planner as the lead professional must have firm ethical foundations or else the opinion of the dominant group may influence the entire process.

Statement of the Problem

In urban planning standards, designers tend to designate private, public, semi-private, and semi-public spaces according to their spatial characteristics and functions. However, some critical aspects are overlooked like social context, psychological impact, and individual perceptions. The scales of differentiating private to public space include the following: spatial (body, home, neighborhood, city), degree of exclusivity and openness, and modes of social encounter (personal, interpersonal, impersonal) (Lawson).

Background of the Problem

Impact of Urbanity in Modern Cities

Richard Sennett wrote in The Fall of Public Man, public life has undergone changes from the early Roman period to present times. He said that for the Romans, they believed that assuming public roles was a formal obligation and they performed that role passively. However, there was a shift in context from the public to spiritual point of view and they sought transformation by refocusing their energy internally. American post-industrial society had become introspective and privacy became imperative.

The Western societies’ preoccupation with privacy and individuality is evident in how elements of cities are conceived. During the 18th century London, coffee houses were venues where people can socialize without divulging private concerns. Sennett made a distinction between coffee houses and clubs. He said that the exclusivity of clubs heralded the beginning of the decline of public life. Before the civil liberties were established in American society, these clubs also connote racial exclusivity. But in today’s scenario, people are more concerned with creating communities rather than maintaining a public persona. Sennett attributed the “fall of the public man” to industrial capitalism. He described the changes in behavior, speech, and fashion as evidence of privatization.

Pre-industrialized America had a public square where friends and strangers can socialize. The public square was a place where members of the community interacted with each other. Other activities such as buying and selling also take place in public squares. Public squares were the life of the community. In sharp contrast, Sennett refers to post-WWII architecture as “dead public space”(125). Balance between the public and private domains has tipped and people lost their articulation of space. The conundrum of daily life eroded people’s artistic instinct and inclinations because “they are unable to tap the fundamental creative strength of the actor, the ability to play with and invest feeling in external images of self.” (Breault) “Capitalism and secularism” had eroded the sense of public life as a morally legitimate sphere (Kimball).

As economic activity spurred by capitalism broadens, people become more impersonal and their desire to live exclusively within their own realm becomes more pronounced. Alienation even among neighbors has become the norm in key cities. Capitalism, according to Sennett, encourages people to become introverted and self-centered. The meaning of commune has been loss because of financial and economic supremacy.

In the second half of the 19th century, large parcels of land were converted into urban centers in major American cities like Boston, Chicago, New York, and San Francisco and later Buffalo, Detroit, Kansas City, Louisville, and Rochester (Banerjee 1+). Park systems offered an alternative landscape to the concrete jungle of American business districts. The public park like Central Park serves as an urban democratic venue. It also promotes civic pride, democracy, and social compact that will engender a civil society.

In general, the private sector seems to dominate the socio-political aspect of a city’s character and development. Since private individuals or corporations operate majority of the public domains, they tend to work more closely with government in establishing codes and zoning. In recent years, gated communities proliferated in the United States. When people were asked about the preference, they expressed “need for safety and a search for community, presumably one that is based on homogeneity and cohesion.” The gated communities may allude to the exclusivity of “clubs” in the past where people feel more comfortable if they are with “people of their sort” (Banerjee p.1+).

There should not be any problems with the future of public spaces in cities. The future of public space was not a cause for a concern because these were experiencing growth in major American cities (Banerjee 1+). But there are three major trends that threaten to shrink the public places: Privatization, Globalization, and Communication Revolution. The steady decline of public realms could be attributed to worldwide liberalism and downsizing governments. Majority of the public realms in key cities are owned and operated by private entities. This trend tends to make these formerly public realms like museums and galleries seem more exclusive and less publicly accessible. Conflicts between local government and the private sector may polarize local and global economies. Finally, people’s preoccupation with information technology development and the Internet may render the function of public realms obsolete.

To counteract the effects of these trends, governments, and private sectors attempted to recover the lost glory of public realms. Shopping malls are now designed to encourage “hanging out” and “flaneur” as the French arcaded walks did (Banerjee 1+). The trend of disappearing public realms is in conjunction with the characteristics of cities experiencing the phenomena because of information technology innovations and privatization efforts, globalization, and down-sizing. The privately managed public spaces present to the public that they are indeed open and accessible to the public. But some forms of controls, whether known or unknown to the public are installed like monitoring cameras and CCTV’s, security systems, and other surveillance devices. Mike Davis cited them as “fortress” environments. Because of their designs, locations, and management policies, for the most part, corporate open spaces remain insular and mostly empty, save for perhaps a lunchtime crowd and occasional clusters of smokers.”(qt in Banerjee 1+) Information technology devalued the function of parks, open spaces because it allows people to retreat into their enclaves rather than “socialize and actively participate in community activities.” (Banerjee 1+)

Contrary to the notion that highly urbanized cities are bustling cities, it is in fact a dead city if public domains are used as a criterion to define a city. Public domains clearly identify with people interacting with each other. Barriers between people should be either non-existent or minimal. Most of the public domains of major cities all over the world had already been privatized as a result of globalization trends. Efforts should be made to recover the lost public domain of the city. The globalization trend that has taken the world by storm has greatly affected the feeling of community in American societies. Urban designers and planners should note the three threats to urban society when designing or re-designing cities. Public domains should not be merely instituted because it solves the problem of environmental congestion. Rather, public domains should exist because people exist and live in these locales.

The terrorist attack on September 11 further exacerbates the already xenophobic populace of America. Security measures imposed on certain areas are hardly conducive to creating public domains. Moreover, it encourages segregation or exclusivity. It is no secret that there are still enclaves that define exclusivity that is race-related. The image of cities as the symbol of capitalism would make people associate it as people-unfriendly district. It is more likely a showcase of urban assembly of concrete sculptures rather than a humane and livable city.

Contemporary Urban Development Paradigm: The City of New York as a Global City

If the Greek’s public life is represented by agoras, then American capitalism is symbolized by the cityscape of New York. New York is sometimes portrayed in literature and even movies as a harsh place to live. A place where everybody is a stranger and community is uncommon. New York City nicknamed “The Big Apple” is home to 8.1 million people and is considered as the most densely populated city in the world. New York City developed from a newly discovered territory in 1609 to the most influential and powerful city in the world. New York rose from nothing to become the financial center of the world. The city attracts immigrants as they make up a third of the entire population. They are attracted to the culture, energy, cosmopolitanism, and economic opportunity that New York City offers.

New York like many cities has a highly visible and dominant public domain that reflects primarily commercial domains in the aspect of finance and tourism. These cities are largely maintained and organized by the private sector. New York is a typical city with a mix of public and private domains. Most cities developed because of the places, things, and services that markets cannot provide exclusively. The city’s urban design plan is designed for mobility whether on foot or by vehicle. New York City government, in their efforts to solve the traffic problem especially in the business districts banned the use of private cars and encourages New Yorkers to use public transport. It is designed for mobility because of the existing major thoroughfares and pedestrian friendly parks and walks.

Many private institutions operate a formerly public domain. Most of the museums, galleries, opera houses and music halls are privately owned. New York City believes in the principle of inclusion. Inclusive cities like New York that people living in New York regardless of gender, race or creed should share the benefits of the city. They should have access to gain full participation in community development. Inclusion respects other cultures and encourages diversity. As characterized by the population living in New York, cultural diversity is welcomed. It is unavoidable though to have exclusive cultural enclaves like the Chinatown or the Hispanic quarter. They give New York the unique character and further emphasize inclusivity.

