North America developed as a frontier, so its cities were also forced to emerge in difficult and suboptimal conditions and undergo quantitative and qualitative restructuring under rapid industrial growth. This led to the fact that American urban planners solved problems dictated by different living conditions and circumstances in each separate period. For example, during the period of city creation in the 17th century in Europe, urban planning, the creation of architectural ensembles and public spaces, and the design of local facilities have long been actively used (Reps, 2001). Noticeably, America came to such concepts only at the end of the 18th century, when it was the right time and context for new ideas (Rice, 2014). This transition solved some severe problems of survival and adaptation.
Urban Planning Theories Used in The United States
The Garden City Theory
Various urban planning theories have been used in US history, ranging from the romantic to the pragmatic or politicized. One of the most romantic architectural movements was the garden city movement, imported to the US by Clarence S. Stein and Henry Wright, among others (Georgia Planning Association, 2018b; Kashef & El-Shafie, 2020). The theory was developed by Ebenezer Howard under the influence of British urban construction, which is why one may say that England influenced the selected style, highlighting the need to unite the concepts of town and country (Georgia Planning Association, 2018a). Noticeably, Germany is the state that significantly influenced the style (Harris, 2012). Thanks to the country, the theory became more focused on social movements like women’s rights.
In America, garden cities flourished in New York, Virginia, and Florida, and Walt Disney’s concept of the prototype city of tomorrow draws on this theory. The current appeared in response to industrialization and sought to bring the best aspects of village life back to the city while maintaining mobility, social opportunities, and conveniences (Spiegel, 2021). Therefore, one of Howard’s key suggestions was to start from the circle’s center when creating cities and have a special area for citizens to open all public facilities (Spiegel, 2021). Modern urban planning was impacted by the garden city concept, precisely with the idea of mandatory use of green spaces, increasing the number of public spaces for recreation, and expanding the living space of an ordinary person.
Systems Theory
The problems of industrialization and the terrible state of cities have forced politicians and city planners to think about the effectiveness of urban planning in terms of a systematic approach. Traditional planning approaches did not consider the social and economic aspects of city life, so there were constant problems with urban infrastructure, zoning, uneven load, etc. (Shi et al., 2021). Systems theory, as one of the modernist modes of planning, was based on a scientific approach, calculation, and perception of the city as a system of interconnected elements (Shi et al., 2021). The purpose of such planning was to ensure the city’s functioning as a life support system for the urban community.
Systems planning was founded by a British biologist, sociologist, and urban planner Patrick Geddes, who believed that city building should be flexible, evolving with the needs of the inhabitants. This requires collecting information about the life of urban areas and applying “conservative surgery” (Eisenman & Murray, 2017). It is an approach to modernizing the urban environment that does not completely disrupt the existing space but adapts it to the community’s needs (Eisenman & Murray, 2017). For example, it expands narrow passages and courtyards, restores and preserves the best objects, and creates comfortable spaces for living. It is less expensive and more efficient, based on real local needs. As for the impact of other countries on the theory in question, while certain effects are not clearly explored, each state introduced something new to the style.
How Can A Biblical Perspective Be Applied to Urban Planning?
In the United States, the biblical perspective has significantly influenced and continues to influence urban planning. Religion can be considered in urban planning as one of the lenses that allow the development of spiritual values in the city’s ecosystem, not just functional ones (Allam, 2020). Some general principles of urban planning can be found even in the Bible. The Book of Numbers details the urban planning of the Levitical cities to meet the needs of the entire population: “Then they will have towns to live in and pasturelands for the cattle they own and all their other animals” (New International Version, 2011b, Numbers 35:3). The critical element is the planning of the original ensemble and the prohibition against changing it “because the houses in the towns of the Levites are their property among the Israelites” (New International Version, 2011a, Leviticus 25:33). Thus, the Bible teaches to include nature in urban planning instead of destroying it and balance the needs of different segments of the population when designing.
Conclusion
Urban planning in the United States has undergone many development, change, and modernization periods. American architects were inspired and borrowed from European trends and theories, primarily actively relying on the British experience in creating and re-planning cities. This is because Europe faced new historical and social processes for a long time before the United States, which had larger spaces and developed more slowly (Joch, 2014). The European experience indicated which methodologies work and how to apply them. However, American planners had to face their unique challenges and apply the full range of traditional and modern methods to solve them.
References
Allam, Z. (2020). Theology, spirituality, and urban objectivity. In Theology and urban sustainability (pp. 69-79). Springer, Cham.
Reps, J. (2001). Towns, time and tradition: The legacy of planning in frontier America. In J. Stein (Ed.). Classic Readings in Urban Planning. 1st Edition (pp. 7-10). New York: Routledge.
Urban planning and development have emerged as effective solution to human issues because it pays attention to the implications of human settlement on the environment and sustainability. Therefore, the theories that guide associated initiatives are critical in ensuring positive advancement and progress toward goals. Mainly, conceptual planning and the rational-comprehensive planning theories are frameworks builders should adopt to cater to diverse issues and fulfil their responsibility to the earth as stipulated in the bible.
Conceptual planning approaches deal with ideas and abstract principles that guide planning rather than the tools and techniques used in the implementation. Thus, conceptual planning accommodates social constructs, political dimensions, and philosophical institutions to make urban planning development decisions (Cullingworth, 2004). As a result, this approach acknowledges how city designs will affect women and marginalized groups, interpersonal relations, inequality, power imbalance, the economy, and the environment. Thus, conceptual planning is critical in creating more democratic, equitable, and sustainable societies.
The rational-comprehensive planning theory allows planning committees to consider a range of options before selecting one with the most potential benefits. Using the tenets of this concept in urban planning and development enables systematically evaluating plans based on a set of criteria (Couch, 2016). Thus, it makes it possible to assess relevant projects, alter designs to produce more value, and carry out risk analyses. The theory assumes planners can select the best fit without bias (Heymans et al., 2019). However, social and political factors often influence decisions and the planning process. Regardless, it offers an opportunity to consider effective solutions to city planning and urban development.
Human beings are responsible for biodiversity and environmental conservation. The Book of Genesis suggests that God put man on earth so he could till the land (King James Bible, 2019). Thus, it is human’s responsibility to ensure its thriving by doing things in an organized manner. Proverbs 28:19 suggests that a man who does not till his land will not have any food and will suffer in poverty (King James Bible, 2019). Therefore, urban planning and development theories enable humans to achieve their goals and live as God wishes.
References
Couch, C. (2016). Urban planning. Palgrave McMillian. ISBN: 9781137427564
Cullingworth, B. (2004). Planning in the USA: policies, issues and processes. Routledge. ISBN: 9780415506977
Zoning refers to the process of dividing a city or town into different districts with specific land use regulations. The goal of zoning is to ensure that the different types of land use are separated and that the uses are compatible with one another. Individuals who should learn about zoning categories and subdivision regulations include real estate developers, urban planners, local government officials, real estate agents, surveyors, architects, and engineers (Li et al., 2021). In addition, it is extremely useful for individuals in the general public who want to be aware of the regulations and utilization of land in their local area. (Klein & Meck, 2002). To gain a deeper understanding of this topic, it is important to analyze the differences between zoning categories and subdivision regulations related to them, as well as integrate a biblical viewpoint on the issue.
Discussion and Analysis of Zoning Categories
Zoning categories and subdivision regulations are a reflection of the values and priorities that guide a community. From a biblical perspective, these values should be rooted in the belief in the inherent value of human beings and their need for a safe and supportive environment. This means that zoning regulations should prioritize the health, safety, and well-being of residents while also promoting the responsible use of resources and the protection of God’s creation (Cullingworth & Caves, 2014). At the same time, zoning should also recognize the importance of economic development and the need to provide opportunities for all people to thrive and flourish.
There are several categories of zoning that are commonly used, including residential, commercial, industrial, and agricultural. Zoning protects property values, promotes the development and public health, and maintains the overall quality of life (Chen et al., 2022). One of the main types of zoning, residential zoning, is a critical component of land use regulation that plays a key role in shaping the character of communities. It regulates the type, density, and design of housing, as well as the proximity of other land uses, such as commercial and industrial areas. Residential zoning considers factors such as the type of housing allowed, building design standards, and the impact of nearby land uses on the quality of life for residents. Its goal is to maintain the character of residential areas and protect property values while also ensuring that residents have access to necessary services and amenities.
Commercial zoning regulates land use for commerce and business, balancing development and community impact. It defines allowed commercial uses, regulates building size and design, and sets parking and relationship requirements. Commercial zoning supports local businesses and residents’ access to goods and services while preserving community health and safety. Consequently, industrial zoning regulates land use for industrial purposes, such as manufacturing, warehousing, and distribution. Its goal is to locate and manage industrial uses in a way that promotes economic development while minimizing the impact on the surrounding community. Industrial zoning typically defines the types of industrial uses allowed in a particular area and may regulate building size, design, and use, as well as establish setback requirements and specify the relationship between industrial uses and other land uses, such as residential areas.
Finally, agricultural zoning regulates land use for agricultural purposes, such as farming, ranching, and forestry. The goal of this type of zoning is to protect agricultural land and promote agricultural activities while also considering the impact on the surrounding community. Agricultural zoning typically defines the types of agricultural uses allowed in a particular area, such as crops, livestock, or forestry. It may regulate the size and location of buildings and other structures, as well as the placement of roads and utilities. The aim of agricultural zoning is to ensure that agricultural uses are compatible with the surrounding community and protect the health, safety, and well-being of residents. In addition, it ensures preserving valuable agricultural land and promoting sustainable agriculture practices. By doing so, agricultural zoning helps to maintain the character of rural areas and support local food production and rural economic development.
Euclidean zoning, form-based codes, and performance-based zoning are three different approaches to regulating land use and development. Euclidean zoning uses specific use categories, such as residential, commercial, and industrial, to determine what types of activities can take place within a particular district (Heris et al., 2020). Form-based codes focus on the physical form of development, regulating the design and orientation of buildings, streetscapes, and public spaces. Performance-based zoning sets performance standards for development, such as environmental sustainability or energy efficiency, rather than dictating specific design requirements. The difference between these approaches lies in their focus, with Euclidean zoning focusing on use categories, form-based codes focusing on physical form, and performance-based zoning focusing on performance standards (Heris et al., 2020). Each approach has its own strengths and limitations and is often used in conjunction with other approaches to create a comprehensive and flexible land use regulatory system.
Problems and Issues with Zoning Categories
One of the main problems with zoning categories is that they can become outdated and no longer reflect the changing needs and demands of communities. From a biblical viewpoint, it is important to be good stewards of the resources and communities one is responsible for and to make decisions that promote the common good and serve the needs of all people (Shin & Preston, 2021). Therefore, zoning regulations should be designed and updated in a way that reflects these values and supports the flourishing of communities. For example, zoning regulations should allow for the development of new types of uses that are emerging in response to changes in the economy or technology and should be flexible enough to respond to changing conditions and needs within a community. By doing so, one can encourage innovation and economic growth in a way that is consistent with biblical principles.
Another issue with zoning categories is that they can result in unintended consequences, such as the displacement of certain types of uses or populations. For example, if a residential area is rezoned for commercial use, long-time residents may be forced to move, leading to the loss of a sense of community and the displacement of affordable housing (Profiroiu et al., 2020). Zoning can also lead to unequal distribution of land uses, with certain areas being designated for heavy industry or commercial development while others are reserved for residential use. This results in unequal distribution of environmental impacts and other benefits. Moreover, zoning can reinforce and exacerbate existing socio-economic disparities by limiting opportunities for certain groups.
Analysis of Importance of Zoning Categories
Zoning categories are very important because they regulate the use of land in a community and guide development. By categorizing land use, zoning helps to protect property values, promote economic development, protect public health and safety, and maintain the quality of life for residents. Understanding the different categories of zoning is important for anyone involved in real estate development, land use planning, or local government (Profiroiu et al., 2020). At the same time, zoning follows the biblical principle of stewardship, balancing individual, community, and environmental needs to glorify God; Genesis 1:26-28 highlights people’s stewardship responsibilities in the following passage:
‘Then God said, “Let us make man in our image, after our likeness. And let them have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the heavens and over the livestock and over all the earth and over every creeping thing that creeps on the earth.” So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them. And God blessed them.’ (English Standard Version Bible, 2001, Genesis 1:26-28).
Permit Review
Zoning plays an important role in relation to the various land use management tools.
Thus, permit review involves evaluating proposals for new construction, alteration, or demolition of buildings and structures against the regulations set forth in the zoning code. Zoning categories serve as the foundation for permit review, as they dictate what types of activities can take place within a district and the criteria for approval.
Conditional Uses
Conditional uses refer to specific types of land uses that are allowed in a district but only under certain conditions. These categories also play a key role in determining which land uses are eligible for conditional use permits and what conditions must be met for approval.
Variances
In turn, variances are exceptions to the zoning regulations that allow for deviation from certain requirements in specific cases. Zoning categories serve as the baseline for variances, as they dictate the standards that must be met in order for a variance to be approved (Yiu & Cheung, 2021).
Administrative Remedies
Administrative remedies refer to the enforcement mechanisms in place to ensure compliance with zoning regulations. Zoning categories provide the basis for enforcement, as they dictate the regulations that must be followed.
Discussion and Analysis of Subdivision Regulations
Subdivision regulations dictate how land can be divided and developed within specific zoning categories. These regulations cover issues such as the size and layout of lots, the design and placement of roads and infrastructure, the provision of open spaces, and the preservation of natural features and environmental resources (Yiu & Cheung, 2021). They also aim to ensure compatibility with the surrounding community and protect property values and public health. In addition, they preserve the character of established communities by establishing standards such as minimum lot sizes, setbacks, and building codes. They serve as a crucial component of zoning, providing detailed guidelines and standards for the division and development of land.
One of the biblical principles related to subdivision regulations is the concept of community and the importance of living in harmony with one’s neighbors. In the book of Romans, it states, “Love your neighbor as yourself” (English Standard Version Bible, 2001, Romans 13:9). Additionally, in 1 Corinthians 12:26, it is said, “If one part suffers, every part suffers with it; if one part is honored, every part rejoices with it” (English Standard Version Bible, 2001, Corinthians 12:26). Subdivision regulations help to promote a sense of community by setting standards for the development of residential and commercial areas, ensuring that the rights and interests of all individuals and property owners are protected. Through these regulations, communities can be developed in a way that balances the interests of individual property owners with the well-being of the larger community, fostering a spirit of love and unity among neighbors.
Problems and Issues with Subdivision Regulations
Problems and issues with subdivision regulations can include difficulties in achieving a balance between the needs and interests of individual property owners and the well-being of the larger community. For example, overly restrictive regulations can limit property owners’ rights to develop their land as they see fit, while too lenient regulations can result in poorly planned and managed developments that negatively impact the surrounding community (Toner et al., 2021). Additionally, the process of obtaining approvals and permits for subdivisions can be complex and time-consuming, leading to frustration and delays for developers and property owners. The regulations themselves can also be a source of confusion and controversy, as different communities may have differing interpretations of the rules and guidelines governing subdivisions. These issues highlight the importance of finding a balance between protecting community interests and promoting individual property rights, as well as the need for clear, well-designed, and consistently enforced subdivision regulations.