A global city, also known as a world city or world-class city, “is a city that has a direct and tangible effect on global affairs through socioeconomic, cultural, and/or political means.” (“Global City”) In recent years, the term has become increasingly familiar, because of the rise of globalization (i.e., global finance, communications, and travel).” (“Global City”) Saskia Sassen first mentioned the term “global city”, as opposed to megacity. Global cities share the same characteristics. These characteristics include: “familiarity of the city internationally; influential in world affairs; influential in the world economy; a fairly large population; advanced transportation and communication networks; attractive to foreign investors; and international cultural and athletic venues.”(“Global City”)

Saskia Sassen’s economic globalization theory linked the presence of the service sectors as the main drivers of a city’s global character. For Sassen, major service cities thus become “global cities,” the “strategic places” of economic globalization. As the locales for production, development, and marketing of advanced services, global cities are contemporary manifestations of Jacobs’ dynamic cities. This means that their success is not a matter of separate city development, rather they function as nodes in a worldwide network of cities (Taylor & Lang 3).

The context of globalization is dynamic that the definition evolves over time. As the world’s activities become interlocked, the term globalization takes on a different meaning. Short & Kim in Globalization and the City, wrote

“Globalization takes place in cities and cities embody and reflect globalization. Global processes lead to changes in the city and cities rework and situate globalization. Contemporary global dynamics are the spatial expression of globalization, while urban changes reshape and reform the processes of globalization” (9).

Criteria of a Global City According to Sassen and Abu-Lughod

Saskia Sassen underscored the effects of globalization in the economic milieu. Changes at various levels beginning at the local to the international level require that there must be a nodal point where everything will converge. World cities emerge to fulfill this function of coordinating global economic activities. The economic base of cities has evolved as a result of the demand for more products and services. Alternative service sectors are emerging as a consequence of globalization. “There is considerable evidence that a growing share of high-income jobs are going to city residents, more so in New York than in other major cities. This new middle class produced not only a physical upgrading of expanded portions of major cities but also a reorganization of the consumption structure, both of which were particularly evident in the high-growth years of the 1980s.” (Sassen +32) Alternative economic base like the informal sector has developed to accommodate the new demands of expanding international market. Characteristic of this phenomenon is the increase in the number of immigrants that make up majority of the informal sector. New York City is a melting pot of multicultural convergence. There are more immigrants living in the city compared to the native population. Concurrent with this development is the increase in population and a marked drop in mortality rates in the city. There was a marked improvement in the quality of life as a result of new discoveries and new technologies. Migration is a consequence of globalization that carries with it economic, social and cultural implications. Information technology and modern transportation systems allow migrants to maintain links with their home countries (Sassen +32).

Saskia Sassen and others have further elaborated the “global city hypotheses.” “Global cities have acquired new functions beyond acting as centers of international trade and banking”. They have become:

  1. concentrated control locations in the world economy that use advanced telecommunication facilities;
  2. important centers for finance and specialized producer service firms;
  3. coordinators of state power;
  4. sites of innovative post-Fordist forms of industrialization and production;
  5. markets for the products and innovations produced (Sassen 2001a, 2000, 1991; Brenner 1998; Yeoh 1999; Hall 1996; Friedmann 1995).(Chase-Dunn & Weeks)

For Sassen, the fundamental dynamic posited here is that the “more globalized the economy becomes, the higher the agglomeration of central functions in global cities. The extremely high densities evident in the downtown districts of these cities are the spatial expression of this logic.” (Sassen +32)

Janet Abu-Lughod also espoused the theory on class divergence. Because of increasing economic activity in a given city, the upper class has become dependent on the lower echelons for the much-needed services. However, Abu-Lughod asserts that globalization goes beyond that. In the case of New York City, Abu-Lughod attributes such factors as “spatial/geographical concerns, diversity of immigrants and the relatively accepting attitude New York has toward them (although, it could be argued that immigration is directly related to globalization), and the New York region’s fragmented political structure to increasing class polarization.”(Stodola)

Abu-Lughod focuses her study on “eight forms of variation among the three cities” (Brenner 125-126):

  1. their changing structural positions in the world economy;
  2. the perpetual transformation of their physical sites through human activities;
  3. the impact of their original economic functions, political sponsorships, and cultural patterns;
  4. the “cohort moment” at which each city experienced its most dramatic physical expansion;
  5. the transport technologies that molded each city’s built environment during its cohort moment;
  6. the rates, sources, and composition of demographic change over time;
  7. the changing social and technological organization of production and communication within each city; and
  8. the evolution of class relations, political institutions, and political cultures within each city (Brenner 125-126).

New York City: A Global City

Reflecting on the criteria presented by Sassen and Abu-Lughod, New York City is indeed a global city. Its rise and history portended the leading role the city will play in the future of world order. Sassen propounded that one of the indicators that a city is global is the presence of economic sub-sectors that developed as a consequence of the global role that New York City has assumed. The manufacturing and service sectors in particular were witness to the mass influx of immigrants seeking gainful employment and opportunities in the Big Apple. The reorganization of income-earning activities and emerging consumption and lifestyle patterns evident in New York City today ascertained the city’s position as the main global player in both the political and economic aspect.

The immigrants created new communities and “produced a low-cost equivalent of gentrification…The growing size and complexity of immigrant communities have generated a demand and supply for a wide range of goods, services, and workers.” (Sassen 32+) Sassen asserts that New York City, despite being part of the geographical composition of a developed country has the tendency to develop informal sectors that provide alternative and cheaper labor and services. Garment, furniture, construction, packaging and electronics industries are source of informal work for the immigrants (Sassen +32). As an example, the Fashion industry particularly needs low wage labor costs to compete with other countries that offer the same goods but using lower wage labor component. Reconstruction activities and transforming formerly dilapidated areas into first-class, high income yielding commercial and residential areas require the services of the informal sector. The massive increase in

“sub-contracting to small informal enterprises may be considered a by-product of the global restructuring of capital accumulation–the shift from Fordist to flexible regimes of capital accumulation–and the decline of a manufacturing-dominated industrial complex in developed economies to a service-dominated economy serving dispersed manufacturing operations elsewhere” (Coombe 7).

In addition, this was the consequence of the inability of the formal sector to provide the services. This inadequacy may consist of “excessively high prices, inaccessible or difficult-to-reach locations of formal providers, or actual lack of provision. It would seem that this inadequacy of formal provision involves mostly low-income individuals or areas.” (Sassen 32+).

Abu-Lughod’s assertion that globalization is not limited to class divergence also holds true for New York City. Historically, New York City’s strategic geographical location contributed to its stature as a global city. New York was discovered by Italian Giovanni da Verrazano when he sailed into the New York Harbor. Hudson River, a major tributary also links the city to other parts of the country. Under the British rule, the struggle for independence resulted in a series of historic battles of the American Revolutionary War (“New York City”).

New York experienced the influx of immigrants even during its formative years. In an era known as the Gilded Age, poor immigrants multiplied as the city’s wealthiest prospered. The five boroughs also consolidated their administrations and economic systems (“New York City”). During the 1920s, New York became host to an influx of African-Americans as part of the Great Migration from the American South. During this period, the Harlem Renaissance bloomed and saw the city transformed with massive construction activities of skyscrapers. In 1925, New York became the most densely populated in the world surpassing London (“New York City”). The immigrant composition of the city’s population extends till the present times.