The Bible teaches the importance of balancing individual rights and responsibilities with the needs and well-being of the community. For example, in 1 Corinthians 12:12-27, Paul speaks of the church as a body with many parts, each of which has a unique role and function, but all of which work together for the good of the whole (English Standard Version Bible, 2001). Similarly, in the context of subdivision regulations, it is important to ensure that the rights and freedoms of individual property owners are respected (Hirokawa, 2012). At the same time, it is necessary to take into consideration the impact that their development activities may have on the surrounding community. By following this biblical principle, individuals can work together to create well-planned, harmonious, and sustainable communities that glorify God and benefit all who live within them (Kearns, 2022). In the context of subdivision regulations, individual property rights must be respected while considering the impact on the community to create well-planned, harmonious, and sustainable communities that glorify God.
Analysis of Importance of Subdivision Regulations
Subdivision regulations play a crucial role in shaping the development of communities and ensuring that land is used in a responsible and sustainable manner. They ensure that new developments are planned and managed in a way that protects the health, safety, and well-being of residents while also promoting economic growth and prosperity.
Permit Review
The permit review process is a key component of these regulations, as it ensures that proposed subdivisions meet all relevant requirements and standards before construction begins. This helps to ensure that new developments are safe, compatible with their surroundings, and do not cause undue harm to the environment.
Conditional Uses
Conditional uses allow for some flexibility in the application of subdivision regulations while still maintaining the overall goal of protecting the well-being of the community. From a biblical viewpoint, this approach aligns with the idea of balancing justice and mercy, as it allows for a more nuanced and compassionate approach to regulation (Hurlimann et al., 2021). For example, a conditional use permit may be granted to allow for a higher-density development in a particular area, provided that certain conditions, such as the provision of additional park space, are met. This allows for a more nuanced approach to regulation, and allows for a greater variety of development types within a community, ultimately reflecting the Biblical principle of loving one’s neighbor as oneself.
Variances
Variances are another important aspect of subdivision regulations, as they allow for exceptions to the rules in specific cases. For instance, a property owner may be granted a variance for a larger home if they show the lot size or other factors prevent compliance with zoning regulations (Couch, 2016). They can be a valuable tool for balancing the needs and interests of individual property owners with the goals of the community as a whole.
Administrative Remedies
Administrative remedies are a crucial component of subdivision regulations, as they provide a mechanism for resolving disputes and correcting any violations of the regulations. For example, if a property owner is found to be in violation of the regulations, they may be ordered to make changes to the development to bring it into compliance, or they may be subject to fines or other penalties. This component also helps to ensure that subdivision regulations are consistently enforced and that the community as a whole is protected.
Conclusion
It can be concluded that zoning categories play a vital role in regulating land use and guiding development in communities. Along with subdivision regulations, they help to maintain the character of residential areas, protect property values, promote economic development, protect public health and safety, and maintain the quality of life for residents. These categories include residential, commercial, industrial, and agricultural categories. However, zoning categories can become outdated and inflexible, leading to unintended consequences such as displacement and unequal distribution of land uses. To address these challenges, different approaches to zoning, such as Euclidean zoning, form-based codes, and performance-based zoning, can be used. Overall, zoning is an important tool that follows the biblical principle of stewardship by balancing individual, community, and environmental needs. The understanding of zoning categories is crucial for anyone involved in real estate development, land use planning, or local government.
It is important to note that urban planning is one of the key aspects of urbanization, which affects how housing policies are implemented and how neighborhoods are established. The knowledge gained throughout the semester is invaluable one, has a great degree of utility in both my private and professional endeavors. Housing, neighborhoods, and real estate markets are primarily determined by urban planning, policies, and practices, the failures of which are the causes for the existing housing problems, but a healthy neighborhoods approach can be a solution.
Discussion
Firstly, at the beginning of the semester, I considered the subject to be mostly about designing streets and blocks. However, now, I learned that urban planning goes much deeper than what I assumed previously. It essentially impacts every aspect of every resident’s life, starting from how he or she moves to what resources he or she can have access to since it creates communities, neighborhoods, and real estate markets. The role of urban planning in American society has been and continues to be profound. I learned how housing policies shape the borders of neighborhoods, and I additionally know that it is a complex challenge to regulate the real estate market’s supply and demand.
The most valuable aspect of the course is that it enabled a greater understanding in me when it comes to major housing and planning issues. The planners have a significant influence on the design and placement of neighborhoods, which is done through economic development, preservation, transportation, public facilities, and land use. The latter has become one of the most impactful factors on housing affordability, exacerbating housing shortage and access, especially for low-income populations. High prices tend to undermine the quality of the houses built as well, which is a unique market development considering that higher prices are usually correlated with a greater quality of a product. However, in real estate, the value of a commodity is greatly tied to a multitude of factors, among which the land plays a major role.
Secondly, the specific aspect of a lecture topic of interest is the building healthy neighborhoods approach. The main reason is that the framework offers a real solution instead of simply informing on multitudes of problems in the existing system of the real estate markets with their underlying issues of policies. It is essentially an asset-based and market-driven strategy, where the building comes from strength, and demand is created for housing (Poland, 2020). In addition, the healthy neighborhoods approach seeks to allocate investment in places of scarcity of resources, which implies a targeted investing strategy (Poland, 2020). It mainly focuses on building communities at its core, and thus, it is not solely about housing itself.
The methods healthy neighborhoods approach is of the highest interest to me since its purpose is to restore real estate market value instead of purely making houses code-compliant and safe. Its strategy is to choose properties for the best visual market impact rather than repair, and it responds to consumers with the most price-strengthening impact. The standards adhere to quality rehabilitation expectations by developing resident incentives for specific outcomes. The healthy neighborhoods approach supports services, markets the neighborhoods, and harnesses community pride.
Conclusion
In conclusion, urban planning affects housing, neighborhoods, and real estate markets through policies and practices, the failures of which are the causes of the existing housing problems. A healthy neighborhoods approach can be a solution, and it is essentially an asset-based and market-driven strategy, where the building comes from strength and demand is created for the housing. It builds communities that are valuable in the real estate market instead of making affordable neighborhoods with low market value.
Reference
Poland, D. J. (2020). Introduction to planning: Lecture VII: Housing & neighborhoods [PPT slide].
Alongside a broad range of related concepts, sustainability has been one of the most commonly discussed topics in the contemporary fields of science, economics, business, and politics. As the number of environmental effects resulting from the anthropogenic activities is growing, and the list of challenges the humanity is expected to face in the future is expanding, sustainability in the present days is becoming a very important and pressing issue.
Due to the global and ubiquitous nature of environmental challenges and the adverse effects of the pollution of the atmosphere and oceans, deforestation, and the destruction of sea beds and ecosystems, the need for sustainable development and practices begins to occur almost in every sphere of people’s daily activities. Moreover, the expanding and irreversible quality of the environmental effects, as well as their wide variety, dictate the complexity of sustainability as a concept, its flexibility, and applicability to many different spheres of life. As one of the most important domains of human activity and social organization, cities require special attention in terms of sustainable planning and development.
In this paper, the concept of the sustainable city will be discussed and explored using an existing urban area (West Loop Area in Chicago) as an example of sustainability or its absence in general terms, regarding the use of land, transportation solutions, possible reconfigurations, street management, and potentially use policies that could help improve the levels of sustainability in the city under analysis.
Sustainable City as a Concept
As specified by Beatley and Manning, there is a certain degree of ambiguity that is typical to the concept of sustainability; differently put, the authors specify that it is not always obvious when present (3). However, the authors add that sustainability is easier to grasp when viewed in application to renewable resources such as freshwater, soils, and forests (Beatley and Manning 5). In addition to being quite difficult to comprehend and describe, the concept of sustainability is also new.