New York City has all the elements that Abu-Lughod outlined in her book regarding global cities. Major financial and political institutions are located in the city. The city also had its share of transformations in terms of technology, transportation and culture. In the current development paradigm of a Global City, New York City deserves being referred to as a global city. It has a rich history as well as the site of convergence of different cultures, business, and political systems. New York City is synonymous to financial and political power. New York City has shown through the ages of the power it wielded and it has survived even the most tumultuous times.

Purpose of the Study

The study will compare two selected cities in the United States that had recently undergone urban renewal as a response to the changing times. To support the study, a review of existing related literature is conducted. Finally, the two cities are compared using acceptable urban planning theories as criteria.

Theoretical Framework

New Urbanism

New urbanism is an alternative urban development paradigm that departs from traditional automobile-oriented development favored in the last half-century. Current developments both in the United States and Europe adopt new urbanism as a new urban redevelopment strategy. New urbanism is the response of many architects, planners, and designers to the urban sprawl that continued to spread in most urban centers. The main principle of new urbanism is to restore the pedestrianization of communities while still maintaining traditional development principles of neighborhoods. New urbanism is also known as “neotraditional design, transit-oriented development, and traditional neighborhood development.” (Steuteville)

New urbanism applies modern design ideas while appropriately designating and converting spaces to become more functional. For example, residential areas have houses built with modern amenities. Shopping or commercial areas need to have adequate parking spaces but they need not be visible in the storefront. Adequate access to parking lots and transport nodes through pedestrianized paths and walkways eliminates congestion. New urbanism blends the new with the old. Instead of the standard grid-type subdivisions of roads, new urbanism adopts a t-intersection to deflect traffic noise and create interest (Steuteville).

Andres Duany and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk included the following elements that constitute new urbanism development:

  1. Neighborhoods have a center. It could be open green space, a square, or a busy intersection;
  2. Residential areas are within five-minute walk to the center or 2,000 feet away;
  3. Mixed dwelling types to accommodate different types of people;
  4. Shops and offices are located at the edges of the neighborhood;
  5. Schools are close by so that children can easily walk to and from their homes;
  6. Play areas should be accessible – not more than 0.10 mile away;
  7. Streets within the neighborhood are networked to disperse traffic through a variety of vehicular and pedestrian routes;
  8. Trees line and shade the narrow streets creating an environment suitable for pedestrians and bikers;
  9. Buildings are placed near the streets;
  10. Parking lots and garages are placed in the back and usually accessed through alleys;
  11. Prominent sites are reserved for civic buildings;
  12. The neighborhood is organized, autonomous, and secure (Steuteville)

Kevin Lynch’s Mental Map of the City

Kevin Lynch proposed an innovative way of viewing the city. By creating mental maps, the city becomes legible. With the mental map, different elements of the city become distinct and people are able to identify and appreciate them. To examine the two localities in the study, Lynch’s principal elements of the city are used to create a mental map of the city. The following are the five principal elements of Lynch’s model and their definitions:

  1. Paths – are routes where people can move around the city. All other elements of the city are arranged around paths.
  2. Edges – define the boundaries of different zones within the city. They serve as lateral references of the people living in the city.
  3. Nodes – are junctions or meeting points. They can be intersections between paths and edges.
  4. Areas or Districts – are identifiable elements of the city. Districts may be distinguished according to its functionality like residential, business or industrial.
  5. Landmarks – are unique features of a city. They are also important in providing directions when one moves within the city. They possess unique qualities that make them distinct from other elements of the city (Sundilson).

Definition of Terms

Global city. Also known as “a world city or world-class city, is a city that has a direct and tangible effect on global affairs through socioeconomic, cultural, and/or political means. In recent years, the term has become increasingly familiar, because of the rise of globalization (i.e., global finance, communications, and travel).” (“Global City”)

New urbanism is an alternative urban development paradigm that departs from traditional automobile-oriented development favored in the last half century (Steuteville).

Urban Fringe. Hough described “fringe as a battlefield between rural activities (predestined to disappear) and the constantly expanding city, with only placelessness in between. The fringe is thus characterized simply as a graveyard for the countryside and a cradle for the city, whereas the intermediate phases of landscape and life are being ignored.” (cited in Qviström 270)

Urban land. Defined as that parcel of land allocated specifically for urban activities (Qadeer 169).

Urban Sprawl. “Is the increased use of urbanized land by fewer people than in the past.” (“Land Use and Urban Sprawl”)

Limitations of the Study

The scope of the research covers urban development studies on two selected cities. Most will be based on existing literature. Due to time and resource constraints, the research will use existing documentations to substantiate the comparison and evaluation of the two cities. The researcher will utilize publications from scholarly journals and books to derive the information. The researcher, however, cannot validate if the resources were still applicable to present day settings. Due to limited information available on the topic, most of the researches were culled from journals and books.

The researcher consulted several journals and publications under the subject of urban planning, urban development, new urbanism, and urban development problems in both University and online libraries like Questia. Several journals and feature stories were also consulted from both print and online versions. For the database search engines of EBSCO, ProQuest, Blackwell-Synergy, MetaPress, Gale, Wiley and Sage online publications, the following keywords were used to obtain the relevant documents: urban development, urban sprawl, urban problems, new urbanism, urban fringe and urban planning. Other online sources using the Google search engine and providing the same set of keywords.

Review of Related Literature

M.A. Qadeer in The Nature of Urban Land defined urban land as that parcel of land allocated specifically for urban activities (169). He characterizes an urban land with the following attributes: Location refers to the position of the parcel land in relation to other areas that are supportive of economic and social activities. The area is linked to other peripheral areas through roads, paths and utility lines (170). Space is another attribute of urban land but not all are exclusively set firmly on the ground. Space, in the context of urban land means that any parcel of land that is man-made as much as it is part of the natural environment (171). Property means that some form of ownership exists whether public or private (171). Clustering refers to the aspect of urban development where no property stands on its own. Each parcel of urban land is contiguous. The characteristic of urban land is heterogeneous. Immobility or indestructibility defined the physical attributes of urban land. It is obvious that the built environment is difficult to transport or move (173).

Amin & Graham in The Ordinary City underscored the growing importance of cities in the global milieu. They assert that cities are “key creative, control and cultural centres within globalizing economic, cultural and social dynamics.” (411) Cities and urban centers are engines of economic progress because it is where most economic activities take place. The importance of cities as economic centers was argued along two streams: “the idea of the city as a knowledge-base and the debate surrounding the supposed resurgence of agglomeration economies, especially in industries of flexible specialization and volatile demand.” (415)

Along the various streams of urban redevelopment initiatives, the authors also found central ideas that provide guidance to new urbanism movements. The new perspective on urban renewal stresses on “the primacy of certain social, cultural, economic, physical, environmental or institutional dynamics within contemporary urban life.” (416) New urbanism offers an alternative approach to urban development where the community is viewed in a holistic paradigm. However, new urbanism theory also has its challenges. There is always the danger of “overgeneralizing” and “overemphasis” on certain aspects of the theory. Not all urban spaces needing renewal and redevelopment could adhere to the principles of urbanism (416). The lack of apparent interconnectivity and interrelationship among the new urban spaces rendered them into “splintering and fragmenting into cellular zones, extended over larger regions, and geared towards specific uses whilst excluding others.” (417)

When analyzing urban areas, Paul Claval in The Nature of Cities and the Analysis of Their Cultural Problems saw the need for geographers and urban planners to examine the cultural context of urban areas. Space as an ecological environment supports transportation and communication as well as the activities like work and leisure that make the urban areas pulse with life. On the legal aspect, space delineated the public from the private. Urban areas are inadvertently linked to people’s past because people who use and live in these urban spaces place distinct meanings on them (159). Urban landscapes are not merely plots of land but an integral element of the myriad of systems that keeps the urban areas functional. Urban landscapes are made up of “roads, gardens, parks, one-storey suburban family houses, sky-scrapers, extensive commercial or industrial buildings.” (159) Urban areas offer an environment for cultural formations for those who inhabit or visit them. Urban areas offer “many opportunities for encounters, the availability of a wide variety of information, man-made landscapes with many monuments and other landmarks.” (160) Not all people living in urban areas have the same cultural formations and perspectives. Hence, there is a high probability of integration. However, problems are encountered when integration is unsuccessful. Coexistence of different cultures within the urban environment posed challenges due to high density and the necessity to share areas or territories (161).

In The State of the Cities, a report published by U.S. Housing and Urban Development in 1999, observed that a strong economy benefits cities and allow them to recover. However, in recent years, the problem associated with urban areas had spilled over to older suburbs. These areas were manifesting problems that are unique to urban settlements like job loss, population decline, crime, and disinvestments (1). In addition, other areas were experiencing the adverse effects of urban sprawl that translated to “traffic congestion, overcrowded schools, loss of open spaces, and other sprawl-related problems as well as a lack of affordable housing.” (1). Despite a robust economy, many cities lagged behind and continued to experience “population decline, loss of middle-class families, slow job growth, income inequality, and poverty.”(2) Unemployment rate remained high in one in every six central cities. The unemployment rate registered as high as 50% of the national average (2). Poverty rates were at 20 percent or higher in 170 small and medium sized cities while 30 other cities’ poverty rates were at 30 per cent or higher (2).

Anthony Downs in Some Realities About Sprawl and Urban Decline described the problems associated with urban sprawl. Urban sprawl contributes to two contiguous problems namely economic and social. The first, economic problems often occurred in areas with rapid growth and also spread to neighboring areas. The problem includes

…traffic congestion, air pollution, large-scale absorption of open space, extensive use of energy for movement, inability to provide adequate infrastructures, inability to locate region-serving facilities that produce negative local impacts (such as airports), shortages of affordable housing near where new jobs are being created, and suburban labor shortages (2).

The second, social problems often occurred in bigger cities, inner ring suburbs, and a few outer ring suburbs because developments had been concentrated on the poorer sectors of the city. Those sites in turn became breeding grounds for crime, poor education quality, non-performing resources and dysfunctional bureaucracies (3). When addressing the two problems, the first received most attention because it generally affected the wealthier segments of the population. The second received minimal attention because it affected poorer households.

Urban development has spilled onto the rural landscape for several reasons. Mark S. Henry, et al in Extending Carlino-Mills Models to Examine Urban Size and Growth Impacts on Proximate Rural Areas, wrote that the changing dynamics between urban and rural were consequences of increasing land rents and more people are moving into the rural areas because of congestion. The positive impacts on urban fringes are the expected increase in employment opportunities as well as opening new markets. Major companies are also responsible for the increase of distribution and services in the rural areas (527).

Another phenomenon was the increase in competition between urban and rural areas because of production for external markets. The areas compete for job opportunities. Urban areas may offer wide range of economic benefits but increasing congestion limits their growth. Rural areas, on the other hand, offer cheaper labor and real estate but other costs like transportation and moving goods to market prove to be disadvantageous (527). The authors’ concluded that urban growth has an impact on nearby rural areas particularly in employment and population change. Their findings in the United States’ South Carolina and border areas of Georgia and North Carolina revealed that jobs are moving away from older urban centers into rural municipalities as people commute from rural areas to the urban fringes. Rural municipalities nearest to urban centers experienced unprecedented population growth (540-541).

Cunningham, et al in their study Faces of Suburbanization: Residential Location Choice at the Urban Fringe, observed that the gradual infringement of the urban into the rural posed additional challenges to rural communities. The incessant rapid development of urban areas that had encroached into rural areas carry with it problems like “loss of open space, increased concerns about water quality, and social pressures such as rising enrollments in local schools.” (395). The authors also noted that most people who relocate to the fringe locations are wealthier compared to those who relocate to urban centers. Minorities, older people and the disabled, in particular, are more like to relocate in urban centers (395).

Rapid urbanization has put much pressure on the quality of urban air, water and life. While these challenges continue to plague highly urbanized centers, Jennifer Wolch in Green Urban Worlds underscored the need to find way to improve the situation. Three main challenges face urban communities. First, the communities must consider how to recover lost elements of natural habitat like plants and animals and bring them back into the community; Second, the practice of consumption and production should undergo change; Finally, the promotion of “ecological citizenship” to gain economic and social justice for the present and future generations (380).

Urban planning and urban problem solving strategies are linked to politics and organizational and institutional structures. To negotiate, plan and implement strategies for change, individuals or groups must understand the processes and relationships with the state and civil society. Sarah Elwood in Beyond Cooptation or Resistance: Urban Spatial Politics, Community Organizations, and GIS-Based Spatial Narratives emphasized the importance of “spatial analysis technologies and different types of spatial knowledge” in negotiating for change (324). Spatial knowledge refers to the extent of meaning and characteristics of an area that individuals or groups often attached to a place (324). Spatial knowledge is particularly important because of the power dynamic involved when determining the goals and direction for change within a community (324-325). Negotiating for urban change essentially involved spatial politics. Institutional politics are also present when individuals or group negotiate for change in their community. Institutional politics are often defined by the extent of “bureaucratic structures, such as positions on a planning board formally allocated to elected officials or community organization representatives.”(325) Urban planning, problem solving, and service delivery had undergone changes and relationship among the actors became more complicated. The author suggested the use of GIS to make spatial narrative more flexible. In her opinion, using GIS as a strategic tool defining spatial politics “urban planning and revitalization is best read not as an expansion or contraction of community organizations’ agency and authority, but as a reconstitution of their engagement in spatial, institutional, and knowledge politics.” (337)

Methodology

To frame the study in the right perspective, a documentary survey on second hand information will be conducted to glean a more holistic approach towards the study. The documentary survey is important so that the study is grounded and supported by previous researches. The previous researches can also be used to validate the current study. A review of related literature and research is included in the initiative. This would give the study a firm foundation and it gives the researcher an idea what previous research initiatives on the topic had been made.

A documentary search was also conducted from online sources using the keywords: urban development, urban sprawl, urban problems, new urbanism, urban fringe and urban planning. The results yielded several important scholarly works relevant to the study. The study proposed to use two theoretical frameworks to ground the work. The intention of this study is to compare two selected cities using the concept of new urbanism and Kevin Lynch’s five elements of the mental map of the city. Finally, the two cities are compared using acceptable urban planning theories as criteria.