It is especially new when applied to city planning and development; it was powered by the rapid growth of the urban population triggered by the process of globalization and that increased communication and transportation activities. As the density of the population residing in large cities of our planet began to maximize driving the need for more and more resources, city planners started to consider the sustainability of the latter that would help support the expanding numbers of residents without damaging the areas or destroying the environment (Beatley and Manning 6).
When it comes to city planning and development, the society in the United States, as well as its preferences in terms of living conditions are usually characterized with what is known as a sprawl – a set of typical residential behaviors creating dangerous and unsustainable systems (Freilich et al. 23). In particular, some of the most common signs of the sprawl are the large mansions, huge territories, and privately owned lands with communities demanding the same services and conveniences as the urban multistoried buildings, numerous cars often exceeding the number of families living in an area, urban decay, and abandoned sites.
In that way, a sustainable city can be characterized as an urban area recognized for its smart planning helping to minimize the waste of consumed resources such as drinking water, electricity, and event space, minimized rates of pollution of soil, water, and air, with effectively planned and managed streets and roads allowing the free and efficient movement of vehicles.
Sustainability in West Loop Area in Chicago: General Overview
The urban area selected for the analysis and discussion in this paper is the West Loop area in Chicago. This is a territory with a dense population, busy roads, and multiple landmarks and places of attraction.
One of the most noticeable features of the selected area is its busy traffic and a large number of cars on the streets. However, the look at the map of this area helps notice that the roads and well-planned and the districts do not have any isolated parts or the regions reaching which could be a challenge. Large roads are located parallel to one another and allow even traffic movement throughout the entire territory of the area.
Also, as one of the most populated and busy areas of Chicago, West Loop is known for its multiple green initiatives such as green roofs, farmers’ markets, and parks. The areas along the roads are often surrounded by trees; other green oases can be found almost in every block or two. As reported by DNA Info, the West Loop area is known to be at the top of the list of the greenest areas in Chicago (Cox).
Land Use and Transportation
The land of the West Loop area is used very effectively, driving around its blocks and studying its maps, I could not locate any buildings that were inefficiently used or the large private houses that were likely to consume a lot of resources and complicate the way they are delivered and allocated around the districts.
Moreover, as noted by Condon, the effectiveness of the land use in an urban area can be evaluated based on what is referred to as a 5-minute walk rule, according to which the convenient and frequently visited locations such as schools, supermarkets, markets, and other community services could be reached within a five-minute walk (68). This is the case because humans, as practical thinkers are sensitive to minor conveniences and would prefer a brief walk to a series of tasks related to driving and finding parking spots.
In the area selected for this analysis, I could locate a school, a church, several stores and supermarkets, a dental clinic, several parks, and recreation areas, as well as a hotel within a five-minute walk. The only essential facility that I could not seem to locate during my exploration of the area was a hospital.
Regarding the transportation, it is important to mention that a large and very busy multilevel road junction is located in this area; it adds to the amount of traffic as several highways and main roads cross it. In that way, it is possible to conclude that the air in this area suffers from extra pollution brought about by the active traffic. Additionally, it is quite possible that during the busiest days and hours, the blocks with apartment buildings situated near the road also suffer from increased noise pollution. Also, many pedestrians and bicycle riders could be seen around the area; this could be the result of the convenient location of most essential facilities in the areas allowing residents to reach them without having to drive.
Possible Reconfigurations
Land use and transportation management are the two aspects that should go hand-in-hand when it comes to finding solutions to the lack of sustainability in any area (Wier). Discussing the sustainability and city planning challenges specific to West Loop area in Chicago, it is important to point out that the issues related to the closeness of the multilevel junction, as well as the passages of many main road and highways are impossible to address by moving these objects or removing them whatsoever. However, the adverse effects of the roads and active traffic could be minimized via a couple of changes.
First of all, since a great deal of air pollution results from the emissions of CO2 produced by the passing vehicles, the initiative aimed at the improvement of the quality of air in the area could design more parks and green areas around the roads. As for the noise pollution, the potential reconfiguration could aim at the relocation of the urban dwellers to the areas situated further away from the highways, which is a very complicated mission to accomplish.
Also, a general policy or a promotion program aiming at the reduction of the number of vehicles in the area (using carpooling, for instance) could be beneficial in terms of traffic.
Streets Evaluation
As specified by Seskin et al., inclusive, sustainable, and safe road use is the primary aspect of the Complete Streets Initiative. As mentioned in one of the previous sections, the five-minute walk rule outlined by Condon applies to the area under discussion. In addition to the well-planned stress, the resources and facilities placed in the area are managed in a smart manner making the most essential locations easy to access without having to start a car.
This aspect of the area’s planning approach is designed for the purpose to encourage walking on the use of green means of transportation such as bicycles as alternatives to driving. In this manner, the planners of the area created the conditions favorable for the reduced use of vehicles, which is especially important for West Loop as its territory is crossed by several highways and the main road, this adding to the amount of traffic passing through.
Based on my evaluation of the area during a personal visit, I was able to locate a wide range of essential facilities such as markets, supermarkets, shopping malls, a dental clinic, a church, a hotel, several parks, and recreation sites, and a school placed within a relatively short distance from one another and several apartment blocks. In that way, I was able to conclude that the streets of West Loop match the main requirements of the Complete Streets Initiative.
Prospects and Policies
Currently, the area under discussion is the carrier of one of the highest scores in the region of Chicago in terms of green initiatives; the score is based on the presence of green roofs, parks, and other green facilities and sites throughout the entire territory, thus improving the quality of air (Cox). This initiative should be taken further in the future and some more green areas should be added around the main roads and especially around the multilevel road junction located in the area that serves as a massive source of air and noise pollution.
The policies recommended for the area could aim at the addition of more green sites, the potential relocation of the dwellers of multistoried apartment buildings from the junction – the initiative that could cause a significant public dissatisfaction if done wrong. Also, another policy for the area could aim at the further minimization of the number of vehicles used in its streets using the promotion of green transportation modes and carpooling.
Works Cited
Beatley, Timothy and Kristy Manning. The Ecology of Place. Island Press, 1992.
Freilich, Robert H. et al. From Sprawl to Sustainability. American Bar Association, n.d.
Condon, Patrick M. Seven Rules for Sustainable Communities. Island Press, n.d.
The general theme of the Book “The Great Good Place.”
“The Great Good Place” is a book written by Ray Oldenburg, a metropolitan socialist from Florida. The significance of casual and open gathering places is the main theme of the book. Oldenburg, in the book, explains why such gathering places are important to society and public life. He claims that in a community, the central things that help in creating regional democracy include the bars, salons as well as general stores. These places, according to him, are in contrast to “the first and second places of home and work” (Oldenburg, 1999). By looking at how these places operate and the role they play, the author offers insights for persons and societies all over the globe.
Oldenburg refers to third places as the “great good places,” where members of the public gather and interrelate. He argues that these places are different from first and second places, which include home and work, respectively. He adds that third places allow the community to set aside their personal concerns and take pleasure in the company and discussions around them. According to Oldenburg, “third places host the regular, voluntary, informal, and happily anticipated gatherings of individuals beyond the realms of home and work” (Oldenburg, 1999).
He proposes that bars, main streets, tea rooms, salons, and other third places are the central points to a community’s social vivacity and the base of a functioning democracy. These places, according to the author, help in encouraging social equality among the citizens by offering mental support for the locals as well as a foundation that the people can use for local politics. He states that “What suburbia cries for are the means for people to gather easily, inexpensively, regularly, and pleasurably — a ‘place on the corner,’ real-life alternatives to television, easy escapes from the cabin fever of marriage and family life that do not necessitate getting into an automobile ” (Oldenburg, 1999).