Findings and Results

Two cities transitioning from rural into urban spaces are compared using two urban planning theories as criteria. The first in consideration is Addison, Texas. The other is the new development in Phoenix, Arizona. Both cities underwent urban renewal in order to address the challenges brought by urban sprawl. The two areas are essentially “edge cities” or “urban fringes” that need to reinvent themselves to accommodate growing needs. These cities are not highly urbanized yet they accommodate some of the elements that characterize urban centers with a difference. Each case study met and resolved the challenges of instituting change.

Addison, Texas

Addison, Texas is located about 14 miles from Dallas and is typically described an “edge city” bounded by freeways and collector roads. The freeway access to North Dallas Tollway connected Addison to major highways in the Dallas Metroplex development (Local Government Commission). Part of Addison had been converted into urban centers with pedestrianized pathways and commercial spaces. Parking spaces are surreptitiously hidden behind each storefront thereby providing each building with unobstructed view of landscaped areas (Barnett 10+). A key component in the Addison development was the five-storey elevator apartment building integrated into streetfront commercial establishments and parking garages mimicking the characteristics of an urban city. RTKL was the urban designer for the new development. Addison considered itself in the prime position as an edge city of Dallas. The city of Addison shouldered the cost of the new development (Barnett 10+)

Addison supports a population of about 15,000 with a land area of 4.5 square miles. In addition, it is the largest center for retail activity in Dallas employing about 160,000 people or 14 percent of the total jobs in Dallas (Local Government Commission). Corollary to the urban development are 3,000 residential units built to complement the new city. New zoning classifications were implemented to accommodate the new development. To ensure that the new developed areas remained pedestrianized and free from the typical vehicular chaos characteristic of urban centers, Addison Circle had two distinct subzones. One, a residential neighborhood, comprising of medium rise housing, retail stores, parks and community service and the other the commercial district fronting the North Dallas Tollway consisting of high-density office, hotel, retail and residential development (Local Government Commission).

One of the features of the new urban design was the implementation of 12 feet deep residential streets and 14 feet on boulevards complemented with sidewalks and pocket parks. The tree-lined narrow streets provide a relaxing environment for a bustling city. More than 30 percent of the area is dedicated to parks and public spaces. The new residential densities for housing are 37.5 units/acre while apartment densities was at 90 units/acre (Local Government Commission). Residential buildings are designed four-storeys high surrounding semi-private courtyards. Units can range from 570 square feet to 3,200 square feet (Local Government Commission). Figure 1 shows the site development plan of Addison. New urbanism principles are adhered to by the new development. The city is successful on creating an urban area yet its characteristics depart from the traditional definition of urban centers. This is the city’s response to the growing need of transitioning from a rural enclave into a more robust urban center.

Figure 1 – Site Development Plan of Addison (Congress for the New Urbanism)

City of Maricopa, Phoenix, Arizona

The City of Maricopa has similar characteristics. It is 16 miles south of Interstate 10. It supports a population of 15,935 in 2005 (Arizona Department of Commerce). The Interstate 8 (18 miles south) and abd I-10 (16 miles north) are accessible through Sate Route 347 which traverses through downtown Maricopa. Formerly an agriculture-based economy, today’s residents are employed in non-farming industries like “Harrah’s Ak-Chin Casino or commute to their places of employment in nearby Casa Grande or Phoenix.” (The Maricopa General Plan 1) The vision of the city for its future is to retain its small town attributes while acknowledging the need for modernization and upgrade. Within the city limits, land use criteria were amended to accommodate a projected growth of 190,000 in 2020. Table 1 shows how land use designations and sizes were amended.

Table 1 – Major Amendments to Land Use Criteria for Maricopa City (The Maricopa General Plan 11)

Maricopa City is essentially an agricultural service center which includes “USDA/University of Arizona Research Center” and rapidly developing residential areas since 2000 (The Maricopa General Plan 16). Current land use supports an expanding suburban community with complementary service core of businesses and industries (16). Along the Maricopa-Casa Grande/Union Pacific Railway corridors are existing facilities that transport cattle feeds. However, increasing land value has prompted the city to consider transferring the cattle feeds depot (16). The Union Pacific mainline creates a distinctive “edge” but access to the utility remained a challenge for the community. The main artery is John Wayne Parkway that bisects the north-south spine of the city. The land allocation is mainly agricultural at 51%, followed by medium density residential developments at 21%, open and vacant areas comprised of 12% of the total area of the city (17). Employment land uses are primarily concentrated in the “Maricopa-Casa Grande Highway/Union Pacific corridor, the SR 238 corridor, the Phoenix Regional Airport area, and at several nodes in the southern portions of the planning area.” (19) Primarily residential areas are mostly confined in the “east and south of the Old Town area, [including] west of John Wayne Parkway.” (19)

Majority of the trips to and from Maricopa are via automobiles or the railways. Pedestrian and bike lanes are absent. Connectivity between different community destinations proved to be challenging. Only the Old Town area has reserved pedestrian areas. From an agricultural economy, the city of Maricopa has transitioned into service and construction business. To date, the community is underserved badly needing services like retail services and medical facilities (44).

An inventory of existing open spaces and parks only yielded two major ones: Rotary Park (1.25 acres) and the future city park (18.8 acres). The current ratio of open space to population is at 1.66 acres open space for every 1000 population. Quite low compared to the national standard of 5.5 to 6.0 acres for every 1000 (51).

Current status of community facilities is varied and may not be able to support increasing population. The main community facilities of the city include City Hall facility, the Library, and a Public Works yard (61). There are plans to undertake substantial redevelopment in the city to accommodate future requirements.

Maricopa is generally an old rural community thrust into transforming into an urban area because of the effects of urban sprawl from nearby cities. The city has plans to upgrade and conform to standard of an urban city but wants to maintain its “old town” feel.

Analysis of the Two Cities using Kevin Lynch’s Mental Maps of the City

Comparing the two cities, Addison appeared to be well-planned with appropriately designated elements of a city. (Figure 2) However, Maricopa City needs to make improvements in order to respond to growing needs. In the current situation, it was difficult to point out the important landmarks that connect the city to the outside communities. The development in Maricopa is mixed and disjointed. (Figure 3) The commercial areas are scattered (in red) while residential developments sprouted in the most unlikeliest places. The community needs to add more paths so that movement to and from the city would be less challenging. Presently, the main node is the John Wayne Parkway which bisected the city.

Figure 2 – Analysis of Addison Using Kevin Lynch’s Mental Map of the City (Map: RTKL Associates)
Figure 3 – Analysis of Maricopa City Using Kevin Lynch’s Mental Map of the City (Map: Maricopa General Plan)

Maricopa is an example of a rural community unprepared for the onslaught of urban sprawl. Although major transportation routes and utilities are in place, they need to connect the city to the outer communities so that commerce and business transactions will run smoothly. Maricopa can learn from the strategies used by Addison in developing their city. Inclusion of pedestrian pathways and bicycle lanes can connect the city to its outer limits. Presently, the only way to and from the city is through automobiles. It would be disadvantageous for the former rural community because it would be difficult to maintain the ‘old town’ feel they envisioned in the future.

The Old Town could be developed into a major node and landmark for its historical value for the community. Comparing the plan of the two cities, Addison adopted a grid plan where it is easier to manage. Maricopa city has only one major access into the community. This needs to be reconsidered because it might cause vehicular congestion.

Conclusion

Addison is a well-planned community worth emulating while Maricopa is unprepared to receive additional pressure from more economic and industrial development. Maricopa is typical of many rural communities turned urban centers as a consequence of urban sprawl. Although the city has plans to amend the current situation, they may be too late because urbanization and progress waits for no one.

New urbanism offers an alternative approach to urban development where the community is viewed in a holistic paradigm. New urbanism may offer positive developments but Addison must remember not to “overgeneralize” and “overemphasize” on certain aspects of the theory. Not all urban spaces needing renewal and redevelopment could adhere to the principles of urbanism (Amin & Graham 416).

Cited Works

Amin, Ash & Graham, Stephen, “The Ordinary City,” Trans Inst Br Geogr NS (22) (1997), 411–429.

Arizona Department of Commerce, “Maricopa Community Profile,” azacreage.com 2007.

Banerjee, T. “The Future of Public Space: Beyond Invented Streets and Reinvented Places,” Journal of American Planning Association, 67(1)(2001), 1+.

Barnett, Jonathan, “Turning Edge Cities into Real Cities: Edge Cities in Texas, Virginia, Florida, and Elsewhere Are Becoming Real Cities. Streets Have Sidewalks, and They Define Blocks, Squares, and Courtyards. Parking Is Tucked Away in Garages. Buildings House Multiple Uses,” Planning. 68(11)(2002),10+.

Breault, D. A., “The Fall of the Academic,” coe.ilstu.edu 2007.

Brenner, Neil, “World City Theory, Globalization and the Comparative Historical Method,” Urban Affairs Review (2001).

Chase-Dunn, Christopher & John Weeks, “Measuring the Suburbanization of World Cities,” irows.ucr.edu 2007.

Claval, Paul, “The Nature of Cities and the Analysis of Their Cultural Problems,” Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie , 98(2)(2007),153–164.

Congress for the New Urbanism, “Addison Circle,” cnu.org 2007.

Coombe, R.,“The Cultural Life of Things: Anthropological Approaches to Law and Society in Conditions of Globalization,” The American University Journal of International Law and Policy (1995).

Cunningham, Caroline, et al. “Faces of Suburbanization: Residential Location Choice at the Urban Fringe,” Review of Agricultural Economics, 29(3)(2007), 390–395.

Downs, Anthony, “Some Realities About Sprawl and Urban Decline,” The Brookings Institution (1999)

Elwood, Sarah, “Beyond Cooptation or Resistance: Urban Spatial Politics, Community Organizations, and GIS-Based Spatial Narratives,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 96(2)(2006), 323–341.

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Henry, Mark S., et al, “Extending Carlino-Mills Models to Examine Urban Size and Growth Impacts on Proximate Rural Areas,” Growth and Change, 30(I999), 526-548.

Kimball, R., “Academic Psychobabble, or Richard Sennett goes to town,” The New Criterion, 9(9)(1991)

“Land Use and Urban Sprawl,” cwac.net 2007.

Local Government Commission, “Addison Circle: Addison, TX,” lgc.org 2007

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Qadeer, M.A., “The Nature of Urban Land,” American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 40(2)(1981), 167-182.

Qviström, Mattias, “Landscapes out of order: studying the inner urban fringe beyond the rural–urban divide,” Geogr. Ann., 89 B(3)(2007), 269–282.

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Sassen, Saskia, “Rebuilding the Global City: Economy, Ethnicity and Space,” Social Justice. 20(3-4)(1993), 32+.

Short, J.R. and Y-H Kim, Globalization and the City. London: Longman. 1999

Steuteville, Robert, “The New Urbanism: An alternative to modern, automobile-oriented planning and development,” newurbannews.com 2007

Stodola, Sarah, “Globalization and Class Division in American Cities,” methree.net 2007

Sundilson, Ethan, “Kevin Lynch: City Elements Create Images in Our Mind, 1960,” csiss.org 2007

Taylor, P. and Lang, R., “U.S. Cities in the “World City Network” Metropolitan Policy Program Brookings Institution (2005).

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Wolch, Jennifer, “Green Urban Worlds,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 97(2)(2007), 373–384

Urbanization in Mexico

Urbanization can be described as the process in which there is high percentage of people living in urban regions. Even though there are different views about the meaning of the term urban, it is agreed that two significant rapid urbanizations exists.

The first urbanization occurred in 19th century due to industrialization (LEDC) and the second is still transforming since 1950s due to immigration (MEDC) (Martine 54). Some claim that in 1900 just 4% of the global population lived in urban areas and statistics have increased to 44% in 1990 (Martine 54). There is an expectation that by 2025, there will be 60% of the population in urban areas.

Figure 1 below shows the growth of urban areas. The figure 1 shows that LEDCs are facing a more exponential raise in number of population in urban areas, while MEDCs are facing a linear increase. This type of LEDC urbanization growth occurred in 19th century.

Figure 1: Urbanization in MEDC and LEDCs (Martine 54).

Literature Review

Population in Mexico

Mexico can be classified as LEDC. As from 1960s, it has undergone increase in urbanization, population growth, and industrialization. The growth in population is due to reduced mortality rates and better health care services in Mexico. The growth of urban regions has been facilitated by the growing population and rural-urban migration.

The population of Mexico stands at 105 million, where around 21% reside in urban areas of Mexico. Since 1960, the population figures have increased around 6 times (Kulcsár and Curtis 38). Even though statistics show that around 9.8 million people live in urban areas, these statistics does not consider the expansive nature of the city itself.

When taking into consideration the actual state of urbanization in Mexico, everyone must bear in mind the Mexico City Metropolitan Zone (MCMZ), which is approximated to be 7,800 km2 (Kulcsár and Curtis 38) includes the Federal zone (Mexico City proper) as well as 55 municipalities. The number of people living in MCMZ is approximated as 21 million.

Figure 2: Population growth rates in some Mexico cities (Martine 55).

Economy of Mexico

Free market economy that exists in Mexico is derived from services, agriculture, modern and traditional industries which are owned mainly by private sectors. Mexico’s GDP is approximated to be US$860 billion, which are contributed by services (65%), industry (28%), and agriculture (7%) (Martine 57).

The trade agreement between United States and Mexico has supported greatly the importation and trade of commodities in Mexico to U.S. The high reduction in value of the Peso in 1996 was facilitated by the growing trade between both countries. In some of LEDCs, the allocation of wealth is uneven, with the top 20% of returns earners making up 53% of income (Martine 57).

Structure and land use of Mexico City

The Federal zone of Mexico City has created key zones of population structures which have emerged since 1970s (Teresa 56). The key zones are discussed below.

Urban nuclear zones

These are districts situated in the middle of the urban zone where it is dedicated for offices, cultural functions, and as industrial area. Traditionally, it had huge population but people have migrated to other parts of the urban areas. Residential buildings are not found here and the housing in this zone is assigned for other functions like administration and commercial purposes.

Rural Urban Fringes

The rural regions are situated in the southern and eastern part of the Federal zone where these regions have minimal but distinctly growing population. The growth of population was due to, mostly, improved agricultural practises and also the growth of residential zone and tourism.

Intermediate Urban Zones

Intermediate regions are metropolitan where it has undergone rapid increase in its population for the last 40 years, both as ordered and disordered squatter settlements (Teresa 56). Such regions have maintained various rural features in relation to agriculture, but their contribution into the Mexico’s economy is at a minimum. These regions have been located in undesirable or advantageous lands, for example in ravines and along the lakes; these areas are vulnerable to flooding and mud slides.