He sums up his work by concluding that, “In the absence of informal public life, living becomes more expensive. Where the means and facilities for relaxation and leisure are not publicly shared, they become the objects of private ownership and consumption” (Oldenburg, 1999).
Authors purpose for writing the book
The author wrote the book in 1999 in an attempt to show the significance of casual and open gathering places, which he referred to as “third places.” He had realized that social interactions in the community had decreased and was therefore trying to bring them back to society by emphasizing the importance of such relations.
Content and organization of the book
The book is divided into three parts, Part I, II, and III. In part I, the author explains the concept of the third place in the United States, explores the features of third places, and summarizes the “personal benefits” and “greater good” which occur as a result of developing and maintaining third places. He states, “My interest in those happy gathering places that a community may contain, those ‘homes away from home’ where unrelated people relate, is almost as old as I am” (Oldenburg, 1999, p.6).
He says that his love, appreciation, and commitment to third places act as an encouragement for persons trying to justify their dedication to societal collaboration.
The second part of the book is like an excursion through several intercontinental third places. The author starts this part by analyzing the “old-world German and early German-American beer garden” (Oldenburg, 1999, p.90).
He states that the informal German social place was a “base of viable community life” while the German- American pub was “a parent form of association out of which the more formally organized activities would emerge” (Oldenburg, 1999, p.90).
In the last part of the book, the author talks about the factors threatening third places. He begins by criticizing the urban sprawl for its role in endangering America’s third place. He then deals with the problems faced by these places as a result of being open to all classes and sexes. He concludes the section with a summary of the significance of different sex bindings.
Evaluation of the book “The Great Good Place” in terms of knowledge of urban studies
The book has put into words and focuses on all the characteristics of urban life by arguing that a third place is a place where public members can “hang out.” The author has defined these places by identifying the magical chemistry that these places need. The author of the book trusts that the need for humans to relate with one another will, without doubt, lead to the revitalization of places where human beings enjoy each other’s company. The book verifies people’s need for excitement through discussions in the “great good places”(Oldenburg, 1999).
The author passionately writes about the current problems in America, which have resulted from the nation’s rising social isolation and provides the reader with a simple solution. According to the author, Americans should read and respond to the rational answer to salving their stressed lives. The government needs to encourage, permit and zone conscientious neighborhood hospitality, which realizes the importance of “a vital informal life.”
Conclusion
The Great Good Place is a good book that should be read by almost every citizen of the United States. The book gives a good evaluation of gathering places by reminding persons of their importance. The Great Value book is most acclaimed for its ability to help people handle everyday problems that will include the community. The book has had a greater influence on people’s perception of communal collaboration compared to all other books dealing with the same subject.
Reference
Oldenburg, R. (1999). The great good place: cafés, coffee shops, bookstores, bars, hair salons, and other hangouts at the heart of the community. New York: Marlowe.
Urban planning in Canada is taking a completely new twist that many had not anticipated. Scholars and a section of the political class have named the new approach to urban planning gentrification. Maschaykh (2015) defines gentrification as “the process of renovating and improving a house or district so that it conforms to middle-class taste” (p. 78). In this new approach, old buildings that were designed and built several years ago are destroyed or remodeled into new structures.
Toronto is one of the areas that are affected most by this approach to urban planning and development. According to Hays (2016), the Toronto Strong Neighborhoods Strategy 2020 was meant to increase the number of housing units in the region but in a way that promotes integration and positive engagement. However, many scholars and the political class argue that the new approach is only focused on one area of the vision, which is increasing the number of condos in major urban centers.
When these developers come with their plan, they promise the local community that their focus is to improve the housing sector in line with the emerging standards. After houses are refurbished, the amount needed for rent will be high, and the previous tenants are forced to look for alternatives. A section of the community is also opposed to the new system saying that it is desecrating Canadian culture capital. It is important to find a way of addressing the concerns that stakeholders have to eliminate the current controversies in the new approach to urban planning.
The Pros and Cons of Gentrification
According to Paton (2014), gentrification is not unique to Canadian cities. The approach of uplifting cities and improving the residential space started in most European cities such as London and Paris. As the global population increases, the number of people living in urban centers is also on the rise. Some of these cities have buildings constructed over 100 years ago when vertical space was not a major issue. However, that has changed, and the new demand for housing units has forced urban planners to rethink strategies that can help meet the local demand. Gentrification is coming out as one of the ways of addressing this problem. It is important to discuss the pros and cons of this approach to urban development.
One of the biggest benefits of gentrification is the modernization of housing units in the major cities. It eliminates designs that were constructed dozens of years ago with beautiful, modern ones, which are space conscious. According to Maschaykh (2015), most of the old condos lack sprinkler systems that can enhance fighting the fire, effective exit routes in cases of emergencies, and many other modern housing systems meant to improve the safety, security, and functionality of the houses. Figure 1 below shows a clear contrast in terms of the beauty of an old housing structure and a new one after gentrification.
Fig. 1. Comparing an old-model house and a gentrified structure (Maschaykh, 2015).
Paton (2014) says that gentrification is the only way of utilizing the land space effectively. Some of the current buildings in cities such as Toronto and Vancouver were constructed when the population was less than half of the current one. As the number of residents continues to increase, the land space is not increasing. Sticking to the old modeled structured cannot provide a proper solution to the emerging housing problem. It is necessary to have new structures that are sensitive to the problem of scarcity of land. Gentrification offers the best solution to this problem.
It is important to note that gentrification has disadvantages that need to be addressed to ensure that concerns of a section of the community have been addressed. One of the biggest issues with gentrification is its destruction of most of the cultural buildings in major cities around the world. Montreal’s Saint-Henri area has popularly been considered a cultural capital in Canada. The new approach to urban planning and development threatens to wipe that out completely. The cultural buildings that defined the city are being replaced by new buildings, erasing any cultural connotations in the region.
If the trend is not regulated, then this cultural city will be transformed into a modern urban center. Another major issue that has been raised is the displacement of the lower-middle-class members of the society in these cities. Once these houses are renovated to modern standards, the rental cost is hiked, making them unaffordable to the previous owners. Some are forced into the cheaper ghettos that are yet to be affected by gentrification. Others have complained that the new urbanization approach is ignoring the need to preserve cultural buildings, including churches. Figure 2 below shows a church that is earmarked for demolition to give way for the construction of a new condo.
Figure 2. Gentrification process (Maschaykh, 2015).
Examples of Areas That Have Gone Through the Process
Montreal is one of the areas which are most affected by the gentrification process. However, Hays (2016) observes that many other cities in other provinces in Canada are also going through the same process. One of the cities significantly affected by the new urbanization plan in Winnipeg in Manitoba, with a population of 641,483. According to Paton (2014), Quebec City in Quebec has also been facing gentrification in the recent past. Old structures in these cities are disappearing at alarming rates. The increasing population is always cited as the main reason why it is necessary to replace the old buildings with new housing units that maximize the use of space.
How These Areas Were Affected
Gentrification in the urban centers discussed above has had a significant impact on the local population and the landscape of the area. According to Hays (2016), most of the gentrified cities have changed from what they were several decades ago. New skyscrapers are emerging to replace the old houses. The infrastructural development is impressive. The cities are now sustaining the increasing number of residents because of the structures that take advantage of the vertical space.
However, Maschaykh (2015) notes that as the strategy addresses the problem for a section of the society, especially the rich and the working middle-class, another section is negatively affected. The lower-middle-class people who were previously living in these cities are being displaced. Some of the cultural buildings and restaurants are phased out as the new buildings emerge. Those who are replaced are forced to live in the city suburbs or ghettos where they can afford to pay rent.