Origin of urbanization in Mexico

Urbanization in Mexico is as a result of two main causes: relocation and increase in population. There are some factors which triggers these main causes of urbanization. Employment is one of the factors of which it activates the rural-urban migration. Agriculture in Mexico rural areas have been declining since 1950s. As we have seen in the statistics of figure 1 above, agriculture has been contributing only 7% to GDP (Barney 152).

Urban areas therefore have the highest number of job opportunities. After the government took control of the rural lands, the agricultural practises and production declined. After the liberalisation of the Mexico’s economy, land has developed into a commodity. The intention for the expropriation of the rural land is to develop urban housing in the past many years.

Through expropriation of these lands, the possibility of growth in agriculture has lessen and through utilizing the land for housing and other services, the original known rural region is directly changing into urban in one way. Not all of these rural areas have been converted into urban but the government has isolated some of these regions into natural reserves so that they can maintain the nature of the rural areas.

Nonetheless invasions of such regions by the unlawful inhabitants have changed the nature and motive of some of these districts. The expropriation of rural areas have brought about many people to be landless and hence migrate to the urban areas to look for jobs and even into the nearby U.S, with most people trying to enter illegally (LaRosa and Mejía 122).

Morphology of Cities

Through studying the Mexican city system, it can be noted that there is a certain difference from the United States and European urban systems. Mexico cities are considered to have morphological urban structures which are common in Latin America. This type of urban system are mainly caused by some factors like culture, level of revenues, automobile possessions, accessibility of long-term loans for businesses housing sectors and other issues which are exclusive to Latin America.

The key form of urban morphological which many people are using to express Latin American urban was generated by Griffin and Ford (398) and afterwards revised by Larry Ford (438) to add some factors like the growing industrial park which were not added in the previous form. Nevertheless, these models are not without their critics.

Martine (24) disapproved the first Griffin and Ford form and the Larry Ford method saying that it is very comprehensive and not justifying the large quantity of different land use which is located in entire Latin American urban. In the case of urban morphological forms, the one which are found in Latin America can be seen as a division of the urban morphology of the developing countries.

The cities which are in Mexico and United State border, even though they are greatly manipulated by nearness of the U.S, it has adapted to the system of Latin America urban. Those in United States often consider that the Mexico cities which are in the border are a distortion of the United States cities.

This view is fully false. The effects of the Mexican urban policies, economic system, and the point that a large number of these urban cities were established in the colonial era before the creation of this U.S. and Mexico border have positioned a permanent Mexican impression of such urban cities’ structures.

From the analysis of the entire cities in Mexico and the border cities system, it can be noted that they are just the same as in the central part of Mexico. Within the Texas border, main cities reflect on the cities system of Saltillo and Monterrey in several factors because of the influence of growing industrialization, especially because of the progress of rising figures of maquiladoras and the affluence of these regions when match up to other regions of Mexico and the closeness of the U.S (Kulcsár and Curtis 36).

Irrespective of the resemblances of border cities to other cities in the Latin America and Mexican cities, major dissimilarities exist which put the urban cities of Mexico as a unique difference among the Latin American structures. The closeness of United State border to such Mexican cities have promoted the growth of maquiladoras at a greater level above other regions of Mexico, therefore supporting higher demand for employees and raised inner migration to the border cities.

The increasing growth of population has generated a fast development in the housing areas, especially in the growth of considerably large regions of shanty areas on the environs of these cities. This growth has been highly improved by policies, transport, and other structure developments set up by the Mexican government to take the benefits of the areas’ position in comparison to the U.S. over a long period of time.

Problems of urbanised Mexico

There is an increase in urban areas at an approximate of 3 to 10% annually in Latin America (Teresa 56). There are limited areas in the urban cities in which this population must live. Sufficient residential areas and infrastructure services may not be offered for all the people migrating to urban areas.

In Mexican urban areas, the people moving into these cities from other parts of the country are increasingly required to reside in poor areas of the cities. The type of housing found in these regions is informal squatters system, with inadequate or no basic services.

The economy of these Intermediate Urban Zones (as discussed above) is based on services which may be shown by huge population of hawkers in towns. Most of the people are no longer having the capacity to provide basic needs for themselves in these zones. The inequality of wealth allocation is clearly seen in urban regions, where the nuclear zone have more advantage to the global trade but this is not distributed efficiently using the social structure to the regions in the periphery.

The effect of this inequality in the urban areas in Mexico can be noticed in the intermediate housing zones, where essential services such as water, roads, and security are very poorly managed or in some parts often not present. Not more than 25% of provided water goes through potabilization and treatment of water is not always done (Teresa 56).

Most households do not receive pipe servicing daily. Just a fraction of solid wastes is collected and around 30% of solid wastes are not under hygienic states. Over a third of toxic wastes produced in these regions are unaccounted for. Availability of water is a common issue and around 2.4 million city residents are lacking drainage and 4.6 million are under foul sewers (Martine 232).

The income inequality, which can be evidently noticed in the simply contrasting environs of Mexico City, underlines the economic difficulties experienced by the urban at present. While the high population of the poor are found in the rural areas, a World Bank research carried out in 2005 approximated that 12% of urban population of Mexico was very poor, with 42% of the population categorized as relatively poor (Martine 232).

Around 45% of the urban economy is considered to fall in the informal sector, comprising street vendors, service employees, and other traders in the city, who do not have a permanent job and their income are not subjected to tax (LaRosa and Mejía 45). The informal employees are not under the health coverage.

Benefit system and welfare state is not provided to the unemployed people whom they mostly live in intermediate urban zone and they cannot afford to pay for themselves. Some services are available in the urban areas but most of the residents are not in the position to pay for them.

The Mexico government have implemented a social safety net program, commonly known as Oportnidades, which emphasizes on the poor regions of the city and rural areas. These programs have improved the situations in the rural areas and have done less for the intermediate urban zones in the latest years.

Intermediate urban zones have transportation problems and occurrence of violence and crime is at a higher rate. The pollution in Mexico’s urban areas has been considered as one of the worst, although the government has implemented some programs over the last 15 years which is starting to have effects.

Some of the factors which bring about air pollution are from motor vehicles which are in towns. Roads, water, and rail are the only means of transportation for the supplies which are taken to the northern part through land from other parts of Mexico and from South America, hence making some cities as chokepoints. Industries also have contributed to pollutions in the urban areas (LaRosa and Mejía 46).

The topography of Mexico City is a huge factor where the environs of the city are mountainous which does not allow the pollutants away from the city. Water pollutions from industrial waste and inadequate sanitation measures cause many diseases in the urban areas daily. Homes in the urban districts frequently have insufficient or no sanitation, resulting to health issues, adding to the entire irregularities in the water distribution in Mexico urban areas.

Solving the problems of urbanized Mexico

The major problems of Mexico cities should be tackled with effective strategies if these growing issues are to be handled and managed in a sustainable manner. The government should establish effective housing plans, especially improving the standards of housing in the shanty regions of the cities.

The Mexico government are in collaboration with World Bank to deal with some of these concerns, even though Mexico should deal with some of these problems internally and not only depend on the assistance from international bodies. Through supporting urban agriculture, residents living in outside urban areas would become less dependent on services to offer a livelihood (Kulcsár and Curtis 157).