The Inevitability of Gentrification in Saint-Henri
Saint-Henri is one of the major urban centers in Canada that have experienced massive modernization in the housing sector. Most of the traditional old-model houses are modernized to meet the emerging needs. Hays (2016) notes that gentrification in Saint-Henri has elicited major public debate, especially among the local population. A section of the local community feels that the process is inevitable as a form of urban renewal. On the other hand, the opponents feel that this approach to urban renewal is threatening the very culture that the city has held dear for decades. These conflicting views have affected the ability to achieve the urbanization programs in line with the expectations of the local community.
The people opposed to gentrification have a genuine argument when they say that cultural values associated with specific buildings will be lost. They are also right when they against the new phenomenon where the local residents are displaced once these buildings are modernized. However, the truth is that gentrification being experienced in Saint-Henri is inevitable because of the need to have new structures that make proper use of the available land space. The city’s population is growing so rapidly that lack of housing is becoming a major problem. According to Paton (2014), globalization has had a serious impact on the population of Canada.
Many people from around the world are immigrating to Canada as one of the most preferred destinations in North America. Some of them are students, while others are economic immigrants. Paton (2014) argues that cases where people are forced to share rooms are common. Students may not have a problem sharing rooms with their colleagues. However, adults seeking to relocate to these cities may not find comfortable sharing rooms. Statistics show that the population is likely to increase further, which is an indication that the demand for housing units is expected to be higher than it is currently. Gentrification is considered the only way of addressing this problem.
The 1 in 6 Rule
A perfect example of a deliberate attempt to fight gentrification in the city of Saint-Henri taken by the local authorities is the 1 in 6 rule. The new rule restricts businessmen from opening new classy restaurants 25 miles from an existing one. According to Maschaykh (2015), many people have complained that the new facilities are too expensive for them to afford. As such, the move made by the local authorities is not only meant to protect the heritage of the city but also to ensure that the lower-middle-class members of the society are protected from aggressive businessmen who are increasingly targeting the rich and the upper-middle-class members of the society.
The rule is noble, and its intentions are meant to protect a section of society that is not financially empowered. However, one of the main questions that it raises is how long such laws will remain relevant in this city. According to Paton (2014), change is a strong force that one can manage to resist just for a short while. At the moment, it may be possible to come up with such laws as the 1 in 6 rule when the demand for these services is still bearable. However, soon it will be clear to the local authorities that change is a force that cannot be stopped for long.
The demand for new restaurants, new condos, and other new products in the real estate market that is associated with gentrification is on the rise. Maschaykh (2015) explains that forces in the market often define the supply. When the demand for these products is high, the suppliers will attempt to increase the supply. The market forces define changes that are currently witnessed in urban planning and development.
The 1 in 6 rule may be popular to a section of the society at the moment, but its relevance may not last long. Saint-Henry, just like many other cities in Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and many other developed nations, is faced with the problem of the ever-increasing demand for housing units, more restaurants, and more entertainment joints than ever before, but space is limited. The living standards of the majority of residents in these cities are also increasing. It means that the residents desire to have modern housing facilities built as per the latest designs. Their emerging needs in the real estate sector are redefining strategies used by developers to ensure that they meet the demand.
Any law that seeks to fight against these changes can be viewed as retrogressive. They may not stand the test of time because the population of the city is consistently increasing (Paton, 2014). The local authorities and members of the society should understand and appreciate the fact that gentrification is inevitable and should be embraced as a form of urban renewal.
Gentrification in the Greater Toronto Area
Gentrification is increasingly becoming one of the most popular forms of urban renewal in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA). According to Hays (2016), the local developers have been keen on taking advantage of the open spaces that have not been utilized. However, after many years of rapid development and limited land space, it is now clear that a new approach to urban renewal is inevitable. New houses are being refurbished or demolished to give way to modern housing complexes.
The old restaurants along the city streets are also getting facelifts to modernize them so that they can be aligned with the emerging demand. In the GTA, this approach has been witnessed in various towns, especially those that have experienced a rapid increase in their population. Figure 3 below is a map of GTA identifying specific areas that have witnessed cases of rapid gentrification.
Fig. 3. Gentrification in GTA (Toronto Social Development, Finance, and Administration, 2017).
As shown in the map, the GTA is significantly affected by the increasing cases of gentrification. As shown in figure 3 above, some sections of the area are more affected than others. Some of these areas include Oakville, Union, South Parkdale, Downtown Brampton, and Toronto-Danforth, Port Credit. In this section, the focus will be to analyze gentrification in Downtown Brampton as one of the areas that are experiencing modernization at rapid rates in GTA.
Using the demographic links in this analysis is crucial. According to Paton (2014), gentrification is propelled by the force of the growing population in specific cities within the country. Downtown Brampton is one of the regions in GTA that has experienced a rapid increase in its population. It is currently one of the most densely populated areas in the region. Figure 4 below shows the population density in various parts of GTA. The city is identified as one of the most densely populated areas in Ontario.
Fig. 4. The population density in GTA (Toronto Social Development, Finance, and Administration, 2017).
The map above shows that Downtown Brampton is one of the areas in GTA that experienced a population growth of over 10% from the year 2011 to 2016. The city has been attracting local and international tourists for various reasons. The business community in the region has also registered impressive growth. These factors have led to the rapidly changing face of the town. Like Saint-Henri, Downtown Brampton is a cultural center with some buildings considered a true depiction of the town’s heritage, having been constructed over 70 years ago. Some of the restaurants in the city were designed and constructed using Victorian architectural designs (Paton, 2014).
Figure 5 below shows one of the oldest yet very popular hotels in Downtown Brampton, known as Aria Bistro & Lounge. Constructed using a beautiful pattern of red and black bricks, this is one of the few restaurants city still housed in the old buildings constructed over 50 years ago. The interior design of the restaurant has been remodeled to reflect the emerging needs, but the structure has not been brought down, as has been the case in various parts of the town.
Fig. 5. Aria Bistro & Lounge (Maschaykh, 2015).
According to Paton (2014), gentrification in the Greater Toronto Area is threatening to wipe out cultural structures that have for a long time been considered heritage centers. Libraries are getting refurbished, churches are giving way to new skyscrapers, and old apartments are getting replaced by new condos. The modernization is giving Downtown Brampton a new face that reflects a modern city. However, some people are not comfortable with the rapid change. They feel that real estate developers are only focused on making extraordinary profits at the expense of the local population.
They feel that buildings and sites that have for a long time reflected the heritage of the city are being wiped out without any considerations (Paton, 2014). Others also feel that the middle-lower class and the poor are getting pushed out of the city. Houses are becoming more expensive to buy or rent, restaurants are becoming unaffordable, and life is now unbearable to a significant population of the city residents who are not financially empowered.
According to Maschaykh (2015), the current trends in urbanization show that old structures designed several decades ago when real estate developers had enough land space may not be sustainable in the future. It means that beautiful hotels in Downtown Brampton such as Aria Bistro & Lounge may not be around for long. Soon, the city will rid itself of all the old buildings despite the resistance that has been witnessed in the recent past.
Conclusion
The paper shows that gentrification is one of the emerging urban renewal approaches gaining popularity around the world. The increasing population in major cities has forced developers to find alternative ways of meeting the high demand for housing units. The limited land space makes it impossible to build new houses in the affected areas. The study shows that gentrification cannot be avoided and should be embraced. However, the emerging wave of gentrification is threatening to replace traditional buildings in some of these cities. The limited land space and increasing population mean that this approach to urban renewal is unavoidable.
What needs to be done is to ensure that modernization does not leave some people homeless, and neither should it make life so expensive that the lower-middle class is forced out of the cities. The stakeholders should find a balance between meeting emerging needs for more housing units and the needs and concerns of the local population.
Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) aims to stimulate the free movement of urban community members across distinct residential, commercial, business, and leisure spaces. Therefore, efficiency may be viewed as one of the major criteria for its assessment. Lynch defines efficiency in terms of cost: the less costly the creation and the maintenance of a system is, the more efficient it can be considered (118). However, the efficiency of a transit-oriented community (TOC) can also be measured by how easy its various elements can be used by individuals who live there and if their use allows community members to achieve their transit objectives well. It means that efficiency refers to the overall functionality of systems and their usability.
Accessibility
The dimension of accessibility is pivotal to take into account since it is much harder to use different functions and elements of a system if they are scarce. Noteworthily, opportunities to perform certain transit-oriented tasks (for instance, travel through public transport hubs and road infrastructures) constitute merely one aspect of accessibility.
Lynch indicates that access to various services, information, and places is also important in TOCs as these resources allow meeting the diverse needs of their inhabitants more feasibly (118). As such, the availability of necessary intangible and tangible resources, including infrastructures and facilities, largely defines whether a TOC is usable or not.
Diversity
The availability of different types of resources is linked to the criterion of diversity. However, in the context of TOD, the diversity of activities is particularly important. For instance, Jabareen notes that “lack of concentrated diversity can put people into automobiles for almost all their needs” (5). In contrast, the presence of diverse transit modes, including public transport, paths for walking, and cycle tracks means that people can utilize a greater variety of means to reach their goals. The same applies to types of residential areas, services, opportunities for leisure, and so forth. The more diverse these resources and possibilities are in one area, the higher quality of life and the greater community sustainability may be achieved.
Coherence
Diversity is always associated with complexity, yet it does not mean that a community must be developed in a disorganized manner. It makes coherence, which refers to an orderly manner of arrangement, an essential dimension for the assessment of TOCs as well. From the perspective of Ewing et al., coherence, as an evaluation criterion, must mainly be used to analyze the visual character of an urban area and, in particular, consistency and complementarity in the way different buildings and landscape elements are placed in a community (S226). However, the same criterion may be utilized to assess the social environment of a TOC by focusing on the consistency of available services and activities with various residents’ interests and needs.
Compactness
Compactness is another dimension of a special arrangement of buildings and landscape elements in a community. The term “compactness” implies that an urban area has reasonable limits and is well-bounded. The latter characteristic implies that in a compact TOC different transit points and can be reached within a justified distance that can be measured, for example, in terms of time required to travel from one place to another. Thus, compactness not only maximizes the positive experiences of transit system users but also contributes to the greater sustainability of TOCs (Jabareen 46). The fewer time residents need to invest in transit, the better the ecological effects can be.
Greening
Considering the rising trend for environmental sustainability, the degree of urban areas’ greening is important to measure. Greening is proven to induce favorable outcomes in terms of the pollution rate decrease, public health, and overall quality of life (Jabareen 46). This dimension can be measured by the extent and number of green community areas (parks, conservation zones, forests, and so forth), as well as the level of various “green” technologies’ integration into TOCs.
Tidiness
Tidiness may be viewed as a crucial aspect of order in a community. Ewing et al. refer to this concept as “the condition and cleanliness of a place” (S226). It is valid to say that similarly to greening, tidiness improves the attractiveness of a TOC, residents’ perceptions of their community, and the overall quality of life. This dimension can be measured by analyzing the visual appearance of a TOC and identifying spaces requiring repair and maintenance.
Justice
It is also essential to plan TOCs taking into account how different social and physical elements of the environment affect people. Thus, justice or, in other words, the distribution of environmental costs and benefits among all residents and urban areas must be assessed (Lynch 118). Besides, justice can be measured in terms of equality of access to various resources. If it is easier for some populations of a TOC to certain resources and if it is easier for them to use those resources than for others then TOC is not developed justly.
Vitality
The criterion of vitality incorporates many of the abovementioned dimensions, including efficiency, accessibility, compactness, and diversity. The term refers to “the degree to which the form of the settlement supports the vital functions” (Lynch 118). It means that to be able to sustain itself, a TOC must have all the necessary and diverse resources and arrange them in a way that supports various activities of individuals and the community as a whole. Thus, it is valid to say that the assessment of this dimension must start with the understanding of overall community needs and then proceed towards the analysis of its capacities to meet those needs.
Sense of Place
Like vitality, the criterion of the sense of place comprises multiple previously discussed dimensions. The concept refers to a degree to which residents can mentally differentiate and comprehend their community in terms of time, space, and suitability of various urban elements of a TOC with their values and views (Lynch 118). Thus, a sense of place is simultaneously a physical, social, psychological, and cultural measure. As such, it can be measured by identifying the subjective perceptions of residents and by looking at whether various TOC elements fit well in the cultural background of the community.
Sense of History
This criterion is interrelated with the abovementioned as it refers to the historically determined identity of a settlement. However, while the sense of space emphasizes the importance of congruity between psychological and environmental dynamics, the sense of history is even more specific (Lynch 134). It points to the significance of old cultural artifacts in endowing physical urban spaces with meaning. However, the dimension refers not to the presence of museums and galleries in a TOC but the integration of culturally and environmentally significant objects and elements into the urban space (Hough 186). The more such elements are present in the environment, the greater the sense of cultural and historical identity it has.
Livability
The dimension of livability encompasses all the previously discussed criteria. At the same time, it focuses exclusively on residents’ subjective perceptions of community qualities, meanings, functions, and usability (Bosselmann 155). Thus, to understand if a TOC is livable, it is essential to evaluate it based on such criteria as efficiency, accessibility, tidiness, justice, and so forth. However, what is more important, to measure the livability of urban space, it is pivotal to ask what people think about it and compare the actual situation in a community with their needs, preferences, and interests.
Works Cited
Bosselmann, Peter. Urban Transformation: Understanding City Design and Form. Island Press, 2008.
Ewing, Reid, et al. “Identifying and Measuring Urban Design Qualities Related to Walkability.” Journal of Physical Activity and Health, vol. 3, no. 1, 2006, pp. S223-S240.
Hough, Michael. “Principles for Regional Design.” The Urban Design Reader, edited by Michael Larice and Elizabeth Macdonald, Taylor & Francis Group, 2013, pp. 179-225.
Jabareen, Yosef Rafeq. “Sustainable Urban Forms Their Typologies, Models, and Concepts.” Journal of Planning Education and Research, vol. 26, 2006, pp. 38-52.
Lynch, Kevin. A Theory of Good City Form. MIT Press, 1984.
Urban planning is a discipline that explores aspects of the built and environment of communities and municipalities. It is also a discipline that deals with development on small scale i.e. landscape architecture and urban design. Urban planning is concerned with the designing and ranking of settlements from the world’s smallest to the largest cities.
History and chronology
Urban planning and redevelopment have existed for not more than a century. However, cities and settlements have displayed degrees of forethought and design in their functioning layout. With the growth of agriculture, nomadic existence was replaced. This resulted in the emergence of human settlements. Larger settlements began to appear and became centers for defense, trade, politics, and distributing agricultural produce.
The Harrapan civilizations, the Mesopotamia, Ur, and cities of the Indus valley in India are among the earliest cities where planning and management of cities begun. They portrayed some form of planning because they were often paved and laid out in a grid pattern. There was also a hierarchy of streets with small residential alleyways and commercial boulevards. The ancient cities from archaeological evidence had houses that were laid out to protect them from odors, noise, and thieves.