These approaches are being established in Mexico City and some other governmental plans are being implemented to solve the issues of urban growth through offering family planning awareness.

There are some of the strategies which Mexican have implemented to adapt rapid changes which comes with urbanization growth. Some of these approaches are raise cash income, safeguard human capital and food security, safeguard security of the families and assets, and socialization diversification. The residence has established market for their commodities to gather for customers and meet their income target.

Some families have substituted expensive foods like meat with cheaper foods like beans and eggs to safeguard food consumption. Health issues in urban areas are in an increase and because of low income from majority of the Mexico urban population, they may decide to stay ill in order to reduce expenses.

Due to increase of violence and crime in the Mexican towns, the residents have implemented some strategies to protect their families. For instance, some call the police if there is any incidence of crime or violence and return home early. Some of these strategies have effects on their working hours (and as a result reduced wages) and community socialization.

The studies of adaptive approaches of the Mexicans to respond to the rapid changes in urban areas in Mexico cities indicated that families have created new forms of association to take the benefit of opportunities or reduce susceptibility. Mexicans allow their needs to direct their activities which, to some degree, were generated by the poor urban surrounding itself.

Conclusion

This paper illustrated the current trends concerning urbanization in Mexico, including urban structures and migration within Mexico. It demonstrated that the country is distinguished through its high degree of urbanization than some countries in Africa and Asia.

The fast urbanization and development of range of cities which attracted huge population from within and outside the country mostly occurred in 1930 and later in 1970, and was associated with the industrialization development and the beginning of capitalist methods of production in some parts of the country (Barney 55). Rural-urban migration was the major factor which contributed to the Mexico urban growth.

Mexico urban areas are not the only urban areas in the world which are presently experiencing these challenges, several cities are facing intense population growth, generating overpowering demands on essential needs like transportation, water supply, housing, employments, and other services offered by the government.

Due to continuous rapid growth in cities, they cause overwhelming urban arrangement challenges in addition to opportunities to set up the effective programs which could have international implications. Internal migration is a common practise currently in Mexico and has become difficult to measure. Few findings from studies indicate the complexities in the approximation of new dimensional movements in both the small administrative regions and in districts.

Works Cited

Barney, William. A companion to 19th-century America. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2006. Print.

Ford, Larry. “A New and Improved Model of Latin American City Structure.” Geographical Review 86.3 (1996): 438-441. Web.

Griffin, Ernest and Larry Ford. “A Model of Latin American City Structure.” Geographical Review 70.4 (1980): 398-423. Web.

Kulcsár, László and Katherine Curtis. International Handbook of Rural Demography. New York: Springer, 2011. Print.

LaRosa, Michael and Germán Mejía. An Atlas and Survey of Latin American History. Chicago: M.E. Sharpe, 2006. Print.

Martine, George. The new global frontier: urbanization, poverty and environment in the 21st century. London: IIED, 2008. Print.

Teresa, María. Land Privatization in Mexico: urbanization, formation of regions, and globalization in ejidos. New York: Routledge, 2004. Print.

Urbanization and Sub-Urbanization in the United States

Urbanization and sub-urbanization

Urbanization and sub-urbanization are closely connected and even interrelated concepts. Sub-urbanization is the shift of the population of urban areas (city centers) from city centers to the suburbs. There are various reasons for these processes that may include socio-economic factors (lack of employment, cheaper land in suburban areas), environmental issues (natural disasters), cultural aspects (the focus on healthier environment), and so on.

The major reasons for sub-urbanization in the United States

After the WWII, the US government invested funds in the development of a network of highways (for military and civil purposes) (Ammons 33). The economic growth of the country enabled many people to buy cars so people could commute to city centers (working places) more easily. Suburban areas provide more opportunities for companies as there are different zoning rules, financial regulations, land prices. Companies choose these areas as their employees can easily commute.

Urban planning: political aspects, roles, types and styles, local agencies

It brings some consistency with existing political, social and cultural norms (Weaver et al. 149). Federal and state government create rules and regulations that are often related to private property issues. Social norms often shape cities’ layout, and the US segregation of the first part of the 20th century affected city zoning rules. Cultural aspects should be taken into account as it is crucial to create spaces for people’s gatherings.

How do planners use Kevin Lynch’s design ideas?

Lynch stressed that people developed mental maps that made their living in a certain space clear (to them) and comfortable (Major 152). Modern designers and city planners use his ideas and make sure that all the five elements he mentioned are present in their spaces. According to the famous urban planner, cities should have clear paths (routes), edges (boundaries such as rivers, walls or buildings), districts, nodes (places for gatherings), and landmarks (famous points often used for reference).

1893 World’s Columbian Exposition in planning history

1893 World’s Columbian Exposition had an immense impact on the development of city planning. The exposition occupied a large territory, and the creation of the space was associated with the effective collaboration of officials, architects, designers, landscape architects, and so on (Tate 305). The exposition resulted in the creation of a beautiful urban space, and people acknowledged the benefits of city planning as well as the cooperation of different professionals.

Social aspects of planning

The social aspects of planning include functionality, perceptions, social norms changes, community networks, and so on. Without addressing these aspects, city planning will be ineffective. It is vital to make sure that people will have areas for satisfying their needs (places of employment, places of recreation, services, spaces for gatherings). Of course, transportation should also be characterized by effective routes that unite all these areas.

Way Stations

A way station is an area where immigrants can meet. Many countries (including the USA) are characterized by a significant ethnic diversity due to the flow of immigrants who often form communities in a new country (Ring, Watson and Schellinger 351). City planners have addressed the needs of these people through creating way stations where newcomers share their culture, speak their language, celebrate their festivities and so on.

NIMBY phenomenon

NIMBY is the phenomenon that involved residents’ opposition to some changes. The acronym stands for “not in my back yard” and reflects the nature of the opposition (Brinkmann 231). Residents often agree that the incentive is important, but it should be implemented in a different place. For instance, building a road or a plant may lead to such opposition. They understand the benefits of the change but are not ready to sacrifice their comfort or habits.

Comprehensive plan in local areas

A comprehensive plan can be regarded as a guideline for the development of a community. The plan is developed in accordance with goals formulated. The comprehensive plan usually includes such aspects as environment, public welfare, people’s health and safety, and so on. The plan is often developed for 10 or even 20 years. The plan is always agreed with the public, and the necessary changes are included. This ensures people’s satisfaction with their community’s development.

Works Cited

Ammons, David. Municipal Benchmarks: Assessing Local Performance and Establishing Community Standards. New York: Routledge, 2014. Print.

Brinkmann, Robert. Introduction to Sustainability. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2016. Print.

Major, Mark. “London: Light + Dar = Legibility: An Approach to Urban Lighting.” Cities of Light: Two Centuries of Urban Illumination. Ed. Sandy Isenstadt, Margaret Maile Petty and Dietrich Neumann. New York: Routledge, 2014. 152-159. Print.

Ring, Trudy, Noelle Watson, and Paul Schellinger. The Americas: International Dictionary of Historic Places. New York: Routledge, 2013. Print.

Tate, Alan. Great City Parks. New York: Routledge, 2015. Print.

Weaver, Russell, Sharmistha Bagchi-Sen, Jason Knight, and Amy E. Frazier. Shrinking Cities: Understanding Urban Decline in the United States. New York: Routledge, 2016. Print.