They also had their own drainage, wells, large granaries, and sanitation. In 407 BC Alexandria city was laid out by Hippodamus. It was the best example of an ideal form of urban planning in early times which has been used or improved on to this day. (Garvin, 2002)
Ancient Romans used urban planning schemes for civil convenience and military defense. The basic feature was a central plaza with all services centralized and it was surrounded by a rectilinear grid of streets that were built for defense purposes. The city was built near a river, to carry away sewage and provide water and transport for the residents. Two diagonal streets crossed the square grid from one corner to the other in order to reduce travel times. Roads were made of stones that were carefully fitted together. An ideal city emerged in Florence. In this city, a star-shaped plan was adopted. Radial streets extended outwards from a center of military, spiritual or communal powers, for example, the Vigevano city (1493-1495)
In the 20th century a movement begun for providing people especially factory workers with a healthier working environment. The garden cities concept and models were adopted, the first being in the UK where Welwyn and Letchworth garden cities were built. However, in the post-modern era planning has eliminated disorders and concentrated on diversity in the economy as well as society.
Key issues
Sustainable urban development
Sustainable urban development is defined as the development that improves the short and long-term ecological health and social health of cities.
Associated issues with sustainable urban development
Some of the associated issues are efficient land use directed to prevent any land wastage, less automobile use in the urban but with better access, efficient use of resources, less waste and pollution, good housing and conducive environment for living, a healthy ecology, community participation and involvement, sustainable economics and preservation of the local culture. The problem of urban planning and redevelopment poses a challenge to the planners especially the implementation of sustainability visions, programmer, and policies, and the need to modify institutions of planning to achieve these goals. (Garvin, 2002)
Aspects of planning
These are simply the things that must be kept in mind when planning is being done. Aesthetics
Successful urban planning is supposed to consider the character of local identity, respect for natural, historic and artistic heritage, an understanding of “townscape” or “urban grain” pedestrians, and other modes of traffic natural regards and utilities such as flood zones in the city. Planners apply tools like zoning to manage and use growth management in order to manage the pace at which development takes place. Many beautiful cities today are a result of dense, long-term systems of prohibitions and guidance about building uses, sizes, and features smart growth is a contemporary term being used in more repackaged conventional planning techniques. (Garvin, 2002)
Safety
This is another issue that arises under the aspects of planning. History holds that most cities were located on higher grounds for defense purposes and also near freshwater sources as escape routes. Security is one issue that is sought after by every individual and therefore urban planners spend most of their time ensuring that safety is incorporated in their planning techniques. In modern times cities have grown in coastal as well as flood areas making them more prone to storm and flood surges.
These emergencies are mitigated with secure emergency evacuation routes and emergency operations points. Urban planning has gone the extra mile into designing out crime and considering “traffic calming” and pedestrianization as better ways of making life in urban areas more pleasant. Criminality has been controlled through structures designed from different theories such as environmental determinism and social- architecture. (Garvin, 2002)
The theories assert that an urban environment can affect an individual’s level of obedience to social rules. Psychological pressure is said to develop in densely developed and unpardoned areas. The stress brings about crime and the use of illegal drugs. The remedy is more space for individuals and a better and more beautiful designed living environment.
The “eyes on the street” concept maintain that improving surveillance of land (which is shared and facilities of nearby residents), through increasing the number of persons who can see it will help residents easily detect undesirable behavior, hence helping curb criminal activities and make urban centers safer. The “broken windows theory” states that some small things which act as indicators of neglect can also promote crime, for example, broken windows and unkempt lawns. This is taken to mean a state of decay and people likewise fail to maintain their properties. The theory suggests that it is abandonment that causes crime and not vice-versa.
Slums
This is another issue associated with aspects of planning, a significant need for planning strategies and resources is required to address slum development.
Urban decay
This is a process where a city or part of it falls into a state where it can not be repaired, it is characterized by property abandonment, depopulation, fragmented families, crime, high unemployment, political disenfranchisement, and an unfriendly and desolate urban landscape. Urban decay is caused by poor urban planning decisions, suburbanization, development of freeways, redlining, racial discrimination, and immigration restrictions. (Hoch, 2000)
Transport
A good transportation network brings about development but any development beyond a certain density quickly overcrowds transportation. For many years transportation in urban areas has been a major problem characterized by long hours that are spent on roads due to traffic jams. Good planning policies positions higher densities of residents and jobs near places with high-volume transport network, for example, commerce and multi-story apartments are permitted in one block of train stations. Single-family homes and parks are placed further away. A common method used to measure densities is the floor area ratio. The floor area of buildings is computed and divided by the area of the land. Most city centers have a density of five and above while sky scrappers easily hold a density of more than thirty.
The impact of poor and good urban planning is always felt by all the people inside and outside the urban environment. Those inside are however the most affected because they spend more hours in the urban environment, effects of bad drainage systems on urban dwellers may be a bad odor, diseases, and traffic jams which cause a lot of time wastage. If the urban centers are well planned, the above-mentioned problems cease to exist and dwellers enjoy a more pleasant life. Those outside the urban cities are affected because most industries are located in these centers. A good or bad transport network in these centers determines the duration the manufactured goods and services take to reach them.
The urban planning problems in the past were addressed through limiting traveling which was aimed at reducing crowds in the cities, use of levees, and retaining walls that were used as shelter from floods. These measures bore fruits because there were reduced jams on the urban roads and lives were saved from the effect of floods and other emergencies. (Camillo, 1999)
Alternative solutions to urban problems do exist, urban planners must consider the threat brought about by floods by localizing the affected regions and convert them into greenbelts. This would add the benefit of open space. Urban areas in extreme weather or other emergencies can be surrounded by emergency evacuation routes and emergency operations centers.
Creative solutions like Nairobi’s “camp of fire” program should be adopted to reduce the problem of the slum in urban places. Slum-dwellers construct proper houses, community centers, and schools without the support of the government in return for the land they have illegally occupied for 30 years. This program has also been initiated in Asia and South America in order to deal with the slum problem.
Racial discrimination should also Hoch, C.(2000), be avoided. Races considered inferior are segregated and they retreat back into their own ways of life thus culminating in the growth of slums.
Areas that are densely built should have a high capacity of urban transit to make transportation easier. Single-family dwellings should be located further away from cities and average roads provided to them while multi-story apartments should be located near a high-volume transport network.
Commercial areas and industrial regions should also have high-capacity transit routes.
House numbering, streets labeling, and naming are also other major solutions to urban planning problems which minimize the time taken by pedestrians, motorists in the streets trying to locate places they have never been before the results being the increased movement of traffic and reduced jams along the roads. (Camillo, 1999)
Theories proved to have worked should also be adopted in urban planning and redevelopment, for example, “the roadway air dispersion model” that helps to predict the impact of air on urban highways should be employed. “Roadways noise model” should be used to predict the effects of noise pollution on urban highways. Environmental site assessment is also another important tool that can be used by urban planners in the early stages to identify toxic constraints in any parcels or geographical areas.
The cost to be incurred in implementing the above viable solutions is high with huge amounts from the government budget directed towards urban planning. In the initial stages implementing these solutions may call for patience from the public because of the delayed duration of time in reaching their destinations.
Conversely, the benefits are numerous, for example, de-congestion of cities, reduced crimes, comfortable and pleasant lives without much stress.
My recommendation is that the planning process should integrate public opinion through social workers and community organizers so as to ensure that planning is done in a manner acceptable to all. The public administration will therefore have an easy time due to public involvement in the planning process and therefore any failure cannot be directed to the administration.
References
Camillo, S. (1999), City planning according to artistic principle, New York, Prentice Hall, pg. 121-158.
Ebenezer, H. (1998), Tomorrow, a peaceful path to real reforms. London; penguin, pg. 55 -78.
Garvin, A. (2002), The American city, New York: McGraw-Hill, pg. 78- 145.
Hoch, C. (2000), The practice of local government planning, New York: McGraw-Hill, pg. 23 – 58.
Wheeler, S, (1998), Planning sustainable and livable cities, London: Cambridge University Press, pg. 134 – 215.